Harald Wartooth

Harald Wartooth (Old Norse: Haraldr hilditǫnn), also known as Harald Hildetand, was a legendary king of Denmark and parts of Sweden and Götaland in the 8th century, renowned in medieval Norse literature for his extensive military conquests and heroic death in battle.^[1]^[2] He is primarily depicted as a wise and valiant ruler who expanded his domain through relentless warfare, but met his end at the Battle of Bråvalla against the Swedish king Sigurd Ring, a conflict described as one of the largest and bloodiest in Scandinavian legend.^[1]^[2] His story survives in key primary sources such as the 13th-century Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks and Saxo Grammaticus's early 13th-century Gesta Danorum, where he embodies the archetype of the aging warrior seeking a glorious fate.^[1]^[2] The epithet "Wartooth" or "Hildetand" (Battle-Tooth) likely derives from accounts of Harald's ferocious combat style, where he bared his teeth in rage, or from a physical trait such as prominent grinders, artificial gold teeth replacing lost ones, or teeth regrown after injury.^[1] In the Gesta Danorum, he is portrayed as the son of Halfdan, successor to Biorn as ruler of Denmark, with familial ties extending to Swedish and Gothic nobility.^[1] The Hervarar saga presents him as the son of Valdar and Alfhild (daughter of Ivar Vidfamne), brother to Randver, father of Eysteinn Beli, after whose death succession passed to his nephew Sigurd Ring.^[2] These genealogies underscore his role in linking Danish, Swedish, and legendary Yngling dynasties, though variations across sources reflect the semi-mythical nature of his lineage.^[2]^[1] Harald's reign is characterized by a series of ambitious campaigns that solidified his reputation as a conqueror, subduing regions across Scandinavia and beyond.^[1] In Denmark, he defeated Wesete in Skåne and Hather in Jutland, then reunited the realm by overcoming Hunding and Rorik; he also ventured into Norway, triumphing over Asmund's forces with a single ship while fighting unarmed, and aided Olaf of Throndheim against the warrior maidens Stikla and Rusila.^[1] His expeditions extended to Sweden, where he clashed with kings Ing and Olaf before forging peace, and further afield to Frisia (defeating Ubbe), Slavonia, Aquitania, and Britain (including the Humbrians), often alongside his brother Kanute in massive fleets.^[1] In the Hervarar saga, rebellions by jarls in Götaland weakened his hold, forcing tribute payments until Heidrek restored order, highlighting internal strife amid external triumphs.^[2] The climactic Battle of Bråvalla, fought in eastern Götaland, pitted Harald's multinational army—drawn from Danes, Gautar, and allies—against Sigurd Ring's forces from Sweden, Norway, and the Huns, resulting in a catastrophic defeat for Harald despite his innovative use of a scythe-armed chariot.^[1]^[2] Accounts of his death vary: in the Gesta Danorum, the aged and blind Harald was slain by a spear from an obscure foe, struck by his own club via Odin's disguised intervention as the charioteer Brun, or wounded by a sorceress-summoned beast, fulfilling a prophecy of self-inflicted doom; the Hervarar saga simply notes his fall in the fray.^[1]^[2] Posthumously, his body received royal honors, including a pyre or embalming and secret concealment for three years to preserve stability, before burial at Leire in Denmark, with Sigurd Ring paying tribute to his fallen adversary.^[1] Harald's legacy as a symbol of martial excellence and tragic heroism influenced later Norse historiography, bridging mythical and historical kingly narratives.^[1]^[2]

Background

Name

Harald Wartooth is the English rendering of the legendary Scandinavian king's name, most commonly appearing in Old Norse sources as Haraldr hilditǫnn, where "Haraldr" combines the elements harja- ("army") and walda- ("ruler" or "power"), signifying "army ruler." The epithet hilditǫnn, translated as "war-tooth" or "battle-tooth," derives from Old Norse hildr meaning "battle" or "fight" and tǫnn meaning "tooth," forming a descriptive compound typical of Norse bynames that highlight physical or martial attributes.^[3]^[4] In medieval texts, the name appears in various forms across languages, reflecting regional adaptations: Danish Harald Hildetand, Modern Swedish Harald Hildetand, Modern Norwegian Harald Hildetann, and Latinized versions such as Harold Hiltertooth in chroniclers' accounts. These variations preserve the core structure while accommodating phonetic shifts in North Germanic languages, such as the softening of the Old Norse ǫ to e or a in later dialects. The nickname's origins are tied to legendary descriptions of Harald's ferocity, with chronicler Saxo Grammaticus proposing two explanations in his Gesta Danorum: one attributes it to Harald losing two teeth in combat against the Scanian lord Wesete, after which new "grinders" miraculously grew back as white as ivory; the other suggests it stemmed from a prominent row of teeth that enhanced his intimidating presence in battle.^[1] The epithet hilditǫnn exemplifies 8th-century Scandinavian naming conventions, where kings and heroes often received compound nicknames (kenningar) emphasizing prowess or distinctive features to symbolize valor and distinguish them in oral traditions and sagas. Such bynames, drawn from everyday or mythical elements like weapons, animals, or body parts, evolved linguistically as Norse diverged into Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian branches, with hilditǫnn's literal "battle-tooth" connotation underscoring themes of unrelenting aggression in legendary narratives. The name's association with Harald's purported lineage from earlier rulers like Ivar Vidfamne further embedded it in heroic genealogies.^[5]

Sources

The legendary accounts of Harald Wartooth derive primarily from a handful of medieval Scandinavian texts, composed between the late 12th and 14th centuries, which preserve and elaborate on oral traditions potentially originating in the 9th to 11th centuries. These sources blend historical recollection with mythological elements, employing euhemerism to frame gods and heroes as ancient kings, while incorporating skaldic poetry as purported eyewitness testimony to lend authenticity; however, their reliability is compromised by anachronisms, variant genealogies, and supernatural motifs that prioritize narrative drama over factual accuracy.^[1]^[6] A key source is the Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, a 13th-century Icelandic legendary saga that details Harald's military campaigns and his fatal confrontation at the Battle of Bråvalla, portraying him as a formidable ruler of Denmark, Sweden, and Götaland who falls in battle against Sigurd Ring, amid a narrative infused with supernatural prophecy and cursed artifacts like the sword Tyrfing. In contrast, Saxo Grammaticus's Gesta Danorum, an early 13th-century Latin chronicle (c. 1185–1219), emphasizes Harald's heroic stature and martial prowess through two conflicting ancestral lines—one tracing him to the god Odin via ancient Danish kings, the other to a more mundane Jutish lineage—while dramatizing his conquests and defeat with rhetorical flourishes that highlight themes of fate and vengeance, omitting overt divine interventions in favor of classical epic style.^[1] The Hrólfs saga kraka, a late 13th- or early 14th-century Icelandic saga, connects Harald to the Skjöldung dynasty through his grandson Hrólfr Kraki, depicting him indirectly as a progenitor of legendary Danish heroes whose realm falls into chaos after his death, thus underscoring dynastic continuity amid tragedy without focusing on his personal exploits.^[7] Additionally, skaldic poems embedded in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla (c. 1220–1230), a 13th-century compilation of Norwegian kings' sagas, reference Harald's era in verses attributed to earlier poets like Þjóðólfr ór Hvini, using kennings to evoke his battles and rule as part of a broader Yngling lineage, though these poetic fragments prioritize mnemonic verse over prose narrative and show inconsistencies in chronology.^[6] Across these texts, portrayals vary significantly: the Icelandic sagas amplify mythological aspects, such as Odin's role in Harald's downfall, to explore themes of hubris and doom, while Saxo's chronicle rationalizes legends into a patriotic Danish history, attributing Harald's "war tooth" epithet to the loss of two teeth during an altercation with Wesete followed by their miraculous regrowth, or to his prominent row of teeth, reflecting cultural embellishments that obscure any historical core.^[1] Scholars note that such discrepancies arise from the sources' reliance on disparate oral strands, with potential kernels of 8th-century events distorted by centuries of retelling, rendering a unified biography impossible.^[8]

Legendary Life

Family

Harald Wartooth's parentage varies across legendary sources, reflecting the semi-mythical nature of his lineage within the Skjöldung dynasty of Danish kings. The Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus offers an account naming his mother as Gyrid (or Gurid), daughter of Alf and granddaughter of Sigar, emphasizing Harald's descent from the same dynastic forebears while underscoring the Skjöldungs' royal purity as the last in their line.^[1] In contrast, the Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks identifies him as the son of Valdar, a king of Denmark or Manland, and Alfhild (or Auðr the Deep-Minded in some variants), linking him indirectly to the broader Scandinavian royal network through Valdar's ties to earlier Gothic and Danish rulers.^[2] Harald's marital alliances further solidified his dynastic position. According to the Gesta Danorum, he married Signe, daughter of Karl, a governor of Gothland, which connected him to regional power structures in the Gothic territories.^[1] Some traditions, including variants in the Gesta Danorum, name his wife as Hiordis, though details of this union are sparse and may conflate with other legendary figures.^[1] These marriages served to extend Skjöldung influence across Denmark, Sweden, and adjacent lands. Harald fathered numerous sons, whose fates intertwined with his legendary wars and highlighted succession tensions within the dynasty. The Gesta Danorum recounts that he had twelve sons, all of whom perished alongside him in the Battle of Bråvalla except the youngest, Halfdan the Old (or Halfdan I), who survived or succeeded him as king of Denmark, continuing the Skjöldung line and later fathering figures like Ivar Vidfamne's successors.^[1] Other sources mention additional sons, such as Eysteinn (who ruled in Uppsala according to the Saga of Ragnar Lodbrok) and possibly Þrándr the Strong or the Old in Njáls saga, though these accounts vary in reliability and focus on their roles in upholding Harald's martial legacy.^[9] The Hervarar saga complicates this by making Randver his brother rather than son, with Randver's lineage leading to Swedish kings like Sigurd Ring, thus forging kinship ties between Danish and Swedish rulers through shared ancestry from Valdar; it notably depicts Harald without sons but with daughters, including Helga (who married the hero Heidrek) and Asa (mother of the later king Halfdan the Black).^[2] Harald also had daughters, one of whom married a king of the Alans, extending alliances beyond Scandinavia, as noted in the Gesta Danorum.^[1] These familial bonds positioned Harald as a pivotal figure in Skjöldung genealogy, with his parentage anchoring him to Danish origins and his descendants perpetuating rivalries and alliances across Scandinavia, often through the sons' involvement in his campaigns.

Rise to Power

Harald Wartooth's rise to power is depicted in medieval Norse sagas as a process of inheritance and military consolidation following the death of his maternal grandfather, Ivar Vidfamne, a legendary conqueror who had unified much of Scandinavia. According to the Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, Ivar appointed his daughter Alfhild to marry Valdar, whom he installed as king over Denmark; their son Harald Hildetand (Wartooth) thus held a strong claim to Ivar's domains, which encompassed Denmark, Sweden, Courland, Saxland, Eistland, and territories extending to Garðaríki. Upon Valdar's death, Harald's brother Randver assumed the Danish throne, while Harald took the kingship in Gautland (eastern Sweden), using this as a base to reclaim and expand his grandfather's realm. The saga states that Harald "let give himself the kingly title in Gautland, and then laid under himself all the aforementioned realms that King Ivar Vidfamne had owned."^[10] A variant tradition in Sögubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum portrays Harald as the son of Aud (Ivar's daughter) and the Danish king Hrœrekr Ringslinger, emphasizing his early exile and return. After Ivar forced Hrœrekr to kill his own brother and then slew Hrœrekr, Aud fled with the young Harald to Garðaríki. Ivar's death occurred during a campaign against King Radbard, after which Aud married Radbard, forging a key alliance. At around fifteen years old, Harald was crowned king in Zealand with Radbard's support and an army, then proceeded to Scania—lands tied to his mother's kin—where he was "well received by the people there, and they swelled his ranks." From this foothold, Harald overcame rival claimants and deposed local rulers to consolidate control over Denmark and Sweden.^[11] These accounts, set in the late 7th or early 8th century, highlight Harald's strategic use of familial ties and marriages to secure legitimacy and resources. In both sagas, his ascension around age fifteen to twenty involved initial challenges from fragmented petty kingdoms and chieftains who had risen during Ivar's absences, requiring Harald to campaign actively to enforce his inheritance claims across Zealand, Scania, and Swedish territories. While the Hervarar saga stresses his expansion from a Götaland base without detailing specific battles in this phase, the Sögubrot underscores the role of alliances, such as with Radbard's forces, in enabling Harald to subdue Sweden and parts of Norway without immediate large-scale revolts. Historical analyses place this legendary consolidation circa 700–720 AD, marking the transition from Ivar's expansive but unstable empire to Harald's more enduring rule.^[12]

Reign and Conquests

Harald Wartooth's reign, as depicted in medieval Norse sources, spanned roughly 40 to 50 years in the 8th century, during which he established dominance over Denmark and southern Sweden while launching incursions into Norway and the Baltic regions. According to Saxo Grammaticus's Gesta Danorum, Harald ascended after a period of fragmentation and reunited Denmark through conquests of Skaane by slaying King Wesete, Jutland by defeating Hather, and Leire by overcoming Rorik, thereby securing a peaceful rule that lasted 50 years.^[1] The Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks konungs similarly presents him as the son of Valdar and Alfhild, who claimed the vast territories once held by his kinsman Ívar Vidfamne, including Sweden, Denmark, Kurland, Saxland, Eistland, and parts of England, taking the kingship in Gautland as his base.^[13] His military campaigns emphasized subduing petty kings and amassing wealth via raids and tributes, portraying him as an unrelenting warrior who never used a shield due to an enchantment rendering him invulnerable to iron weapons. In Sögubrot af fornkonungum, Harald, ascending at age 15, reconquered all lands owned by his grandfather Ívar—including Sweden, Denmark, Jutland, and portions of England—through relentless battles and raids, forcing all kings in these realms to submit as tributaries.^[11] Saxo details further expansions, such as roving expeditions against Öland and neighboring islands, victories over Swedish kings like Erik and Anund in sea battles, and the subjugation of Frisian champion Ubbe, alongside making tributary the Rhine nations, Sclavonia, Aquitania, and Humbrians in Britain; these efforts extended his reach into Eastland (Baltic areas) and beyond, with forces drawn from diverse regions like Frisia, Lifland, and Slavs.^[1] The Hervarar saga reinforces this by noting his wars against jarls in Reidgotaland, though these initially weakened his authority until tribute arrangements stabilized his hold every 12 months.^[13] Governance under Harald focused on uniting fractious Danish tribes and fostering loyalty among conquered peoples through displays of martial prowess, generous gifts, and strategic appointments. Saxo describes him as appointing governors like Hunding to oversee subdued territories while maintaining alliances via Asmund's lineage, and elevating champions such as Ubbe to his court, which became a hub for warriors from across Scandinavia.^[1] In Sögubrot, he reinstated deposed tributary kings and jarls, such as Hjormund over East Gautland, to administer his expanded domains and ensure steady tribute flows.^[11] The sagas collectively emphasize his role in promoting assemblies (things) for decision-making and supporting skaldic poetry to commemorate victories, though his fierce reputation as a "warrior-king" often overshadowed internal policies, with loyalty secured primarily through battlefield successes and distributions of raid spoils.^[1] By his later years, however, challenges from rivals like Sigurd Ring began to strain his rule, setting the stage for his final confrontation.^[13]

Battle of Bråvalla

The Battle of Bråvalla, also known as the Battle of Brávellir, marked the climactic end to Harald Wartooth's legendary reign as a powerful king over Denmark, parts of Sweden, and surrounding territories. According to the Norse sagas, the conflict arose from a longstanding rivalry between Harald and his nephew Sigurd Ring, the king of Sweden, stemming from disputes over territorial control and succession rights following the death of Harald's predecessor. By this time, Harald was depicted as an elderly ruler, over a century old in some accounts, who sought a final, glorious confrontation to cement his legacy rather than fade into obscurity.^[1]^[2] Harald consulted the god Odin for guidance before the battle, appearing to him in the guise of a one-eyed stranger who foretold victory but promised Harald's death on the battlefield, assuring him of eternal fame in Valhalla. Odin advised Harald to fight from a chariot due to his age, emphasizing aggressive tactics with his elite berserkers and champions. The battle is said to have occurred around 770 AD (a modern scholarly estimate for the legendary event) on the vast plain of Bråvalla (or Brávellir), located in eastern Gautland (modern-day Sweden), where both sides assembled enormous armies drawn from Scandinavia, the Baltic regions, and even Slavic lands—exaggerated saga accounts claim up to 700,000 warriors total, though these figures symbolize the scale rather than historical accuracy. Harald's forces included fierce berserkers who charged fearlessly, while Sigurd Ring relied on disciplined shield-walls and strategic reinforcements, including archers and slingers. Supernatural omens, such as ravens circling the field and prophetic dreams, heightened the tension, with both leaders invoking divine favor.^[1]^[2] The fighting was brutal and prolonged, with sagas detailing heroic duels among named champions like the berserker Starkad and the Swedish hero Thorir. Harald, true to Odin's counsel, led from his chariot, slaying numerous foes with his sword Tyrfing before being struck down by Sigurd Ring's spear thrust to the armpit, his only vulnerable spot—a detail underscoring the battle's mythic elements. Casualties were catastrophic, with legends reporting over 40,000 deaths, including many of Harald's key allies.^[1]^[2] In the aftermath, Sigurd Ring emerged victorious, securing control over Denmark and Sweden and establishing a unified realm that his descendants would inherit, including the famed Ragnar Lodbrok. Harald received an honorable burial befitting a legendary king, with his body cremated on a grand pyre amid tributes from both sides, and in the Gesta Danorum, his youngest son Halfdan assumed rule over fragmented territories, continuing his lineage's influence in Scandinavian legend (while the Hervarar saga depicts no sons and direct succession challenges). The battle's outcome symbolized the transition from Harald's aggressive expansionism to a new era of dynastic consolidation.^[1]^[2]

Historicity and Legacy

Historical Basis

The proposed dating for Harald Wartooth places him in the 8th century AD, approximately 710–770, coinciding with the transition from the Migration Period to the onset of the Viking Age.^[14] This chronology aligns with saga accounts that position his reign and the Battle of Bråvalla around 750–775 AD, as estimated by 19th-century historians analyzing medieval texts.^[15] Frankish annals from the period, such as the Royal Frankish Annals' mention of Anulo as nephew of a king named Heriold (likely Harald) in 812 AD, provide indirect temporal context by alluding to recent Danish rulers active in the late 8th century.^[14] Scholars have tentatively identified Harald with historical figures from 8th-century records, such as the Harald, king of Haithabu (modern Hedeby), noted in Carolingian sources for ruling from circa 750 to 804 AD and engaging in conflicts, including a death in the Irish Sea.^[16] These annals, including the Royal Frankish Annals and Annales Fuldenses, document Danish kings like Sigfred and Godefrid during this era, but no direct evidence confirms an exact match to the legendary Harald; connections remain speculative, based on shared names and regional power dynamics.^[16] Dynastic echoes appear in the Skjöldung lineage, a semi-legendary royal house tracing descent from mythical figures, which may reflect real 8th-century Jutland or Zealand elites whose oral traditions were later euhemerized in Norse historiography.^[14] Archaeological evidence offers no direct artifacts linked to Harald, such as relics associated with his epithet "Wartooth" (possibly denoting a battle scar or prominent tooth), but broader 8th-century Scandinavian findings correlate with narratives of conquest and warfare. Weapon-rich graves from Denmark, including those with swords, axes, and shields deposited in bogs or burial mounds, indicate a warrior elite active in regional conflicts and trade networks extending to the Frankish Empire.^[17] These sites, such as early Viking Age deposits near Jutland, suggest militarized societies capable of the expansions described in sagas, though runestones from the period are scarce and none name Harald explicitly.^[16] Assessing Harald's historicity faces significant challenges due to saga embellishments and mythological integration. Medieval texts like the sagas euhemerize pagan gods into human kings, with Harald's legends in sources such as the Hervarar saga blending him into semi-divine lineages while exaggerating elements such as army sizes (claimed at hundreds of thousands, far exceeding plausible 8th-century logistics) and his advanced age at death.^[14] Anachronisms, including references to post-8th-century figures or events, further indicate that the legends likely amalgamated multiple historical rulers into a composite hero, distorting any kernel of truth for poetic and dynastic purposes.^[15]

Modern Interpretations

In the 19th century, amid the surge of romantic nationalism across Scandinavia, legendary figures like Harald Wartooth were reimagined as symbols of unity and heroic prowess in Danish and Swedish historiography, reflecting efforts to forge national identities through mythic pasts. Scholars emphasized his role as a unifier of Danish and Swedish realms, portraying him as a foundational king whose conquests embodied the vigor of early Scandinavian peoples. For instance, British historian Henry H. Howorth, in his 1881 work The Early History of Sweden, described Harald Hildetand as "the most prominent figure in Scandinavian history at the close of the heroic period," highlighting his central place in narratives of regional power and cultural heritage. Twentieth-century scholarship shifted toward critical analysis, integrating archaeology and source criticism to contextualize Harald's legend. Swedish archaeologist Birger Nerman, in his 1925 study Svenska dynastier under vendeltiden, proposed that Harald represented a historical overlord of a unified Danish-Swedish domain, potentially linking his campaigns to interactions in the Baltic region during the Vendel Period, though evidence remains fragmentary. Post-World War II research further demythologized such figures by underscoring biases in oral traditions that shaped the sagas, viewing accounts of Harald's exploits as embellished products of later skaldic poetry and euhemerized myths rather than reliable history. This approach, evident in broader studies of Norse literature, prioritized the socio-political functions of oral narratives over literal events. In popular culture, Harald's legend has inspired adaptations that blend myth with historical drama. Modern novels, such as Theodore Brun's A Sacred Storm (2018), depict him as a ruthless king entangled in blood feuds and power struggles across Scandinavia, using his story to explore themes of loyalty and vengeance in the pre-Viking era. Video games like Crusader Kings II (2012) by Paradox Interactive feature Harald as a starting ruler in the 769 AD scenario, portraying him as a mythic Danish king whose realm-building mechanics draw on saga elements of conquest and dynastic intrigue. These representations often amplify his warrior archetype for entertainment, while documentaries and online media continue to dramatize the Battle of Bråvalla as a pivotal clash blending history and legend. Contemporary interpretations, up to 2025, increasingly interrogate social dimensions of the sagas involving Harald, such as gender roles, with scholars noting references to shieldmaidens—up to 300 female warriors allegedly fighting for him at Bråvalla—as evidence of fluid Viking-era gender dynamics that challenge patriarchal stereotypes. In Viking heritage tourism, Harald's narrative occupies a minor but evocative niche, appearing in guided tours of sites like Bråvalla in Sweden, where his legend enhances narratives of early Scandinavian warfare and identity for visitors seeking immersive cultural experiences.^[18]