The gradual (Latin: graduale or responsorium graduale) is a form of liturgical chant in Christian worship, particularly within the Roman Catholic Mass, consisting of a responsorial psalm or portion thereof sung between the Epistle and Gospel readings.[1] It serves as the oldest and most prominent element of the Proper chants in the Mass, typically featuring an antiphon drawn from the Psalms followed by one or more verses, with the antiphon repeated after each verse.[1] The term derives from the Latin gradus, meaning "step," reflecting its historical performance on the steps (gradus) of the altar or ambo during early liturgical practices.[2]Introduced in the 4th century as a refrain between psalm verses, the gradual evolved into a structured musical form that bridges the scriptural proclamations, emphasizing meditative reflection on the readings.[3] In its musical style, it often employs melismatic singing—extended notes on single syllables—to convey solemnity and expressiveness, drawing primarily from the Psalter as its textual source.[4] While central to the Roman Rite, similar responsorial elements appear in other traditions, such as Lutheran liturgy, where it retains portions of psalms arranged for congregational or choral use.[5]Over centuries, the gradual has been preserved in dedicated chant books known as graduals, which compile the full repertoire for the liturgical year, influencing sacred music composition and performance practices.[1] Its enduring role underscores the integration of Scripture and song in worship, adapting from ancient synagogue influences to medieval developments while maintaining its core function as a bridge between divine word and communal response.[1]
Overview and Etymology
Definition
In the context of Christian liturgy, particularly the Roman Rite of the Catholic Mass, a gradual (Latin: graduale or responsorium graduale) is a responsorial chant consisting of a refrain and verse, typically drawn from the Book of Psalms, that serves as an antiphonal response to the Epistle reading.[6] It functions as a form of psalmody with a refrain, where the text reflects themes from the preceding reading to deepen scriptural meditation.[6]The gradual distinguishes itself from other Proper chants in the Mass, such as the introit, which accompanies the entrance procession and has a more ambulatory character, or the tract, a solo psalmody without refrain used during penitential seasons like Lent.[6] Instead, the gradual emphasizes a stationary, contemplative pause, acting as a meditative interlude that invites the assembly to reflect on the proclaimed word before proceeding to the Gospel.[6] This role underscores its pastoral importance in fostering spiritual engagement during the Liturgy of the Word.[7]Structurally, the gradual comprises a respond—a short refrain sung by the choir—followed by a single verse performed by a soloist, with the respond often repeated afterward to frame the piece in an A-B-A form.[6] The melody is characteristically melismatic and ornate, particularly in Gregorian chant settings, highlighting key syllables for expressive depth while maintaining a meditative tone.[6]
Historical Naming
The term "gradual" derives from the Medieval Latin "gradualis," which stems from the classical Latin "gradus," meaning "step" or "stair." This nomenclature reflects the chant's original performance site in early basilicas, where the cantor ascended the steps of the ambo—a raised platform used for scriptural readings—to deliver the piece, symbolizing a gradual ascent in both physical and spiritual terms.[8][2]Early liturgical references employed variant forms such as "gradalis" or "gradale," appearing in ninth-century texts like those of Amalarius of Metz, who described it as "cantus graduum" or simply "gradualis" to denote the stepped location of its execution. By the medieval period, the terminology standardized around "graduale" for both the chant and the compilatory book containing it, known as the "liber gradualis" or antiphonarium missae, which gathered the responsorial chants for the Mass Proper. This evolution marked a shift from descriptive phrasing tied to performance practice to a fixed liturgical designation.[2][9]In vernacular traditions, the Latin-derived name "gradual" persisted with minimal alteration, entering Middle English around the early fifteenth century primarily through ecclesiastical contexts, as seen in liturgical books like the Sarum Gradual. Old English had no direct equivalent, but post-Reformation adaptations in English-speaking regions retained "gradual" for translated chant settings, influencing resources such as the English Gradual of the twentieth century, which adapted Latin forms to vernacular psalmody without renaming the form. This continuity underscores the term's enduring architectural and ritual associations across linguistic shifts.[10][11]
Liturgical Role
Position in the Mass
In the Roman Rite of the Catholic Mass, the Gradual occupies a fixed position within the Liturgy of the Word, immediately following the Epistle in the Traditional Latin Mass (Extraordinary Form) and serving as an optional alternative to the Responsorial Psalm after the first reading in the Ordinary Form.[1][7] This placement underscores its role in bridging the scriptural readings, with the text drawn from the Proper of the Mass for the specific day or feast.[1]As part of the Proper chants, the Gradual follows the Collect prayers and the initial readings, preceding the Alleluia (or Tract during penitential seasons) and the Gospel proclamation.[1] In the Ordinary Form, the General Instruction of the Roman Missal specifies that, in place of the Lectionary's Responsorial Psalm, the Gradual may be selected from the Roman Gradual or an approved collection, maintaining this sequential position to enhance meditation on the Word of God.[7]Variations occur between Low and High Masses in the Traditional Latin Mass: in a High Mass, the choir sings the Gradual aloud after the subdeacon's chanting of the Epistle, while in a Low Mass, the priest recites it quietly at the altar along with other propers.[1] The Gradual may be omitted on certain solemnities, such as Easter Sunday and Good Friday, where it is replaced by a Tract or an extended Alleluia to suit the liturgical season's emphasis on joy or penance.[1]
Responsorial Function
The responsorial function of the Gradual centers on its interactive structure, in which a cantor or soloist chants one or more verses from a psalm, and the choir or congregation responds by repeating a fixed refrain known as the respond. This call-and-response format derives from early Christian traditions of psalmody, where the leader intoned verses and the assembly replied with a simple refrain, creating a participatory dialogue that unified the worshippers.[12] In the traditional Roman Rite, the respond is typically sung first by the full choir, followed by the verse(s) delivered by a cantor, with the respond repeated at the conclusion to frame the chant and reinforce its meditative quality.[13]In the Traditional Latin Mass, this responsorial role serves primarily as a moment of communal reflection on the Epistle just proclaimed, allowing the assembly to internalize and respond to its scriptural message through song rather than spoken commentary. Positioned immediately after the Epistle, it bridges the readings, preparing the congregation for the Gospel while emphasizing the epistle's themes of doctrine and exhortation. In the Ordinary Form, when used in place of the Responsorial Psalm, it provides similar reflection on the first reading. (General Instruction of the Roman Missal, no. 36)Historically, the Gradual's responsorial form evolved from rudimentary call-and-response practices in the early Church, influenced by synagogue worship where solo psalmodic verses elicited group refrains, as noted by patristic writers like St. Augustine and St. Isidore.[12] By the time of Pope St. Gregory the Great in the sixth century, these chants had developed into more structured pieces with assigned psalm texts tied to the liturgical calendar, though the core interactive element persisted to maintain congregational involvement amid growing melodic elaboration. This evolution balanced communal response with artistic depth, ensuring the Gradual remained a vital expression of the Church's living tradition.
Historical Development
Early Origins
The gradual chant traces its roots to the responsorial psalmody traditionally attributed to Jewish synagogue practices, where psalms were sung between scripture readings as a form of communal response and meditation.[1] Modern scholarship, however, questions the extent of sung psalmody in synagogues during the early Christian era, suggesting Hallelpsalms (Psalms 113–118) were recited as lessons in ceremonial meals like the Passover seder rather than chanted liturgically.[14] This practice, evident in early Christian adaptations, mirrored elements of synagogue structure of reading, discourse, and responsive singing, as described in the Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380), which instructs: "The readings being finished, let another sing the hymns of David."[1] Early Christians incorporated such psalmody into their liturgies, transitioning to structured worship elements.[14]In the fourth-century Roman basilicas, this responsorial singing evolved into a fixed part of the Mass, particularly between the Epistle and Gospel readings. Pope Celestine I (422–432) is credited with formalizing its introduction into the Roman liturgy, ordering psalms to be sung antiphonally before the sacrifice to enhance devotion, as recorded in the Liber Pontificalis.[15] The earliest literary references to psalmody after lessons appear in the writings of St. Augustine in the late fourth century; in Sermo 176.1, he recalls: "We sang a psalm" immediately after the apostolic lesson, highlighting its role in communal praise.[1] St. Ambrose similarly promoted antiphonal psalmody in Milanese worship around this time.[16] These accounts link the chant to the architectural "step-altars" or ambones in basilicas, from which it was performed, reflecting its gradual ascent in liturgical prominence—though the term graduale itself derives from gradus (step).[1]By the sixth century, the gradual had developed from simple, full psalm verses into more structured responsorial chants across regional rites. In the Gallican rite of Gaul, St. Germanus of Paris (d. 576) describes psalm fragments sung between lessons, emphasizing their meditative function amid the rite's elaborate ceremonial style.[1] Similarly, in the Mozarabic rite of Visigothic Spain, early manuscripts indicate responsorial psalms evolving into formalized tracts and responses by this period, influenced by local traditions yet retaining the core Jewish-Christian responsorial form.[17] This shift to concise verses for practicality solidified the gradual's position in Western liturgy, with reforms under figures like Pope Gregory I (d. 604) contributing to its form.[1]
Medieval and Post-Tridentine Changes
During the 9th and 10th centuries, the Carolingian reforms under rulers such as Pepin the Short and Charlemagne significantly standardized the Gradual as part of the broader unification of Frankish liturgy with Roman practices. These reforms aimed to replace regional Gallican chants with the Roman repertory, including the Gradual, which was integrated into the emerging standardized Mass structure through the importation of Roman singers and the establishment of scholae cantorum. By the early 11th century, texts and melodies for the Gradual were largely fixed, ensuring uniformity across the Carolingian Empire and laying the foundation for its role in the Roman rite.[18]The Council of Trent (1545–1563) further simplified and fixed the Gradual's form to counter liturgical variability and Protestant influences, mandating the suppression of tropes and most sequences while preserving the core chants of the Proper. In its 22nd and 24th sessions, the Council addressed liturgical reforms and the need for a uniform Roman Missal, leading Pope Pius V to promulgate the Tridentine Missal in 1570, which definitively established the Gradual's texts and structure without additions or alterations. This standardization reduced regional differences, promoting a single, authoritative version of the chant throughout the Catholic Church.Post-Tridentine developments maintained this fixity until the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), which, through Sacrosanctum Concilium, authorized revisions to enhance active participation and introduced vernacular elements into the Liturgy of the Word. The 1970 Roman Missal (Novus Ordo) omitted the traditional Gradual in many cases, favoring a responsorial psalm with expanded verses that could be proclaimed or sung in the vernacular to align with local readings. However, revivals of the full Gradual have occurred in traditionalist movements, particularly following Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprioSummorum Pontificum, which permitted broader use of the 1962 Missal preserving the original chant, though these permissions were significantly restricted by Pope Francis' 2021 motu proprioTraditionis Custodes, with some traditional celebrations continuing under diocesan approval as of 2025.[19]
Musical Characteristics
Form and Structure
The Gradual chant in the Roman Catholic Mass follows a responsorial structure designed to meditate on the preceding Epistle reading, comprising an opening respond sung by the full choir, a contrasting verse performed by a solo cantor, and occasionally a doxology such as "Gloria Patri" appended to the verse.[20][21] Historically, the respond was repeated after the verse, a practice that persisted into the medieval period but was officially omitted in the Roman Missal following the Council of Trent.[20] In contemporary usage, the form is typically limited to the respond and verse without repetition, emphasizing textual reflection over extended performance.[22]The textual content of the Gradual is drawn primarily from the Psalms, with selections tailored to the liturgical calendar to align with the thematic focus of the Mass, such as divine mercy during Lent or praise on feast days.[21] Occasional texts from other scriptural sources, like Isaiah or Jeremiah, are incorporated when they enhance the seasonal or festal context, ensuring a direct scriptural basis for the chant's meditative role.[21] This organization promotes a layered textual architecture, where the respond establishes a core proclamation and the verse provides deeper elaboration, often concluding with the doxology to invoke Trinitarian praise.[20]Melodically, the Gradual employs a framework of neumatic recitation in the respond—using simple, syllabic or semi-ornate phrases on a dominant tone—contrasted by melismatic elaboration in the verse, where extended florid passages highlight emotional or theological climaxes.[22] This binary organization creates dynamic tension and release, with the respond often in a plagal mode for solemnity and the verse ascending to brighter, authentic modes for intensity.[21] A representative example is the Easter Sunday Gradual "Haec dies quam fecit Dominus" (Psalm 118:24), whose respond joyfully proclaims the Lord's made day in five neumatic phrases, followed by a four-phrase verse "Confitemini Domino" (Psalm 118:1) featuring melismas on accents like "quoniam" to evoke exultation.[23]
Chant Style and Notation
The Gradual, as a form of Gregorian chant, exemplifies monophonic sacred music, consisting of a single melodic line sung without instrumental accompaniment or harmonic support. This unaccompanied style emphasizes purity and directness in liturgical expression, allowing the voice to convey the sacred text undiluted.Gregorian chant, including the Gradual, utilizes free rhythm unbound by fixed meter, where the melody adapts to the natural cadence and phrasing of the Latin prose or poetry, prioritizing text declamation over symmetrical patterns. The music draws from eight church modes—Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, and their plagal counterparts (Hypodorian through Hypomixolydian)—which provide scalar frameworks that evoke contemplative or majestic moods suited to the Mass's solemnity. These modes, rooted in ancient Greek theory but adapted for medieval practice, ensure melodic contours that align with the emotional weight of the responsorial verses.[24][25]Notation for the Gradual evolved from adiastematic neumes in the 8th through 12th centuries, where simple strokes and curves above the text indicated approximate melodic direction and grouping without specifying exact pitches or durations, relying heavily on oral transmission within monastic communities. By the late 10th century, diastematic neumes emerged, using relative heights on an implied staff to suggest intervals, marking a transition toward greater precision. In the 13th century, this culminated in square notation on a four-line staff, with neumes rendered as angular, block-like forms that fixed pitches accurately using clefs for F and C lines, standardizing the Gradual's recording for widespread liturgical use.[26][27]Performance of the Gradual traditionally involves a schola cantorum, a trained ensemble of singers who render the chant in unison, fostering communal participation in the liturgy while maintaining vocal blend and intonation. Emphasis is placed on breath control to sustain extended melismas—flourishes of multiple notes per syllable that heighten textual emphasis—enabling seamless phrasing without interruption, often through staggered breathing among singers to preserve the line's continuity.[28][29]
Compositional Adaptations
Polyphonic Settings
The development of polyphonic settings for the Gradual began in the 15th century, as composers sought to enrich the responsorial chants of the Mass Proper through added voices while adhering to liturgical function. Guillaume Dufay, a leading figure in early Renaissance polyphony, composed several settings of Graduals as part of his Mass Propers cycles, notably incorporating the fauxbourdon technique—a method involving parallel thirds and sixths above a chant-bearing tenor to create a harmonically supportive texture. In his Missa Se la face ay pale, Dufay's Gradual "Benedictus es Domine" closely follows the plainsong melody in the cantus firmus, with the added voices providing rhythmic elaboration and modal consonance that enhanced the meditative character of the respond without overshadowing the text. Similarly, his setting of the Gradual "Os iusti" in the Missa Sancti Antonii et Sancti Francisci employs fauxbourdon to alternate between polyphonic verses and monophonic chant, reflecting the era's transitional approach from monophonic tradition to fuller harmonic integration.[30][31][32]By the High Renaissance, composers such as Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and Tomás Luis de Victoria elevated Gradual settings to sophisticated motets that preserved the modal frameworks and clear text declamation demanded by Counter-Reformation ideals. Palestrina's motet "Haec dies quam fecit Dominus," composed around 1570, draws directly from the Easter Gradual's respond, unfolding in five voices with imitative entries that build a luminous, arching structure while maintaining the chant's rhythmic profile in the soprano line. This setting exemplifies Palestrina's mastery of polyphonic balance, where overlapping voices converge on cadences that echo the original mode's purity, ensuring liturgical suitability. Victoria, influenced by Palestrina during his Roman studies, produced similarly restrained yet expressive works, such as the Gradual "Requiem aeternam" from his 1605 Officium Defunctorum, a six-voice motet for the Requiem Mass that interweaves somber modal harmonies with subtle dissonances to evoke eternal rest, adhering closely to the plainsong's melodic contour. Both composers' approaches prioritized the Gradual's responsorial dialogue, using polyphony to amplify spiritual depth without introducing secular elements.[33][34][35]In the 19th and early 20th centuries, a revival of Gradual polyphony occurred amid the Cecilian movement's push for liturgical reform, with Anton Bruckner composing motets that honored the chant's integrity through Romantic-era expansions. Bruckner's Gradual "Locus iste" (WAB 23, 1869), written for the dedication of a chapel, sets the responsory in eight parts with a homophonic opening that yields to intricate canonic writing, rooted in the Lydian mode to mirror the plainsong's archaic solemnity. His later "Os justi" (WAB 30, 1879) employs a seven-voice texture with chromatic inflections and pedal points, creating a gradual intensification that respects the Gradual's meditative role while incorporating symphonic breadth. Similarly, the third setting of "Christus factus est" (WAB 11, 1884) for Good Friday unfolds in five voices with stark dynamic contrasts and modal fidelity, underscoring humility and sacrifice in a manner that sustained its use in Viennese liturgy. These works by Bruckner revived interest in polyphonic Graduals, bridging Renaissance clarity with 19th-century expressivity to reinforce their place in Catholic worship.[36])[37]
Modern Interpretations
In the aftermath of the Second Vatican Council, the Gradual experienced a revival within the Novus Ordo Mass through simplified chant adaptations and vernacular translations, aligning with the council's emphasis on active participation and accessibility. The 1974 edition of the Graduale Romanum, published by Solesmes Abbey under Vatican approval, restructured the chants to fit the revised liturgical calendar, incorporating shorter responsorial psalm forms derived from traditional Graduals while preserving their melodic essence.[38] Simplified versions, such as those in the Graduale Simplex (1967), reduced melodic complexity to facilitate congregational singing, often pairing Latin originals with English texts for broader use in ordinary parishes.[39] These adaptations, including vernacular settings in resources like Lumen Christi Missal, allowed the Gradual's meditative role between readings to persist, though frequently supplanted by responsorial psalms in practice.[40]Ecumenical adaptations extended the Gradual's reach beyond Roman Catholic contexts, particularly in Anglican services where English-language versions integrated it into the Liturgy of the Word. The Anglican Use Gradual (2007, revised 2019), developed for Anglican Ordinariate communities, translates and adapts the Graduale Romanum's chants to English prose rhythms, enabling their use in hybrid liturgies that blend Anglican patrimony with Catholic norms.[41] Similarly, The American Gradual (2007) provides psalm-based propers fitted to English texts, drawing on historical scholarship to maintain the Gradual's antiphonal structure for Episcopal and broader Protestant settings.[42] In concert repertoires, ensembles like The Tallis Scholars have popularized these chants through performances emphasizing their purity and historical depth, as seen in programs exploring Gregorian influences alongside Renaissancepolyphony.[43]Contemporary compositions have reinterpreted Gradual chants in minimalist and multimedia forms, expanding their cultural footprint. Estonian composer Arvo Pärt, deeply influenced by Gregorianmonody, incorporates chant-like elements in works such as his Seven Magnificat-Antiphons (1988), which echo the responsorial intimacy of Graduals through sparse, tintinnabuli textures that evoke medieval psalmody.[44] These innovations highlight the Gradual's enduring melodic vocabulary in secular and experimental music, bridging liturgical origins with modern expressive needs.[45]
The Gradual as a Book
Contents and Format
The Graduale Romanum serves as the official liturgical book containing the Gregorian chant notation for the proper chants of the Mass in the Roman Rite, encompassing all graduals, introits, tracts, alleluias, and communion antiphons for the complete liturgical year.[46] These core contents are organized chronologically and thematically, beginning with the temporal cycle (Proprium de Tempore) that covers seasons such as Advent, Christmas, Lent, Easter, and Ordinary Time, followed by the sanctoral cycle (Proprium de Sanctis) arranged by saints' days and feasts.[38] Additional sections include commons for various categories of saints and occasions (Communia), ritual and votive masses, and an appendix for less frequent uses, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the Propers for Mass.[47]The format of the Graduale Romanum incorporates practical elements to facilitate liturgical performance, such as rubrics (Praenotanda) at the outset that provide instructions on chant execution, tempo, and ensemble practices in Latin, with later editions adding English translations.[38] It also features detailed indices at the end, organized by musical mode (the eight Gregorian modes), incipit (opening words), psalm, or liturgical function, allowing quick reference for choirs and cantors. Related chants integral to the Mass structure, such as tracts sung during penitential seasons in place of the gradual and alleluia, are included within the proper sequences to maintain the integrity of the liturgical flow.[48]Standardization of the Graduale Romanum was achieved in its 1974 edition, published by the Abbey of Solesmes under Vatican authority to align with the revised Ordo Missae from the Second Vatican Council, presenting the chants in a unified square notation format for clarity and authenticity.[46] This edition, spanning approximately 900 pages in hardbound format, prioritizes the Propers while integrating the Ordinary chants (Kyriale) and optional verses (Cantus ad Libitum), making it the definitive resource for sung Mass in the post-conciliar Romanliturgy.[38]
Manuscripts and Editions
One of the earliest surviving manuscripts containing the chants of the Gradual is the St. Gall Codex 359, a Cantatorium produced at the Abbey of Saint Gall in the late 9th century, dated around 922–926. This manuscript is the oldest complete extant example of a neumed musical source for the Roman-Frankish Mass, featuring solo chants such as graduals, alleluias, and tracts notated in early unheighted neumes. It preserves 64 graduals, 38 alleluias, and 10 tracts, serving as a key witness to the early transmission of Gregorian chant in central Europe.[49][50]Another significant manuscript is the 11th-century Winchester Troper, preserved in two versions: Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, MS 473 (early 11th century) and Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley 775 (late 11th century). These tropers, used at Winchester Cathedral, include plainchant and the earliest surviving examples of two-voice polyphony in England, with tropes and polyphonic settings for Mass proper chants, including over 50 for alleluias and responsorial graduals. The Cambridge manuscript, in particular, contains 158 two-part compositions, such as Kyries, Glorias, tracts, and Alleluias, illustrating the integration of troped elements into the Gradual's repertoire.[51][52]The transition to printed editions began in the late 15th century, with the Constance Gradual of circa 1473 marking the first known book to feature music printed from movable type. Produced likely in Konstanz or Augsburg by the printer of the 1472 Constance Missal, this folio volume contains the complete chants for the Mass, including graduals, using a double-impression technique for staves and notes, and represents a pivotal advancement in the dissemination of liturgical music. Although Johann Fust and Peter Schoeffer pioneered printed musical notation in their 1457 Mainz Psalter—a liturgical book with rubricated chants—their workshop did not produce a dedicated Gradual until later works, such as Schoeffer's contributions to missals in the 1470s that incorporated gradual chants.[53][54]In the 19th and 20th centuries, the monks of Solesmes Abbey spearheaded the restoration of Gregorian chant, producing critical editions of the Gradual based on paleographic study of medieval manuscripts. Their efforts culminated in publications like the 1883 Graduale Romanum and subsequent revisions, which aimed to recover authentic rhythms and melodies by comparing variants across sources such as St. Gall and Winchester manuscripts. These Solesmes editions emphasized rhythmic interpretation through the study of neume forms and textual transmission.[55]Modern critical editions include the Vatican Graduale Romanum of 1908, commissioned by Pope Pius X and edited under Solesmes influence, which standardized the Gradual's chants for the Roman Rite while noting textual and melodic variants from primary manuscripts. This edition addressed discrepancies in responsorial forms by prioritizing 9th–11th-century sources, resulting in a unified version used widely until the mid-20th century. Complementing this, the Antiphonale Monasticum of 1934, published by Solesmes, provides a monastic adaptation with restored chants, including responsorial graduals for the Divine Office, and incorporates variant readings to reflect Benedictine liturgical traditions.[56][57]