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Historical dictionary

A historical dictionary is a scholarly reference work that traces the diachronic development of a language by documenting the historical evolution of words, including their etymologies, semantic shifts, forms, and usages across time, often supported by chronologically ordered quotations from authentic sources.^[1] Unlike synchronic or descriptive dictionaries, which primarily describe contemporary meanings and current usage, historical dictionaries provide a comprehensive timeline of lexical changes, enabling insights into linguistic, cultural, and social history.^[2] This approach emphasizes evidence-based lexicography, drawing on vast corpora of texts to illustrate how words enter, adapt, and sometimes fade from a language.^[3] The tradition of historical dictionaries emerged prominently in the 19th century, influenced by Romantic nationalism and the desire to preserve and standardize national languages amid industrialization and colonial expansion.^[3] Pioneering efforts included Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm's Deutsches Wörterbuch (1854–1961), a monumental German project that covered words in New High German from the mid-15th century onward using historical principles.^[3]^[4] Similarly, Émile Littré's Dictionnaire de la langue française (1863–1872) chronicled French from its medieval roots, incorporating etymological depth and illustrative citations.^[3] These works set the standard for comprehensiveness, often involving decades of labor by teams of scholars sifting through millions of textual examples. The most renowned example is the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), initiated in 1857 following a call by philologist Richard Chenevix Trench for a systematic inventory of English words, and first published in fascicles from 1884 to 1928 under editors like James Murray.^[2] Spanning over 600,000 entries and 3 million quotations, the OED records English from the 12th century to the present, prioritizing historical principles such as dated senses and etymologies derived from primary sources.^[2] Ongoing revisions, now digital, continue to update entries with new evidence, reflecting the dynamic nature of language evolution.^[5] Historical dictionaries play a crucial role in linguistics and lexicography by serving as foundational tools for etymological research, comparative philology, and understanding semantic change, while also informing fields like literature, history, and law through precise historical context.^[1] Challenges in their compilation include managing vast diachronic data and balancing scholarly rigor with accessibility, but digital advancements have enabled enhanced searchability and integration of multimedia evidence in modern iterations.^[3]

Definition and Scope

Definition

A historical dictionary is a type of reference work in lexicography that traces the vocabulary of a language through time, documenting the origins, etymological development, changes in meaning, usage patterns, and eventual obsolescence of words across historical periods.^[6] This approach emphasizes the evolution of lexical items from their earliest known attestations, providing detailed accounts of semantic shifts and historical contexts to illustrate how language adapts over centuries.^[7] Unlike general dictionaries that offer synchronic snapshots of contemporary usage, historical dictionaries prioritize diachronic analysis, focusing on the temporal progression of words rather than their current state alone.^[8] Their scope extends to comprehensive coverage of linguistic history, often incorporating evidence from archival texts to ensure completeness in reconstructing word trajectories and avoiding anachronistic interpretations.^[9] The primary purpose of a historical dictionary is to preserve and elucidate the dynamic evolution of language for scholars, linguists, and historians, enabling deeper insights into cultural, social, and intellectual histories embedded in lexical changes. By including quotations and citations from original sources, these works serve as vital tools for research, facilitating the study of philological patterns and the reconstruction of past linguistic landscapes.^[10]

Distinction from Other Dictionaries

Historical dictionaries differ from general-purpose or desk dictionaries, such as Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, which emphasize contemporary meanings and current usage to serve everyday reference needs.^[11] In contrast, historical dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) adopt a diachronic approach, tracing the chronological evolution of words across centuries without prioritizing present-day senses as the primary focus.^[2] This temporal depth allows them to document obsolete terms, variant forms, and shifts in meaning that general dictionaries often omit due to space constraints and synchronic orientation toward active vocabulary.^[11]^[12] Unlike purely etymological dictionaries, which concentrate on the origins and derivations of words—such as Ernest Klein's A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language that details linguistic roots and proto-forms—historical dictionaries incorporate etymology as one component within a broader framework of semantic development supported by extensive quotations.^[13] For instance, while Klein's work provides concise ancestral lineages for words, the OED extends this to illustrate full usage histories through millions of dated citations from historical texts, revealing how meanings have transformed over time rather than stopping at initial borrowings or formations.^[2]^[13] This integration ensures a comprehensive record of a word's life cycle, distinguishing historical works from etymological ones that remain more narrowly focused on philological ancestry.^[12] Historical dictionaries also stand apart from descriptive dictionaries of modern language, which systematically record contemporary usage patterns based on recent corpora without a strong emphasis on long-term evolution. Although both are descriptive in nature—observing rather than prescribing usage—historical dictionaries prioritize accuracy in reconstructing past contexts through chronological arrangement and inclusion of archaic elements, often resulting in multi-volume formats heavy with evidentiary quotations.^[2] For example, the OED's entries evolve meanings in historical order, supported by over 3.5 million citations spanning more than 1,000 years, whereas descriptive resources like the Corpus of Contemporary American English-based dictionaries target present-day descriptivism.^[2] This citation-driven methodology underscores their role as scholarly archives rather than practical guides for current descriptivism.^[14] Key identifiers of historical dictionaries include their expansive, often multi-volume structure; reliance on historical principles for entry organization, such as sense development over time; and systematic treatment of obsolete words and variants, which general, etymological, or contemporary descriptive dictionaries handle selectively or exclude.^[2]^[14]

Key Characteristics

Historical Coverage

Historical dictionaries structure their entries to emphasize the temporal evolution of words, organizing senses chronologically based on the earliest attested usage rather than logical or frequency-based order. This approach allows users to observe how meanings develop or shift over time; for instance, a primary sense might be dated to the 1500s, with subsequent subsenses appearing in the 1700s or later, as seen in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), where senses are arranged according to the date of their first recorded evidence.^[5]^[15] The coverage in historical dictionaries typically extends from the proto-forms or earliest written records of a language to the contemporary period, encompassing archaic forms, dialectal variations, and regional usages to capture the full spectrum of linguistic history. For English, this often begins with partial inclusion of Old English material from around the 7th century, transitioning through Middle English from the 11th century, and continuing to modern sources like social media, as exemplified by the OED's documentation spanning over a millennium.^[5]^[15] Obsolescent and obsolete words receive dedicated treatment in historical dictionaries, with entries noting the last-attested dates of usage and, where relevant, contextual factors contributing to their decline, such as technological advancements that supplant specific terminology. The OED's third edition, for example, marked 52% more words or senses as obsolete based on enhanced historical evidence, preserving these terms to illustrate language loss without removing them from the record.^[15] Central to this historical focus are citation practices, where each sense is substantiated by chronologically ordered quotations from primary sources, demonstrating the word's usage in context across eras. These excerpts, ranging from literary works to non-literary documents like wills and diaries, trace semantic and pragmatic shifts; the OED employs over 3 million such quotations to support its entries, with ongoing additions refining the timeline of evolution.^[5]^[15]

Etymological and Semantic Depth

Historical dictionaries provide extensive etymological components by meticulously tracing word roots through documented historical forms, often spanning multiple languages and eras. For instance, entries detail the progression from Proto-Indo-European reconstructions to modern derivatives, such as linking English "mother" to Proto-Indo-European *méh₂-tr- via cognates in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, emphasizing inherited lexicon over speculative forms.^[16] Borrowings are cataloged with precision, noting pathways like the adoption of Portuguese "marmelada" into English as "marmalade" by 1480, including intermediary forms and cultural contexts of transmission.^[17] Phonological changes are similarly documented, illustrating sound shifts such as Old English "mearh" evolving to Middle English "mare" through vowel alterations and dialectal influences, supported by earliest attestations to avoid unsubstantiated reconstructions.^[17] Semantic evolution receives in-depth analysis in these dictionaries, particularly through the examination of polysemy, where a word's meanings diverge, converge, or undergo amelioration and pejoration over time. A classic case is the English word "nice," which originated from Latin "nescius" meaning "ignorant" or "foolish" in the late 13th century, shifting via Old French "nice" (silly or simple) to denote "dainty" or "precise" by the 16th century, and finally acquiring its modern positive sense of "pleasant" or "agreeable" through 18th-century amelioration tied to Enlightenment ideals of virtue and refinement.^[18] Such entries map branching senses with chronological evidence, revealing how external factors like social norms influence lexical drift, as seen in the narrowing or broadening of terms across centuries.^[16] Usage notes in historical dictionaries extend beyond standard definitions to encompass sociolectal, dialectal, and stylistic variations, drawing on diverse evidence to illustrate contextual nuances. Sociolectal distinctions highlight class-based registers, such as upper-class euphemisms versus working-class slang for everyday concepts like pregnancy ("with child" in formal literature versus "up the spout" in colloquial speech).^[19] Dialectal variations are evidenced through regional attestations, for example, Joseph Wright's English Dialect Dictionary records terms like "flay-crow" for "scarecrow" in northern English dialects, sourced from folk literature and oral traditions.^[19] Stylistic shifts appear in legal texts, where archaic or formal phrasing like "in flagrante delicto" contrasts with everyday speech equivalents such as "caught red-handed," with notes referencing historical corpora to trace these evolutions.^[19] Cross-referencing enhances the semantic and etymological depth by linking entries to related words, cognates, and neologisms, forming interconnected lexical networks that reveal developmental "family trees." For example, an entry for French "saisir" (to seize) might cross-reference English "catch" and German "begreifen" (to grasp) to illustrate parallel semantic shifts from physical to abstract meanings, aiding in the identification of neologisms derived from established roots.^[16] In revising projects like the Oxford English Dictionary, such links direct users to cognate forms or variant spellings, such as connecting "nuncle" to "n" insertions in "uncle," while integrating frequency data to show how neologisms integrate into broader word families over time.^[17] This relational structure underscores the dictionaries' role in mapping holistic lexical histories rather than isolated definitions.

Historical Development

Origins in Lexicography

The origins of historical dictionaries trace back to ancient lexicographical efforts that began collecting and explaining obscure or archaic terms, laying the foundation for diachronic language study. In the Greco-Roman world, early glossaries served as precursors by documenting rare words from classical literature and dialects. A prominent example is the lexicon compiled by Hesychius of Alexandria in the 5th or 6th century CE, which preserved approximately 51,000 entries of unusual and obsolete Greek words, many drawn from archaic poetry and regional dialects not found elsewhere in surviving texts, thus providing invaluable insights into the historical evolution of Greek vocabulary.^[20]^[21] Similarly, Roman scholars like Pompeius Festus in the 2nd century CE created abridged glossaries of Verrius Flaccus's earlier work, focusing on antiquated Latin terms and their explanations, which highlighted changes in usage over time and influenced later medieval compilations.^[22] During the medieval period, monastic scholars in Europe advanced these traditions through glosses and bilingual dictionaries that demonstrated growing awareness of linguistic history, particularly in translating sacred and classical texts. In England, eleventh-century manuscripts such as the Antwerp-London Glossaries offered Latin-Old English equivalents for difficult words from Latin authors like Aldhelm, noting variations in meaning that reflected shifts from classical to vernacular usage, thereby hinting at diachronic patterns in language development.^[23] These efforts, often produced in monastic scriptoria, extended ancient practices by incorporating vernacular elements and preserving obsolete forms, which helped bridge classical antiquity with emerging national languages.^[24] The Renaissance marked a pivotal shift toward more systematic etymological analysis, driven by humanist scholars who revived classical texts and emphasized language origins. Robert Estienne, a 16th-century French printer and philologist, compiled the Thesaurus linguae Latinae (first edition 1532, expanded 1543), organizing entries alphabetically by initial letters but grouping them etymologically to trace word derivations and historical senses, which pioneered a diachronic approach in Latin lexicography.^[25] This work influenced subsequent dictionaries by integrating chronological examples from ancient authors, fostering a deeper understanding of semantic evolution. By the 18th century, the influence of emerging philology began transitioning lexicography toward modern historical forms, as seen in Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), which included etymological notes and historical quotations from authors like Chaucer and Spenser to illustrate word origins and changes over time, though not fully diachronic in scope.^[26] Johnson's approach, drawing on philological principles, marked a key step in recognizing dictionaries as tools for tracing linguistic history rather than mere synchronic references.^[27]

Major Milestones

The 19th century marked a pivotal era for historical dictionaries, with Jacob Grimm's Deutsches Wörterbuch (1838) emerging as the first major undertaking of its kind, aiming to document the historical development of the German language through exhaustive etymological and usage analysis. Initiated by the Brothers Grimm, this project emphasized a diachronic approach, tracing words from their earliest attestations, and set a precedent for subsequent lexicographical efforts by prioritizing comprehensive historical coverage over mere contemporary definitions.^[28]^[29] Institutional advancements further propelled these developments, notably through the formation of the Philological Society in 1842, which fostered collaborative scholarship and led to the proposal for a new English dictionary on historical principles in 1857. This initiative, initially driven by the society's efforts to address gaps in existing dictionaries, relied heavily on a network of volunteer contributors—over 800 sub-editors and readers—who submitted millions of citation slips to capture word usage across centuries, exemplifying the era's shift toward crowdsourced, evidence-based lexicography. The project gained formal momentum in 1879 when Oxford University Press committed to publication under editor James A. H. Murray, transforming it into the foundational Oxford English Dictionary (OED).^[30]^[31]^[32] In the 20th century, the completion of the OED's first edition in 1928 represented a monumental achievement, culminating over seven decades of work and establishing a benchmark for historical dictionaries with its 15,490 pages and coverage of over 400,000 words. Post-1980s innovations included the digitization of the OED, beginning in the early 1980s with keyboarding of the text, which enabled the 1989 second edition and facilitated ongoing supplements through electronic integration of new entries and revisions. Additionally, the rise of structural linguistics in the mid-20th century influenced semantic analysis in these works by promoting systematic examinations of meaning within language systems, enhancing the depth of historical entries beyond chronological listings.^[33]^[34]^[30] The global dissemination of historical dictionary methodologies extended to non-English contexts during this period, as seen in the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (WAT), a comprehensive Afrikaans dictionary project launched in 1926 with its first volume published in 1951 and ongoing as of 2025, with completion projected for 2028, reflecting post-colonial efforts to standardize and historicize emerging national languages amid linguistic independence from Dutch influences. This adaptation underscored the model's applicability in postcolonial settings, where lexicographers sought to preserve cultural and historical nuances in newly affirmed tongues.^[35]^[36]^[37]

Compilation Process

Research Methods

Research methods for historical dictionaries involve systematic gathering and validation of linguistic evidence from diverse historical sources to document word evolution accurately. Compilers scan extensive collections of historical texts, including manuscripts, printed books, newspapers, and digital corpora, to identify word usages across time periods. For instance, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) utilizes resources like Early English Books Online (EEBO), which digitizes over 125,000 titles from 1473 to 1700, enabling searches for pre-1700 English vocabulary in original contexts.^[38]^[39] Similarly, Eighteenth Century Collections Online provides access to more than 150,000 English-language titles from the period, supporting the identification of semantic shifts in 18th-century prose and periodicals.^[38] These corpora facilitate comprehensive source collection by allowing keyword queries and chronological filtering, though compilers must supplement them with physical archives for rare manuscripts not yet digitized.^[38] Once sources are identified, citation extraction focuses on selecting representative quotations that illustrate a word's first known use, meaning evolution, and contextual nuances, rather than aiming for complete exhaustiveness to maintain practicality. In the OED's process, extractors prioritize authentic examples from primary texts, such as literature and legal documents, to capture idiomatic or specialized senses, ensuring each quotation includes precise bibliographic details for traceability.^[38] This selective approach balances depth with manageability; for example, approximately 3.5 million quotations underpin the OED's entries, drawn from targeted readings rather than indiscriminate scanning.^[30] Verification of extracted citations involves cross-referencing originals to confirm accuracy, often through library consultations at institutions like the British Library.^[38] Historical dictionary projects typically employ collaborative models, leveraging sub-editors, volunteer readers, and early forms of crowdsourcing to amass evidence efficiently. The OED's pioneering "slip system," initiated in the 19th century, exemplifies this: volunteers worldwide submitted usage notes on standardized cards (slips) from their readings of English texts, amassing millions of entries sorted by word and date.^[30] Sub-editors then categorized these slips thematically, with chief editors like James Murray overseeing integration; this distributed labor accelerated collection, involving thousands of contributors over decades.^[30] Modern iterations incorporate digital crowdsourcing, where public submissions feed into databases like the OED's "Incomings" system, searchable by date, subject, or location for rapid integration.^[38] Verification ensures reliability through philological tools and iterative checks, particularly for etymologies derived from comparative linguistics. Compilers compare forms across related languages to reconstruct origins, applying sound correspondence rules to hypothesize proto-forms, as in tracing English "brother" to Proto-Indo-European *bʰréh₂tēr via cognates in Sanskrit and Latin.^[40] For the OED, etymological verification involves over 400 specialist consultants reviewing drafts against primary sources and linguistic scholarship, while new discoveries from digital archives prompt revisions—such as antedating entries based on Google Books scans.^[38] This cross-checking, combined with editorial correspondence, mitigates errors and incorporates updates, maintaining the dictionary's authority as new evidence emerges.^[30]

Editorial Challenges

Historical dictionary projects often span decades or even centuries, demanding sustained institutional commitment and large-scale collaboration to achieve their comprehensive scope. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), for instance, required 71 years from its inception in 1857 to the completion of its first edition in 1928, involving hundreds of editorial staff and thousands of volunteer contributors who submitted over five million quotation slips.^[30] Such extended timelines necessitate ongoing funding from entities like university presses, as seen in the OED's support from Oxford University Press, yet progress can be hampered by fluctuating resources and leadership changes, such as the delays under early editors like Frederick Furnivall.^[30] Ensuring accuracy presents profound challenges, particularly in verifying the earliest attestations of words and navigating linguistic variability across time and regions. Dating entries is notoriously difficult, especially for periods like Middle English, where evidence survives primarily in undated manuscripts, leading to potential errors in chronological placement that affect etymological interpretations.^[41] Editors must also reconcile variant spellings—such as inconsistent orthographies in early modern texts—with modern standardized forms, often employing tools like the Variant Detector (VARD) to normalize historical corpora without losing semantic nuance, while accounting for regional dialects that introduce further interpretive complexities.^[42] Balancing exhaustive comprehensiveness against the risk of interpretive errors requires rigorous cross-verification, yet incomplete source access can perpetuate inaccuracies in attribution or meaning.^[30] Updating and revising these dictionaries involves integrating evolving scholarship, which has intensified in the digital era. Post-2000 digital editions, like the OED's Third Edition initiated in 2000, incorporate newly discovered quotations and overlooked dialects through quarterly revisions that replace or expand existing entries with fresh evidence from modern corpora.^[43] Debates over inclusivity arise in deciding whether to prioritize formal historical usage or incorporate contemporary slang and diverse linguistic influences, as seen in discussions around adding gender-neutral terms, which challenge traditional boundaries while aiming to reflect broader societal language use.^[43] Resource constraints further complicate editorial efforts, with heavy reliance on rare archival materials that may be geographically dispersed or fragile. Projects like the Dictionary of South African English on Historical Principles (DSAEHist) highlight non-profit dependencies that slow digitization and adaptation, exacerbated by copyright hurdles for incorporating 20th-century texts.^[44] While AI tools show promise for verification tasks like pattern recognition in variants, their implementation remains limited by funding and the need for human oversight to maintain scholarly integrity.^[44]

Notable Examples

English-Language Dictionaries

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), founded in 1857 by the Philological Society and published by Oxford University Press, is a comprehensive historical dictionary that traces the evolution of English words from around 1150 to the present, spanning over 800 years of the language's history.^[30] It originally appeared in 12 volumes between 1884 and 1928, with subsequent editions expanding to 20 volumes by 1989, and now exists primarily as an online resource with quarterly updates as part of its third edition, which began revisions in 2000.^[33] The OED contains over 600,000 entries supported by more than 3.5 million dated quotations drawn from literature, historical documents, and other sources, providing evidence of word usage over time.^[45] The Middle English Dictionary (MED), a specialized historical dictionary covering the English language from 1100 to 1500, was a long-term project undertaken by the University of Michigan, with active compilation beginning in the 1950s and reaching completion in 2001 after spanning 13 printed volumes.^[46] It focuses on the lexicon and semantics of medieval English, drawing extensively from primary texts such as Chaucer’s works, religious manuscripts, and legal documents to illustrate regional variations and historical meanings.^[47] Now available digitally as part of the Middle English Compendium, the MED serves as an essential tool for scholars studying the transition from Old to Modern English, with over 15,000 pages of detailed entries.^[48] The Dictionary of American Regional English (DARE), initiated in the 1960s through extensive fieldwork and first published in the 1980s, documents the diverse dialects and regionalisms of American English across the United States, with its five main volumes appearing between 1985 and 2012. Produced by the University of Wisconsin-Madison, DARE incorporates data from over 2,700 interviews conducted in the 1960s, along with historical texts, to map lexical variations, pronunciations, and phrases unique to specific locales. Its digital edition includes interactive maps, audio recordings of informants, and an index volume, highlighting phenomena like Southern drawls or New England terms to preserve the cultural and geographical diversity of U.S. speech patterns.^[49] A distinctive feature of these English-language historical dictionaries is their reliance on vast quotation databases as linguistic corpora; for instance, the OED's collection of 3.5 million citations functions not only as definitional evidence but also as a searchable resource for corpus linguistics and historical analysis.^[2] These works have profoundly influenced global English studies by establishing standards for etymological research and dialect documentation, shaping how linguists worldwide approach the language's multifaceted history.^[50]

Continental European Dictionaries

Continental European historical dictionaries represent a philological tradition deeply intertwined with national linguistic heritage, emphasizing etymological depth and diachronic analysis to document language evolution. Unlike the broader, more contemporary focus in English-language counterparts, these works often prioritize medieval and early modern periods, reflecting efforts to standardize and preserve cultural identity amid political unification. Major projects in German, French, and Dutch exemplify this approach, drawing on extensive archival research to trace word histories and usages. The Deutsches Wörterbuch, initiated by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in 1838 and spanning 32 volumes published from 1854 to 1961, covers the German language from Middle High German onward, providing exhaustive etymologies and historical attestations that have made it foundational for Indo-European linguistic studies. Supported by the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the project embodies a scholarly commitment to mapping German's lexical development across centuries, influencing comparative philology through its rigorous methodology.^[51] In France, the Trésor de la Langue Française (TLF), a state-initiated endeavor launched in 1957 and completed in 16 volumes between 1971 and 1994, documents 18th- to 20th-century French vocabulary, integrating examples from literary, scientific, and technical texts to illustrate semantic shifts and specialized usages.^[52] This comprehensive resource, overseen by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, highlights the interplay between language and modern intellectual history, serving as a key tool for understanding French's evolution in diverse domains.^[53] The Dutch Woordenboek der Nederlandsen Taal (WNT), begun in 1864 and finalized in 43 volumes (including supplements) by 1998, chronicles the Dutch language from 1500, with particular attention to terms shaped by maritime trade, colonial expansion, and regional dialects, capturing the lexicon's adaptation to global influences.^[54] Managed by the Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal, it underscores the Netherlands' historical role as a seafaring power through detailed citations from historical documents.^[55] These dictionaries share common traits as ambitious, state-sponsored undertakings that reinforced national identity by systematically archiving linguistic heritage, often under governmental or academic patronage to foster cultural cohesion in post-Enlightenment Europe.^[56] In Germany, France, and the Netherlands, such projects not only advanced lexicography but also symbolized efforts to unify diverse dialects and historical narratives into a cohesive national story.

Other Language Examples

In Irish Gaelic, the Foclóir Gaeḋilge agus Béarla by Patrick S. Dinneen, first compiled in 1904 and revised in a greatly enlarged edition in 1927, serves as a foundational historical dictionary that compiles a thesaurus of modern Irish words, phrases, and idioms with English explanations, drawing from medieval Celtic manuscripts and literary sources to trace etymological depths. This work, spanning over 1,300 pages in its 1927 iteration, incorporates archaic terms influenced by post-Norman linguistic borrowings, reflecting Ireland's layered history of Gaelic revival and external integrations, and remained a standard reference until later revisions extended into the 1990s.^[57]^[58] The Svenska Akademiens Ordbok (SAOB), launched by the Swedish Academy in 1884 with initial volumes appearing from 1898 and completed in 2023 spanning 39 volumes, provides exhaustive historical coverage of the Swedish lexicon from 1521 onward, integrating etymologies linked to Old Norse origins and incorporating evidence from runic inscriptions as primary sources for pre-medieval vocabulary.^[59]^[60] Completed in 2023, with revisions now underway for earlier volumes to incorporate modern scholarship.^[61] It emphasizes diachronic development by citing original texts, including runic artifacts that preserve Proto-Scandinavian terms, thus bridging ancient Nordic linguistics with modern usage in a manner akin to national academies' lexicographic traditions. For Serbo-Croatian, particularly the Croatian variant, the Rječnik hrvatskoga jezika represents an ongoing lexicographic effort led by the Institute for the Croatian Language and Linguistics since the early 2000s, building on 19th-century foundations like the 1901 edition by Franjo Iveković and Ivan Broz to document the language's historical layers from Glagolitic scripts of the 9th-16th centuries through Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian influences in the Balkans. This digital-enhanced project, accessible via the Hrvatski jezični portal, traces semantic shifts amid regional dialectal divergences and political realignments, prioritizing Glagolitic manuscripts as key artifacts for reconstructing early Slavic-Croatian terminology.^[62]^[63] Beyond European contexts, the Hanyu Da Cidian, a monumental 13-volume historical dictionary compiled from 1979 to 1994 and published in Shanghai, encompasses 370,000 entries across ancient and modern Chinese, with character origins systematically traced to oracle bone inscriptions from the late Shang dynasty (circa 1200 BCE), providing glyph evolutions, pronunciations, and citations from classical texts to establish philological continuity. This work, involving over 300 scholars, addresses gaps in prior lexicons by including archaic forms from jiaguwen (oracle bone script) alongside bronze and seal scripts, making it a cornerstone for understanding Sinitic language development over three millennia.^[64] Indigenous examples include Māori dictionary projects in New Zealand, such as Herbert W. Williams's A Dictionary of the Māori Language (first edition 1917, seventh revised edition 1971), which preserves pre-colonial Polynesian vocabulary through analysis of early 19th-century manuscripts and oral traditions, containing thousands of entries with illustrative sentences to capture indigenous conceptual frameworks like kinship and ecology. Complementing this, the Legal Māori Project (initiated 2008) develops specialized historical lexicons for legal terms derived from treaty-era documents, emphasizing revitalization of te reo Māori amid colonial impacts, with resources like the 2008 monolingual He Pātaka Kupu further integrating iwi-specific usages to counter language endangerment.^[65]^[66]

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In stockGlossaries are one of the most important sources for our knowledge of early medieval schools, for they provide an accurate records of what texts were studied ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus): How Did This Printer Leave ...
Feb 27, 2022 · Estienne's thesaurus was alphabetical based on the first three letters of the word, then grouped etymologically. In the 1540s, he began ...
[27]
"Dictionary of the English Language" by Samuel Johnson (1755)
Johnson provides a terse historical synopisis before using literary examples from noted authors such as Chaucer, Thomas More, Wycliffe, etc. to compare ...
[28]
Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language - CliffsNotes
Jan 24, 2025 · He frequently offered etymologies or historical background that in turn helped put words in context and so provide hints about their evolution.
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A Dictionary without Definitions: Romanticist Science in the ...
Nov 13, 2014 · Between 1838 and 1863 the Grimm brothers led a collaborative research project to create a new kind of dictionary documenting the history of the German language.
[30]
German Studies: Reference Sources - UCLA Library Research Guides
Sep 3, 2025 · ... Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm started compiling the Deutsches Wörterbuch (DWB) in 1838. The first volumes were published in 1854, and the DWB has ...
[31]
History of the OED
The following is a brief history of the Oxford English Dictionary, detailing key events since the initial proposal in 1857.Dictionary Milestones · OED Editions · Chief Editors of the OED · Former OED staff
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OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY - Encyclopedia.com
Shortly after its founding in 1842, the Philological Society appointed an 'unregistered words committee' to collect English words not listed in existing ...
[33]
10 things you may not know about the making of the OED (Part 1)
Mar 9, 2017 · The project which eventually became the OED was launched in Somerset House in 1857. 2017 marks the 160th anniversary of the decision by the ...
[34]
OED Editions
The Oxford English Dictionary was originally published in fascicles between 1884 and 1928. A one-volume supplement was published in 1933.
[35]
OED1 (1884-1928) - Examining the OED - University of Oxford
Aug 6, 2025 · The first edition of OED (OED1) was initially published in successive instalments between 1884 and 1928. It was re-issued in 1933 with a Supplement and a ...
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A Chronology of Major Events in the History of Lexicography
First volume of the major scholarly dictionary of Afrikaans, Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse taal, ed. Pieter Cornelis Schoonees, published 7 May; vol. 13 (R ...
[37]
Language Contact in Postcolonial Settings Developing Germanic ...
Mar 19, 2025 · ... lexicographic endeavors such as the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse taal (Dictionary of the Afrikaans Language) that was started in 1926.
[38]
Chapter 24 - South African English Dictionaries: From Colonial to ...
Chapter 24 South African English Dictionaries: From Colonial to Post-Colonial. English in South Africa. English occupies a paradoxical position in multilingual ...
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Language research programme - Oxford English Dictionary
The OED has collected information on the history of words for the last 150 years. The index cards or 'slips' on which this information is collected are ...Missing: compilation source
[40]
https://www.ling-phil.ox.ac.uk/files/amd_comparative-historical_linguistics_encyclopedia_of_linguistics_v._ii_1st_ed_1992.pdf
[41]
[PDF] Comparative-Historical Linguistics
Comparative-historical linguistics involves the history and comparison of languages, aiming to establish language families and reconstruct proto-languages.
[42]
Dating Middle English evidence in the OED
Middle English lexicographical evidence is particularly difficult to date. It mostly survives in hand-written manuscripts.
[43]
[PDF] VARD 2: A tool for dealing with spelling variation in historical corpora
Spelling variation causes considerable problems for corpus linguistic techniques such as frequency analysis, concordancing and automatic tagging, with a.Missing: lexicography | Show results with:lexicography
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Updates - Oxford English Dictionary
The material added to the dictionary includes revised versions of existing entries (which replace the older versions), and new words and senses both within the ...Display of compounds and... · March 2024 · September 2024 · New word entries
[45]
[PDF] Adapting a historical dictionary for the modern online user - Lexikos
Many of these prototypes have not yet been imple- mented since the project is a non-profit undertaking and operates under resource constraints beyond the ...
[46]
Oxford English Dictionary
An unsurpassed guide for researchers in any discipline to the meaning, history, and usage of over 500,000 words and phrases across the English-speaking world.Contributing to the OED · Using the OED · Historical Thesaurus · AboutMissing: Merriam- | Show results with:Merriam-
[47]
Middle English Dictionary - University of Michigan
The world's largest searchable database of Middle English lexicon and usage for the period 1100-1500. An invaluable resource for lexicographers, language ...Middle English Compendium · Read more about the dictionary · How to get started
[48]
Middle English Dictionary records, 1925-2008 - Finding Aids
The Middle English Dictionary (MED) is a comprehensive dictionary of the English language as it was used between 1100 and 1500. The MED was in production at the ...
[49]
About the Middle English Compendium - Digital Collections
The Compendium has been designed to offer easy access to and some interconnectivity between three major Middle English electronic resources.
[50]
Dictionary of American Regional English | DARE
Discover the full panoply of American regional words, phrases, and pronunciations with DARE. The digital edition features audio, interactive maps, and insights.
[51]
The OED: a historical record of creativity in language
The OED is a historical record of language based on real evidence of words in use, recording how words are used, not dictating how they should be used.
[52]
Predictions as to the Size of the Grimms' Deutsches Wörterbuch - jstor
had come under the sponsorship of the Prussian Academy of Sci- ences in 1908, had been able to do very little to combat the diction- ary's tendency to swell ...
[53]
General Overview - ARTFL Project - The University of Chicago
In 1957 the French government initiated the creation of a new dictionary of the French language, the Trésor de la Langue Française. In order to provide access ...
[54]
[PDF] Le Trésor de la langue française informatisé (TLFi) - ACL Anthology
It is a dictionary of the 19th and 20th century vocabulary, in 16 volumes. The first volume was published in 1971 and the last one in 1993.Missing: exact | Show results with:exact
[55]
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/39443/9789027262769.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
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[PDF] Language Planning as Nation Building - OAPEN Library
In 1882, the first volume of the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal ('Dic- tionary of the Dutch Language') was published, one of the great projects of.<|separator|>
[57]
Historical dictionaries - Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal
Aug 22, 2025 · The Dutch Language Institute (INT) hosts a number of dictionaries that describe the Dutch vocabulary from around 500 to 1976, ...
[58]
Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla. An Irish-English Dictionary ... Compile
€49.99 Out of stockAuthor: Patrick Stephen Dinneen ; Edition: New ed., rev. and greatly enl ; Number Of Pages: 1340 ; Release Date: 01-12-1927 ; Item Note: 1941 printing in VG ...<|separator|>
[59]
Foclóir Gaeḋilge agus Béarla. An Irish-English dictionary, being a ...
Apr 12, 2013 · An Irish-English dictionary, being a thesaurus of words, phrases and idioms of the modern Irish language, with explanations in English.Missing: 1927-1996 | Show results with:1927-1996
[60]
Croatia – IHJJ - ELEXIS
It is the central national scientific research institution for the study of the Croatian language and general linguistics. The core activities and the mission ...
[61]
Rječnik hrvatskoga jezika. Skupili i obradili F. Iveković i Ivan Broz
Feb 25, 2011 · Publication date: 1901 ; Topics: Serbo-Croatian language, Serbo-Croatian language -- Dictionaries ; Publisher: U Zagrebu Štamparija K. Albrechta.
[62]
The Chinese Script (www.chinaknowledge.de)
Mar 23, 2011 · The oldest traces of Chinese characters are to be found in oracle bone inscriptions from the late Shang period 商(17th-11th cent. ... 漢語大字典 ...
[63]
Māori Dictionaries - Maori Language Information
(3) H.M. Ngata's English-Māori dictionary appeared in 1993. It contains over 14,500 headwords. An English sentence (containing the headword) is given after each ...
[64]
Making a legal dictionary for an indigenous language
Jul 10, 2012 · The Legal Māori Project, as established in 2008 in the Law Faculty of Victoria University of Wellington, seeks to achieve two primary aims: • A ...<|control11|><|separator|>