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Quotation

A quotation is a passage or statement from a text, speech, or other source that is repeated or referred to, often to support an argument, illustrate a point, or provide evidence.^[1] In written and spoken language, it typically involves reproducing the exact words of the original author or speaker, known as a direct quotation, which is enclosed in quotation marks to distinguish it from the surrounding text.^[2] This practice dates back to ancient times, with early markers like the diple (a double oblique line) used in Christian texts from the third century to denote scriptural citations.^[3] Quotations serve multiple purposes in communication, including lending credibility to claims by invoking authoritative voices, introducing diverse perspectives, and preserving the precise phrasing of influential ideas.^[4] They are essential in academic, journalistic, and literary writing, where direct quotes must be verbatim and properly attributed to avoid plagiarism, while indirect quotes paraphrase the original content without quotation marks.^[5] For longer excerpts—typically over 40 words in APA style or four lines in MLA—block quotations are formatted without quotation marks, often indented to separate them visually from the main text.^[6]^[2] The use of quotation marks, which evolved into their modern form in the 16th century as low double commas in printed books, standardizes this convention across English and many other languages, though variations exist such as guillemets in French or angled quotes in some typographic traditions.^[7] Beyond language, the term "quotation" also refers to price estimates in business or current market values in finance, but its primary application remains in rhetorical and textual reproduction.

Definitions and Types

Direct Quotation

A direct quotation is the verbatim reproduction of spoken or written words from a source, using quotation marks or other delimiters to preserve the original phrasing, tone, and structure exactly as uttered or composed.^[9] This linguistic device allows for precise attribution, ensuring the quoted material remains unaltered in its form while integrating into the surrounding text.^[10] The mechanics of direct quotation in English involve pairing opening and closing quotation marks around the exact words, typically using double quotes such as "Hello" for primary quotations and single quotes for nested ones.^[9] Punctuation placement follows style conventions: in American English, as per guides like the Chicago Manual of Style, commas and periods appear inside the closing quotation marks, while in British English, according to The Oxford Style Guide, they are placed outside unless integral to the quoted material.^[11] For instance, the American style renders He said, "Stop." with the period inside, whereas the British style uses He said, "Stop".^[12] The practice of direct quotation emerged in ancient Greek rhetoric, where philosophers like Aristotle emphasized the importance of accurately representing others' words to support arguments, though ancient texts lacked dedicated marks and relied on contextual indicators.^[13] Quotation marks as a typographic feature originated in France around 1580–1590, initially as marginal commas to denote cited passages, evolving into the paired symbols used today.^[14] Johannes Gutenberg's invention of movable-type printing in the mid-15th century standardized punctuation overall, facilitating the consistent application of such marks in printed works by enabling mass production and uniform typesetting.^[15] For example, in the sentence She said, "I am tired," the quotation captures the speaker's precise wording and implied exhaustion, maintaining the original voice without alteration.^[9] This contrasts with indirect quotation, which reports the content non-verbatim by adjusting pronouns and tense.^[9]

Indirect Quotation

Indirect quotation, also known as reported speech, involves paraphrasing or summarizing the words, thoughts, or statements of a speaker or writer without using their exact phrasing or enclosing the content in quotation marks.^[9] This method typically introduces the reported content with a clause such as "that," "if," or a question word, integrating it seamlessly into the surrounding narrative or sentence structure.^[16] Unlike direct quotation, indirect quotation conveys the essence or meaning but may lose nuances of tone or emphasis present in the original.^[7] A key feature of indirect quotation is the application of grammatical adjustments to align the reported content with the perspective and tense of the reporting context. These shifts include tense backshift, where verbs move backward in time relative to the reporting verb (e.g., present simple becomes past simple, and present continuous becomes past continuous).^[17] Pronouns are altered to match the third-person viewpoint (e.g., "I" to "he/she," "you" to "me/him/her").^[18] Additionally, time and place adverbs are modified for deictic consistency (e.g., "now" to "then," "tomorrow" to "the next day," "here" to "there").^[19] These changes ensure logical coherence, particularly when the reporting occurs after the original speech event.^[17] Consider the direct statement: "I'll meet you tomorrow." In indirect quotation, this transforms to: She said that she would meet me the next day. The step-by-step transformation involves: (1) backshifting the future "will" to conditional "would" due to the past reporting verb "said"; (2) changing the first-person pronoun "I" to third-person "she" and second-person "you" to first-person "me"; and (3) adjusting the time adverb "tomorrow" to "the next day" to reflect the shifted temporal perspective.^[16] This example illustrates how indirect quotation adapts the original for narrative flow while preserving intent.^[20] Indirect quotation exhibits structural similarities across languages, though with variations in mood and syntax. In French, reported speech typically uses the indicative mood in subordinate clauses, though the subjunctive is employed when the context involves doubt, emotion, or other triggers requiring it.^[21] In German, indirect speech typically uses Konjunktiv I or II for the verb in the dependent clause, with the verb positioned at the end of the clause per subordinate clause rules, such as "Er sagte, dass er komme" (He said that he comes/would come).^[22] For English, style guides like the Chicago Manual of Style recommend avoiding quotation marks and ensuring smooth integration without altering meaning, emphasizing clarity in tense and pronoun adjustments for formal writing.^[23]

Free Indirect Quotation

Free indirect quotation, also known as free indirect speech or style indirect libre, is a narrative technique in third-person narration that merges the narrator's voice with a character's internal thoughts or speech patterns, omitting quotation marks, reporting clauses, or other explicit indicators of the source.^[24] This blending allows for an intimate portrayal of the character's consciousness, presenting their perspective as if filtered through the narrator's objective lens, thereby creating psychological depth without shifting to first-person narration.^[25] As an extension of indirect quotation, it dispenses with grammatical adjustments and introductory phrases like "she thought," enabling a seamless fusion of voices.^[26] The technique's formal linguistic analysis was advanced by Ann Banfield in her 1982 book Unspeakable Sentences: Narration and Representation in the Language of Fiction, where she termed it "represented speech and thought" and explored its syntactic properties as sentences that express subjectivity without a deictic center tied to a speaker or hearer.^[26] However, its roots trace to 18th- and 19th-century European novels, with Jane Austen pioneering its sophisticated use in English literature, as seen in Pride and Prejudice (1813), where it subtly conveys characters' ironic self-reflections.^[27] Earlier influences appear in works by authors like Goethe and Choderlos de Laclos, but Austen's application marked a shift toward psychological realism in narrative prose.^[28] Identification markers of free indirect quotation include abrupt shifts in tense, such as present-tense exclamations or questions embedded in past-tense narration, or the intrusion of first-person pronouns and idiomatic expressions atypical of the narrator's neutral style. For instance, in a past-tense narrative, a sequence like "He was tired. Why wouldn't he be?" signals the character's unspoken frustration without attribution, blending their voice into the third-person framework.^[25] These markers disrupt standard narrative distance, allowing readers to infer the character's mindset through linguistic echoes of their idiolect.^[26] A seminal example appears in Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary (1856), where free indirect quotation reveals protagonist Emma Bovary's romantic delusions without explicit signals. In one passage, as Emma fixates on a keepsake from her lover—the green silk cigar case containing a card inscribed "Vicomte de Lambert": "Often when Charles was out she took from the cupboard, between the folds of the linen where she had left it, the green silk cigar case... She repeated [the name] in a low voice, for the mere pleasure of it; it shone before her eyes, even on the labels of her pomade-pots."^[29] Here, the narration adopts Emma's sensory and emotional language—her obsessive idealization of the noble title—merging it with the third-person voice to expose her internal monologue and foreshadow her tragic dissatisfaction, all while maintaining narrative ambiguity about whose perspective dominates.^[30] Similarly, in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, Elizabeth Bennet's thoughts emerge in: "Elizabeth listened in silence, but was not convinced... she was very little disposed to approve them," where the phrasing reflects her skeptical pride, blending her judgmental inner voice with the narrator's irony to highlight character development.^[24]

Quotation in Written Language

Purposes and Effects

Quotations in written narratives serve multiple purposes, primarily to enhance realism and depth. Direct quotations allow authors to convey dialogue in a manner that mimics real speech, fostering verisimilitude by capturing the spontaneity and nuances of conversation, as seen in Ernest Hemingway's sparse, naturalistic dialogue that prioritizes authenticity over embellishment. This technique reveals character personality through distinctive word choice, syntax, and idiolect, enabling readers to infer traits, motivations, and relationships without explicit narration. In non-fiction, quotations provide verifiable evidence from primary sources, lending credibility and preserving original voices to support arguments or historical accounts. Additionally, they contribute to the rhythm of prose by varying sentence structure and pacing, creating a dynamic flow that alternates between descriptive narration and quoted segments. The effects of quotations on readers include heightened immediacy and emotional engagement, as direct speech immerses audiences in the scene, evoking empathy and a sense of presence akin to eavesdropping on actual discourse. By contrasting the narrator's formal or omniscient voice with a character's raw or colloquial one, quotations can generate irony, underscoring discrepancies between perception and reality to deepen thematic layers. Psychologically, this mimicry of speech activates readers' cognitive processing of social cues, promoting stronger identification with characters and enhancing narrative persuasion through rhetorical vividness. Empirical linguistic research from the 2010s onward supports these impacts, demonstrating that direct quotations lead to more robust mental representations of exact wording compared to indirect paraphrases, thereby increasing memorability and retention of key narrative elements.^[31] Studies also show that readers process direct speech faster in contexts implying lively interaction, perceiving it as more vivid and engaging than summarized forms.^[32] Culturally, quotation density varies; English-language novels often employ higher proportions of direct speech for dramatic effect, while Japanese literature favors indirect representation to emphasize implication and restraint, reflecting broader differences in communicative norms.

Common Sources and Examples

Common sources of quoted material in writing include literary works, historical documents, journalistic interviews, and religious texts, where direct quotations lend authenticity and vividness to the narrative. In literary contexts, authors frequently draw from Shakespearean plays to evoke dramatic tension or philosophical depth; for instance, in Hamlet, the soliloquy begins with the famous line, "To be, or not to be: that is the question: / Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer / The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune," illustrating introspection through quoted speech. Historical documents, such as Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, provide enduring examples of rhetorical eloquence often quoted for their inspirational impact: "Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."^[33] In journalism, interviews yield direct quotes to capture personal perspectives, as seen in reporting where sources articulate views verbatim, such as a politician stating, "The economy is our top priority," to convey immediacy and accountability.^[34] Religious texts like the Bible supply moral or thematic quotations integrated into prose; John 3:16, "For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life," exemplifies a verse commonly cited for its doctrinal resonance.^[35] Canonical examples highlight how quotations preserve dialect and voice in fiction. Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn employs regional dialects within quotes to authenticate character speech, as in Jim's dialogue: "Well, it's a blame ridicklous way, en I doan' want to hear no mo' 'bout it. Dey ain' no sense in it," which captures the phonetic nuances of Southern Black vernacular to underscore social realism. Such uses emphasize quotation's role in rendering authentic dialogue, aligning with broader purposes like evoking cultural specificity through sourced voices.^[36] In non-Western traditions, quotation practices often involve allusions or proverbial integrations derived from oral roots. Japanese haiku poetry relies on allusions to classical sources, such as Bashō's reference to earlier waka in "The old pond— / a frog jumps in, / sound of water," evoking seasonal impermanence through subtle quotation of poetic heritage.^[37] Similarly, African literature incorporates proverbs from oral traditions as quoted wisdom, functioning as metaphors to advance narrative depth; in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart, the proverb "When a man says yes, his chi says yes also" is quoted to illustrate personal agency within communal Igbo culture.^[38] The evolution of direct quotations in writing accelerated post-19th century with the realism movement, which prioritized unfiltered representation of everyday speech to mirror societal truths. Realist novels exploited direct quotations to facilitate reader engagement with characters' inner lives, marking a shift from romantic abstraction toward verbatim authenticity in prose.^[39]

Misquotations and Alterations

Misquotations occur when quoted material is inaccurately reproduced, either through error or intent, encompassing accidental omissions, deliberate alterations for bias, and outright fabrications. Accidental misquotations often arise from ellipsis abuse, where excessive omissions distort the original meaning without proper indication, leading to incomplete or misleading representations of the source. Deliberate edits, such as selective quoting to impose political spin in media, manipulate context to favor a narrative, as seen in partisan reporting that excises opposing views. Fabrications involve inventing statements entirely, attributing false words to sources to fabricate events or opinions.^[40] A prominent historical example is the line "Play it again, Sam" from the 1942 film Casablanca, which has been misquoted for decades despite never being uttered; the actual dialogue is "Play it, Sam," spoken by Humphrey Bogart's character, with Ingrid Bergman's character requesting "Play 'As Time Goes By.'" This misquotation, popularized through cultural repetition and parodies, illustrates how media and memory can perpetuate errors, influencing public perception of iconic works. Legally, misquotations fall under plagiarism laws when they involve unauthorized alterations or fabrications, potentially leading to copyright infringement claims, academic penalties like expulsion, or professional sanctions such as disbarment in legal fields.^[41]^[42]^[43] Ethical alterations to quotations are permitted under style guidelines to maintain fidelity while clarifying intent, using square brackets for insertions or the term [sic] to denote original errors without correction. For instance, the APA Style requires bracketing additions for explanation and italicizing [sic] immediately after spelling or grammatical mistakes to preserve the source's integrity. Similarly, MLA guidelines advocate brackets for modifications like tense adjustments, emphasizing that substantive changes without indication constitute unethical tampering. Brackets serve as a corrective tool to balance accuracy with readability in scholarly work.^[44]^[9]^[45] The impacts of misquotations extend to eroding public trust, particularly in journalism, where scandals amplify scrutiny. The 1998 Stephen Glass affair at The New Republic involved fabricating dozens of stories, including invented quotes and dialogues from nonexistent sources, resulting in his firing, retracted articles, and a broader crisis of confidence in fact-checking practices. In cultural contexts, altered quotes have fueled propaganda, such as the misattribution of "Let them eat cake" to Marie Antoinette, originally from Rousseau's writings and repurposed during the French Revolution to vilify the monarchy as indifferent to famine. These cases underscore how misquotations can distort historical narratives and incite division.^[46]^[47]

Stylistic Variations

Quotative inversion is a stylistic device in English where the subject and verb in a speech tag are reversed for dramatic emphasis, typically following a direct quotation, as in ", said he" rather than "he said." This construction, which places the verb immediately after the closing quotation mark, creates a rhythmic or archaic tone often used to heighten narrative flow or mimic oral storytelling.^[48] It appears frequently in older English literature, such as in Charles Dickens's novels, where it contributes to the vividness of dialogue; for instance, in David Copperfield, phrases like ", replied the old woman" underscore character interactions with a formal, period-specific flair.^[49] The syntax of quotative inversion requires the inverted tag to directly adjoin the end of the quoted material, with the subject following the verb and no intervening elements unless adverbial; in poetry, this often aligns with metrical demands, as seen in lines from Alfred Lord Tennyson's works where ", quoth he" maintains iambic rhythm while emphasizing the speaker's voice.^[50] Rules dictate that inversion applies only to post-quoted tags with verbs of saying or thinking, avoiding it in pre-quoted positions to preserve clarity.^[51] Usage has declined in modern English prose and speech, largely due to the loss of verb-second structures inherited from earlier Germanic influences, favoring straightforward subject-verb order for contemporary readability.^[52] In English quotations, square brackets [] serve distinct conventions for editorial interventions, allowing insertions to clarify or contextualize original text without altering its integrity, such as abbreviating the Declaration of Independence as "We hold these truths to be self-evident [that all men are created equal]" to complete the thought if partially quoted.^[53] Brackets also denote errors in the source via [sic], italicized within the brackets to signal that the mistake—spelling, grammar, or fact—is reproduced faithfully from the original, as in quoting an archaic document with "[tyrrany] [sic]" to highlight intentional fidelity.^[54] Unlike parentheses ( ), which enclose supplementary asides removable without affecting sentence meaning, brackets within quotes indicate changes to the quoted material itself, ensuring transparency in scholarly or journalistic reproductions; misuse of brackets for outright corrections can inadvertently alter the source, bordering on misquotation. Cross-linguistically, quotation styles vary in punctuation and integration, influencing textual rhythm and visual hierarchy. In French, guillemets « » replace standard quotation marks, opening to the left and closing to the right with non-breaking spaces on either side (e.g., « Bonjour »), which creates a more spacious, elegant enclosure that affects readability in dense prose by drawing the eye outward.^[55] Some Asian languages, such as traditional Chinese, forgo Western-style marks in classical texts, relying instead on contextual indentation or fullwidth corner brackets 『』 for modern quotations, resulting in a seamless integration that prioritizes character flow over explicit demarcation and fosters a subtler stylistic emphasis on content over form. These variations shape stylistic effects: guillemets lend a formal, typographic sophistication in Romance languages, while bracket-based or markless systems in East Asian scripts promote conciseness, altering how quotations blend with surrounding narrative.^[56]

Quotation in Spoken Discourse

Functions in Conversation

In spoken discourse, quotation—often termed reported speech or constructed dialogue—serves multiple interactive roles, enabling speakers to vividly recreate past interactions and integrate others' voices into the ongoing talk. One primary reason for its use is to report others' words during storytelling, allowing narrators to animate events and draw listeners into the scene by simulating the original dialogue. For instance, in recounting a personal anecdote, a speaker might quote a friend's exclamation to heighten emotional impact and engagement. Similarly, speakers employ quotation to justify opinions or actions by attributing them to authorities, such as saying, "As my boss said, 'We need to pivot now,'" which lends weight to the speaker's position without claiming full ownership.) Another key application is enacting roles in playful or dramatic contexts, where children or adults mimic voices to perform characters, fostering imaginative play or humor in group settings. Socially, quotation enhances credibility by providing seemingly direct access to others' utterances, making claims more persuasive and verifiable within the interaction. It also marks the speaker's stance, as in ironic quoting where tone or emphasis distances the speaker from the quoted content, signaling sarcasm or critique without explicit condemnation. Furthermore, in narratives, quotation signals group identity by incorporating shared linguistic patterns or idioms from a community, reinforcing solidarity among participants who recognize the referenced voices or styles. Quotation appears more frequently in certain conversational contexts, such as gossip or anecdotes, where it animates interpersonal drama and sustains listener interest, compared to directive speech like commands, which rarely incorporate it. Sociolinguistic studies indicate contextual variations, including gender differences; for example, women's speech often features higher instances of reported speech in rapport-building narratives, reflecting a style oriented toward connection and involvement. Cultural differences also influence usage, with some communities favoring more vivid quoting to emphasize relational dynamics over factual reporting. From an evolutionary perspective, quotation functions as a cognitive tool for mentalizing, enabling speakers to represent and infer others' intentions by demonstrating speech acts and perspectives, a capacity rooted in early pragmatic developments. This aligns with 1990s pragmatics research viewing quotations as demonstrations that facilitate understanding of mental states, akin to theory of mind processes in social cognition.^[57]

Forms and Markers

In spoken discourse, quotations are delimited primarily through prosodic cues rather than punctuation, as there are no visual markers to indicate boundaries. These cues include variations in pitch, such as a greater pitch range and higher fundamental frequency within quoted material to mimic the original speaker's voice, along with pauses that average longer durations at quote ends (e.g., 325 ms compared to 244 ms in non-quote contexts).^[58]^[59] Boundary tones, often low at the conclusion of quotes (occurring in 38% of cases versus 18% elsewhere), and pitch resets (averaging 9.03 semitones at boundaries) further signal transitions, while intensity shifts provide subtle reinforcement.^[59] Quotative markers serve as lexical introductions to quoted speech, particularly in informal varieties of English. Common examples include phrases like "he was like" or "she goes," where the "be like" construction has risen prominently since the 1980s as youth slang, rapidly spreading across English-speaking communities and saturating quotative systems among young speakers.^[60] This marker often conveys not just words but also gestures or attitudes, contrasting with more traditional verbs like "say." The evolution of these markers varies by dialect; in African American Vernacular English, "be like" has gained traction alongside established forms like "say" and "go," reflecting shifts in quotative verb usage over time as documented in longitudinal studies of spoken narratives.^[61] Globally, variants appear in other languages, such as Spanish "decía que" (he/she said that), a verbal marker commonly used in youth talk to introduce reported speech, often in combination with prosodic shifts.^[62] Acoustic analyses, employing tools like spectrograms generated via software such as Praat, have identified these quote boundaries through measurable features, including elevated fundamental frequency in quoted segments and distinct pause durations, enabling precise delineation in transcribed speech corpora.^[59] Such studies underscore how prosody and markers integrate to convey quotation without reliance on written conventions.

Syntactic Structures

In spoken discourse, quotations are typically embedded within a matrix clause containing a quotative verb, forming a complement clause structure where the quoted material follows the verb, as in the English example "She said, 'I'll be there soon.'" This placement reflects a syntactic embedding where the quotation acts as a direct object or complement to the verb, preserving the original tense and structure of the reported utterance without backshifting, unlike indirect speech.^[63] Quotative verbs such as say, tell, and ask govern the syntactic integration of quotations, exhibiting specific subcategorization frames that determine the type of complement they accept; for instance, say licenses declarative or wh-interrogative complements like "He said what happened" but not yes/no-interrogatives introduced by if, as in the ungrammatical "*He said if it rained." Tense agreement in these constructions often follows the sequence of tenses rule in indirect reports, but direct quotations maintain the original tense, as in "He asked, 'Are you coming?'" regardless of the matrix verb's past tense.^[64]^[63] Quotative particles further structure these embeddings by marking the boundary between the matrix clause and the quotation. In English, the complementizer that is optional and typically used in indirect speech (e.g., "I heard that he said 'hello'"), but it is absent in direct quotations. Cross-linguistically, dedicated particles like Japanese to introduce exact quotes after verbs of saying or thinking, as in Kare ga "konnichiwa" to itta ("He said 'hello'"), signaling verbatim reproduction.^[65]^[66] Evidential particles in some languages indicate the reliability of a reported source by embedding the quotation with an inference of indirect transmission. Quotative evidentials represent a grammatical category within evidential systems, distinguishing quoted speech from inferred or sensory evidence through dedicated moods or affixes. In typological frameworks, these evidentials form a subtype of hearsay evidentiality but often reference the source explicitly, as opposed to unmarked hearsay; for example, Navajo employs the quotative evidential łéʼéʼ to signal directly attributed speech, contrasting it with inferential modes. This typology highlights universals in how languages grammaticalize source reliability, particularly in Amazonian and Athabaskan languages.^[67]^[68]

Non-Verbal Elements

In spoken discourse, hand gestures often accompany quotations to convey irony, mimic the quoted speaker, or clarify the boundaries of reported speech. Air quotes, formed by bending the index and middle fingers of both hands to simulate quotation marks, are commonly used to signal skepticism, sarcasm, or ironic distance from the quoted content, particularly in informal or academic settings. Pointing gestures, such as directing a finger toward oneself or an imagined location, can mimic the quoted individual's actions or perspective, aiding in disambiguating the source of the speech from the reporter's own narrative.^[69] These manual cues help listeners distinguish reported content from the surrounding discourse, enhancing comprehension without relying solely on verbal indicators.^[70] Facial and postural cues further enrich quotations by imitating the emotional or attitudinal state of the original speaker, fostering a more vivid reenactment. For instance, raised eyebrows or widened eyes may replicate a quoted expression of surprise, while a tilted head can underscore curiosity or emphasis during the delivery of the reported words.^[71] Such mimicry promotes empathy and emotional alignment between speaker and listener. Cultural variations influence these cues; in Italian discourse, subtle head tilts or nods often accompany reported speech to mark shifts in voice or perspective, differing from more static postures in some Northern European contexts.^[72] Postural adjustments, like leaning forward to embody the quoted person's engagement, similarly signal immersion in the enactment. Gesture linguistics research highlights the multimodal integration of these non-verbal elements with spoken quotations, treating them as enactments that embody the quoted content. David McNeill's framework describes gestures as co-expressive with speech, forming "growth points" where imagery and language dialectically combine to depict scenes or actions in reported speech. In narrative contexts, gestures overlap temporally with the quoted segments, providing instantaneous visuospatial information that complements the sequential nature of verbal reporting. Studies indicate that these enactments occur in a significant portion of discourse involving quotations, with gestures synchronizing to reinforce the quoted perspective.^[73] In storytelling, synchronized gestures during quotations boost listener engagement by enhancing emotional resonance and recall. Cognitive science findings from the 2010s show that expressive hand and facial movements aligned with quoted dialogue increase narrative comprehension and interpersonal connection, as listeners process the multimodal cues more holistically. For example, a storyteller mimicking a character's surprised gesture while quoting their exclamation heightens audience involvement, drawing on shared physiological responses like synchronized heart rates.^[74] These non-verbal elements thus transform quotations into dynamic performances, amplifying their impact in conversational settings.

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A direct quotation reproduces words verbatim from another work or from your own previously published work.
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[PDF] Textual Encounters: Reading Character in the Nineteenth-Century ...
In addition to having access to direct quotation, with ... nineteenth-century realist novels formally exploit cognitive mechanisms that people use to.
[35]
Outrageous Misquotes: Are You Sure 'They' Said It? | Center for Inquiry
Jul 12, 2021 · Misquotes come in a variety of types. Sometimes it's a real, verifiable quote but simply misattributed to the wrong author or speaker. Other ...
[36]
20 Famous Movie Lines You're Probably Misquoting - Mental Floss
Dec 5, 2023 · Read on to find out which iconic lines we've been getting wrong for decades, from Casablanca's “Play it again, Sam” to The Silence of the ...
[37]
6 Consequences of Plagiarism - iThenticate
Plagiarism allegations can cause a student to be suspended or expelled. Their academic record can reflect the ethics offense.
[38]
Legal Consequences of Plagiarism: Laws, Penalties & How to Avoid
Sep 23, 2025 · Copyright infringement is the primary legal framework for plagiarism cases. Commercial use significantly increases legal risk. Moreover, the ...
[39]
Changes to quotations - APA Style
Use square brackets, not parentheses, to enclose material such as an addition or explanation you have inserted in a quotation. If you want to emphasize a word ...
[40]
Five Commonly Misattributed Quotations - MLA Style Center
Dec 15, 2021 · Aphorisms, maxims, sententiae, and inspirational or witty quotations often become associated with public figures or well-known writers who never ...Missing: types | Show results with:types
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https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/19617/common-movie-misquotations
[42]
10 Famous Misquotes from History
Oct 26, 2021 · 1. “Et tu, Brute?” – Julius Caesar · 2. “Houston, we have a problem” – Jack Swigert · 3. “Let them eat cake!” – Marie Antoinette · 4. “I see no ...
[43]
[PDF] Alignment in Syntax: Quotative Inversion in English
The syntactic literature has overwhelmingly accepted Collins and Branigan's (1997) conclusion that the subject in quotative inversion is low, within the VP.
[44]
Dickens, the suspended quotation and the corpus - Academia.edu
The study finds that suspended quotations occur more frequently in Dickens's early novels, with a notable decline in later works post-1853, suggesting a shift ...
[45]
[PDF] Discourse Functions of Inversion in English Poetic Texts
Dec 9, 2024 · Stylistic inversion is a change of word-order which gives logical stress or emotional colouring to the language units placed in an unusual.
[46]
Quotative Inversion - jstor
These two properties of stylistic inversion indicate that the French inversion construction differs from English quotative inversion in the properties of the ...
[47]
The consequences of the loss of verb-second in English: information ...
Mar 1, 2009 · The decline of verb-second ('inversion') presents a diffuse, confusing picture. Jacobsson (Reference Jacobsson1951) and Schmidt (Reference ...
[48]
Brackets - The Punctuation Guide
Brackets allow the insertion of editorial material inside quotations. Clarification If the original material includes a noun or pronoun that is unclear, ...
[49]
How to Use [Sic] - It's Not Just for Pointing Out Errors
May 19, 2025 · Sic signals that a quote appears as originally found, without edits. Sic usually appears in parentheses or brackets, sometimes with the letters in italics.
[50]
How to Use French Punctuation - ThoughtCo
Quotation marks (inverted commas) " " don't exist in French; the guillemets « » are used. Note that these are actual symbols; they are not just two angle ...
[51]
Chinese punctuation - Wikipedia
Traditional Chinese does not use European quotation marks. Its double and single quotation marks are fullwidth 『』 (U+300E LEFT WHITE CORNER BRACKET, U+300F ...Shape of punctuation marks · Other punctuation · Use of punctuation marks
[52]
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/english-language-and-linguistics/article/consequences-of-the-loss-of-verbsecond-in-english-information-structure-and-syntax-in-interaction1/68E972218DBF4C81F6FDEFC21C1E2881
[53]
In a Manner of Speaking: How Reported Speech May Have Shaped ...
Sep 6, 2021 · Reported speech may therefore reflect both concepts of communication and inner worlds, and meanings reminiscent of 'core grammar', such as ...
[54]
[PDF] Prosodic correlates of directly reported speech - ISCA Archive
In this study, we investigate whether prosody distinguishes be- tween directly reported speech and indirectly reported speech, and the implications a prosodic ...
[55]
[PDF] Prosody As Marker of Direct Reported Speech Boundary - SProSIG
The present paper aims at analyzing the role of prosody as a marker of direct reported speech boundaries in discourse. The beginning of a citation in speech ...<|separator|>
[56]
Be like and the Constant Rate Effect: from the bottom to the top of the ...
Apr 21, 2020 · The be like quotative emerged rapidly around the English-speaking world and has quickly saturated the quotative systems of young speakers in ...
[57]
SHE SAY, SHE GO, SHE BE LIKE: VERBS OF QUOTATION OVER ...
Feb 1, 2002 · SHE SAY, SHE GO, SHE BE LIKE: VERBS OF QUOTATION OVER TIME IN AFRICAN AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH Available. PATRICIA CUKOR-AVILA. PATRICIA ...
[58]
[PDF] On the emergence of quotative bueno in Spanish : a dialectal view ...
Sep 5, 2023 · Bueno is not the only quotative marker in Spanish. Typically, reported speech is introduced using verbal markers such as digo 'I say' and ...
[59]
Reported speech - Cambridge Grammar
The reporting clause includes a verb such as say, tell, ask, reply, shout, usually in the past simple, and the reported clause includes what the original ...
[60]
[PDF] The Syntax of be like Quotatives - Cascadilla Proceedings Project
This paper focuses on the syntax and semantics of English be like quotative constructions, as illustrated in (1). (1) Aaron was liNe ION, fine." a. 'Aaron ...
[61]
[PDF] The Syntax and Semantics of the Quotative Complement in Japanese
The quotative complement (QC) in Japanese, introduced by -to, is proposed to have a hidden structure with a null verb, SAY, and can occur with various matrix ...
[62]
[PDF] QUOTATIVE TOPIC MARKERS IN JAPANESE
This paper examines quotative topic markers in Japanese. They are used when the speaker is detached from the topic or when s/he presents the topic as if it ...
[63]
[PDF] Studies in evidentiality
Sep 15, 2016 · The aim of this volume is to elaborate definitive cross-linguistic parameters of variation and a unified typological framework for evidentiality ...
[64]
[PDF] Evidentiality and Mirativity in Navajo
Dec 2, 2015 · This thesis provides a detailed description of the meaning and pragmatic functions of the reportativejini, the quotative and the mirative iii in ...
[65]
[PDF] Southern Athapaskan Quotative Evidentials - anthony k webster
Having introduced a discursive typology to distinguish an Eastern and West- ern Apachean grouping, I now turn to a comparison with Athapaskan languages found in ...
[66]
Children's use of gesture to resolve lexical ambiguity - PubMed
The results indicated that the 3-year-old children rarely disambiguated the two senses, mainly using deictic pointing gestures during attempts at disambiguation ...
[67]
[PDF] Observers Use Gesture to Disambiguate Contrastive Expressions of ...
When observing gestures that do not match someone's speech, gestural details are incorporated into our representations. (Broaders & Goldin-Meadow, 2010; McNeill ...
[68]
Facial mimicry in its social setting - PMC - NIH
In interpersonal encounters, individuals often exhibit changes in their own facial expressions in response to emotional expressions of another person.
[69]
[PDF] Linguistic functions of head movements in the context of speech
Head movements function to mark switches from indirect to direct discourse. A speaker's head often will assume a new orientation slightly preceding or ...
[70]
[PDF] gesture and language dialectic
Jun 28, 2002 · This initial section aims to explain something about gestures themselves and lays the groundwork for subsequent sections concerned with the ...
[71]
The effect of gesture expressivity on emotional resonance ... - Frontiers
This paper focuses on the role of gestures in engendering emotional resonance in conversational storytelling. The paper asks three questions: Does story ...