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Thesaurus

A thesaurus is a reference work that organizes words into groups based on their meanings, typically listing synonyms, antonyms, and related terms to aid writers, speakers, and researchers in selecting precise vocabulary and exploring linguistic connections.^[1] Unlike a dictionary, which is arranged alphabetically and focuses on definitions, a thesaurus employs an onomasiological approach, starting from concepts to find associated words, thereby functioning as a tool for semantic navigation and stylistic variation.^[2] The word "thesaurus" originates from the Latin thesaurus, borrowed from the ancient Greek thēsauros (θησαυρός), meaning "treasure," "treasury," or "storehouse," reflecting its role as a repository of linguistic riches.^[3] Early precursors to modern thesauri appeared in ancient texts, such as Greek and Roman compilations of synonyms, but the contemporary form emerged in the 19th century with Peter Mark Roget (1779–1869), a British physician, natural theologian, and polymath who developed his systematic classification of English words to address what he saw as the limitations of alphabetical dictionaries in capturing relational meanings.^[4] Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, Classified and Arranged So As to Facilitate the Expression of Ideas and Assist in Literary Composition, first published in 1852, organized entries into hierarchical categories of ideas rather than strict synonym lists, influencing countless subsequent editions and adaptations that remain in print today.^[5] Thesauri have evolved into diverse types, including general-purpose volumes for everyday writing, such as updated Roget editions maintained by Roget's descendants or competitors like the American Heritage Roget's Thesaurus; specialized thesauri for fields like medicine or law; and digital resources like WordNet, a computational lexicon developed at Princeton University in the 1980s that structures words in semantic networks for natural language processing and artificial intelligence applications.^[6] Historical thesauri, such as the Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary, extend this tradition by mapping word usage across centuries to trace semantic shifts and cultural changes, underscoring the thesaurus's enduring value in linguistic scholarship and education.^[7]

Origins and Development

Etymology

The word thesaurus originates from the ancient Greek term thēsauros (θησαυρός), which denotes a "treasure," "treasury," or "storehouse."^[8] This root word, possibly derived from the Proto-Indo-European *dʰeh₁- ("to put" or "place"), carried connotations of a secure repository for valuables, both literal and figurative.^[8] In classical Greek literature, including works by Plato, thēsauros extended metaphorically to signify a storehouse of knowledge or intellectual riches, emphasizing the accumulation and preservation of wisdom.^[9] Adopted into Latin as thesaurus, the term retained its primary sense of a treasury or collection throughout antiquity and the medieval period, often applied to compilations of lore or resources.^[3] By the Renaissance, it began appearing in titles of scholarly works, such as Mario Nizzoli's 1535 Thesaurus Ciceronianus, a lexicon cataloging words from Cicero's writings, marking an early association with linguistic collections.^[10] The contemporary meaning of thesaurus as a reference book of synonyms and related terms emerged in the 19th century, largely through British physician and philologist Peter Mark Roget's 1852 publication, Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, Classified and Arranged so as to Facilitate the Expression of Ideas and Assist in Literary Composition.^[11] Roget's work transformed the term from a general repository into a structured "treasure trove" of vocabulary, influencing its standardized modern usage.^[12]

Historical Evolution

The concept of a thesaurus traces its origins to ancient classification systems and compilations that organized language and knowledge thematically. Aristotle's Categories, composed around 350 BCE, provided an early framework by enumerating ten fundamental categories of predication—such as substance, quantity, and relation—offering a systematic approach to linguistic and conceptual organization that influenced subsequent semantic tools.^[13] In the Roman period, Nonius Marcellus's De Compendiosa Doctrina, written in the early 4th century CE, assembled excerpts from over 200 Latin authors under topical headings covering grammar, rhetoric, and daily life, serving as a precursor to topical thesauri through its structured aggregation of related terms and phrases.^[14] Medieval and Renaissance scholars advanced these ideas by emphasizing vernacular expression and lexical precision. Dante Alighieri's De Vulgari Eloquentia, composed between 1303 and 1305, advocated for the use of Italian vernacular in literature while analyzing word selection for poetic effect, including implicit discussions of synonyms to achieve stylistic elevation, marking an early step toward organized synonymy in European linguistics.^[15] By the early modern era, English developments included John Harris's Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1704), which explained technical terms alongside related concepts and synonyms, bridging encyclopedic reference with lexical grouping in a way that prefigured dedicated synonym works.^[16] The modern thesaurus emerged in the 19th century with Peter Mark Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, Classified and Arranged so as to Facilitate the Expression of Ideas and Assist in Literary Composition (1852), which introduced a hierarchical classification system dividing words into six primary classes—abstract relations, space, matter, intellect, volition, and affection—drawing on natural history taxonomies and Aristotelian principles to group synonyms and antonyms thematically rather than alphabetically.^[17] This innovation shifted the focus from mere lists to conceptual networks, profoundly impacting linguistic resources. In the 20th century, thesauri underwent significant expansions and standardization. The 1911 edition of Roget's work, edited by C. O. Sylvester Mawson, reorganized the entries for greater accessibility while preserving the original classification, adding contemporary terms and refining cross-references to enhance usability.^[18] Concurrently, international efforts culminated in UNESCO's Guidelines for the Establishment and Development of Monolingual Thesauri for Information Retrieval (1971), which provided standards for constructing controlled vocabularies in indexing systems, emphasizing hierarchical relationships, synonym control, and scope notes to support document retrieval in libraries and databases.^[19]

Structural Organization

Alphabetical Formats

Alphabetical formats in thesauri organize entries by headwords arranged in standard dictionary-like sequence, where each primary term serves as the entry point followed by grouped lists of synonyms, antonyms, related terms, and sometimes idiomatic expressions.^[20] This structure facilitates direct access to lexical variants without requiring navigation through conceptual categories, making it a linear, word-centric approach to synonym discovery.^[21] The primary advantage of this organization lies in its familiarity and efficiency for users accustomed to dictionary navigation, enabling rapid lookup of specific words and their alternatives through simple alphabetical scanning.^[21] For instance, the 1936 edition of Roget's Thesaurus of the English Language in Dictionary Form, published by G. P. Putnam's Sons in the United States, exemplifies this format by presenting synonym clusters and antonym notes in strict alphabetical order, marking an early American adaptation for quick reference.^[22] Similarly, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus, first issued in 1976 and revised in subsequent editions, employs this method to include synonyms, antonyms, and related words alongside brief definitions to clarify shared meanings.^[23] However, alphabetical formats have limitations in supporting intuitive exploration of semantic relationships, as terms are isolated by spelling rather than meaning, potentially hindering users seeking broader conceptual connections.^[21] This reflects a historical shift in American thesaurus editions after 1900, where publishers increasingly prioritized alphabetical arrangements over classified systems to enhance usability, as seen in the transition from Roget's original 1852 conceptual model to dictionary-form versions by the 1930s.^[22] Typical entry structures in these formats begin with a bolded headword, followed by bulleted or numbered lists of synonyms categorized by nuance (e.g., formal vs. informal), antonyms in a separate section, and usage notes providing contextual examples or warnings about connotations.^[23] Cross-references, such as "see also" pointers to related headwords, further link entries, allowing limited navigation while maintaining the alphabetical backbone.^[24] In contrast to conceptual formats that emphasize thematic grouping, this design prioritizes precision in word substitution over idea exploration.^[20]

Conceptual and Thematic Formats

Conceptual and thematic formats in thesauri organize vocabulary around abstract ideas, semantic categories, and relational networks, prioritizing conceptual interconnections over alphabetical sequencing. This approach structures entries into broad classes or themes that group synonyms, related terms, and antonyms under overarching concepts, facilitating a deeper exploration of meaning beyond isolated words. For instance, Peter Mark Roget's original 1852 Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases classified approximately 1,000 conceptual categories into six primary divisions, such as "Abstract Relations" encompassing subcategories like "Existence" and "Relation," to reflect the universe's semantic architecture.^[25]^[26] Central to these formats are hierarchical and associative elements that map relationships between terms. Broader terms (BT) represent superordinate concepts, while narrower terms (NT) denote specific subtypes or instances, forming a tree-like structure where, for example, "animal" serves as a BT for "mammal," which in turn is a BT for "canine." Associative links connect non-hierarchical but semantically related terms, such as "synonym" to "antonym," enabling cross-references across themes. Polyhierarchies allow multifaceted concepts to have multiple BTs, accommodating complexity like "apple" linking to both "fruit" (in biology) and "logo" (in branding), which enhances flexibility in knowledge representation. These relations align with standards like ISO 25964, which defines hierarchical (BT/NT) and associative (RT) links to ensure interoperability in indexing systems.^[27]^[28] A prominent example of this format in practice is the Art & Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), developed by the Getty Research Institute starting in the 1970s and refined through the 1990s. The AAT employs a faceted classification system integrated with hierarchies, dividing content into eight facets—such as "Associated Concepts" for abstract ideas like "style" and "Physical Attributes" for materials—allowing users to navigate from broad themes to precise terms like "baroque architecture" under multiple relational paths. This structure supports indexing in art historical databases by emphasizing thematic depth over linear word lists.^[29]^[30] The benefits of conceptual and thematic formats lie in their support for exploratory knowledge discovery, as users can traverse semantic networks to uncover interconnections that alphabetical arrangements might obscure, thereby reducing biases toward common or literal word usages. This organization promotes conceptual exploration in fields like information retrieval, where thematic clustering aids in disambiguating polysemous terms and expanding queries. Evolving from Roget's class-based system, modern thematic thesauri draw inspiration from ontologies, incorporating formal semantics and machine-readable relations as seen in SKOS extensions, to bridge traditional lexicography with computational knowledge graphs.^[31]^[32]

Handling Contrasting Senses and Synonyms

In thesauri, synonyms are managed through equivalence relations that link preferred terms to non-preferred terms, ensuring consistent indexing and retrieval. The preferred term serves as the primary descriptor, while non-preferred terms, including synonyms, are directed to it via "USE" references (from the non-preferred to the preferred) and "USED FOR" (UF) entries (from the preferred to the non-preferred). To group synonyms by nuance, thesauri employ scope notes or explanatory text to delineate contextual differences; for instance, under the preferred term "happy," synonyms like "joyful" may be grouped for emotional intensity, while "content" is distinguished for a state of satisfaction, preventing conflation in retrieval applications. This approach aligns with international standards that emphasize clarity in semantic mapping.^[33] Contrasting senses, particularly in polysemous or homonymous words, are handled by establishing separate concept entries to avoid ambiguity. For homonyms like "bank," one sense (financial institution) is assigned a distinct entry with its own relations, while another (river edge) receives a separate entry, often using codes, subentries, or compound pre-coordinated terms (e.g., "river bank") to disambiguate. Scope notes further clarify each sense's domain, such as specifying "bank (finance)" versus "bank (geography)," ensuring users select appropriate terms without cross-contamination in searches. This separation is a core recommendation in thesaurus construction to maintain monosemy where possible.^[33] Antonyms and related terms are typically incorporated via associative relations, denoted as "related terms" (RT), to highlight contrasts or gradations without implying hierarchy. For example, "hot" may list "cold" as an antonym under RT, with near-synonyms like "warm" shown in gradations to indicate partial opposition or similarity. While not all thesauri mandate antonyms, they are explicitly listed when relevant to conceptual contrast, aiding in broader semantic navigation. Hyponyms (narrower terms, NT) and hypernyms (broader terms, BT) extend this by embedding words within hierarchies, such as "hot" as a hyponym of "temperature," providing relational depth.^[33] Additional elements enhance precision, including usage labels for terms like "formal," "archaic," or "slang" to guide appropriate application, and notes for idioms (e.g., treating "kick the bucket" as a non-preferred term under "die" with a dedicated scope note). These features, along with hyponyms and hypernyms, follow standardized protocols for consistency across entries. Such methods integrate seamlessly into both alphabetical and conceptual thesaurus formats, supporting varied user needs.^[33]

Types and Variations

Monolingual Thesauri

Monolingual thesauri serve as specialized lexical tools confined to a single language, primarily aiding in the identification of synonyms, antonyms, and related terms to enrich vocabulary and support precise expression. Unlike broader dictionaries, they emphasize semantic relationships over etymology or pronunciation, functioning as controlled vocabularies that map conceptual networks within the language's idiomatic framework.^[34] Prominent examples include Roget's Thesaurus in English, originally compiled in 1852 to group words by ideas for writers seeking expressive alternatives, and the Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé (TLFi), a comprehensive French resource from the 19th and 20th centuries that facilitates synonym exploration through its detailed historical entries on over 100,000 terms.^[35]^[36] In specialized domains, the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) exemplifies a monolingual thesaurus tailored to English biomedical literature, indexing millions of articles with hierarchical descriptors to ensure consistent terminology.^[37] Design principles of monolingual thesauri prioritize semantic coherence, establishing explicit relationships such as equivalence (synonyms), hierarchy (broader/narrower terms), and association (related concepts) to reflect the language's unique structures, including idioms and cultural nuances that shape meaning.^[34] For instance, Roget-style thesauri organize entries thematically to capture contextual subtleties, avoiding rigid alphabetical listings in favor of conceptual clusters that align with native speakers' intuitive associations.^[35] Domain-specific adaptations, like MeSH's tree structures with over 30,000 descriptors updated annually to incorporate evolving scientific terminology, ensure relevance without redundancy by selecting terms based on common English usage in biomedicine.^[37] These features enable thesauri to address language-specific variations, such as phrasal idioms in English or culturally embedded expressions in French, while maintaining a standardized yet flexible framework. In usage contexts, monolingual thesauri function as essential writing aids, helping authors diversify phrasing and avoid repetition, as seen in Roget's enduring role since its inception.^[35] They support education by enhancing vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension, particularly for learners navigating a language's nuances through synonym mapping.^[38] In lexicography, they serve as foundational references for compiling dictionaries, providing relational data that informs entry organization and sense disambiguation.^[34] The shift to digital formats has amplified their utility, with searchable online versions like the TLFi offering advanced query functions for rapid term exploration and integration into writing software.^[36] Similarly, MeSH's electronic browser enables precise retrieval in academic and professional settings, evolving from print to dynamic tools with real-time updates.^[37] Key challenges in monolingual thesaural development include balancing standardization with the inclusion of slang and regional variations, which can fragment semantic unity if overemphasized.^[39] For example, English thesauri like Roget's often prioritize formal or general usage, sidelining dialectal terms from regions like the American South or British dialects to preserve core relational integrity, though this risks excluding dynamic, culturally vital expressions.^[35] In French resources such as the TLFi, historical focus aids stability but complicates incorporating contemporary slang without cross-referencing evolving usages.^[36] Domain-specific thesauri like MeSH mitigate this by restricting scope to standardized scientific English, yet still face updates for emerging jargon in global biomedical discourse.^[37] Overall, these issues demand ongoing curation to reflect a language's living diversity without undermining retrieval efficacy.

Bilingual and Multilingual Thesauri

Bilingual and multilingual thesauri extend the principles of term organization beyond a single language by establishing mappings between synonyms, near-synonyms, and broader concepts across linguistic boundaries, enabling the identification of translation equivalents and semantic correspondences. These structures typically align entries through equivalence relations, where a concept represented by a preferred term in one language, such as "democracy" in English, is linked to corresponding terms like "democracia" in Spanish or "démocratie" in French, while preserving hierarchical and associative relationships from monolingual bases. This cross-lingual alignment facilitates consistent representation of ideas in diverse linguistic contexts, often treating concepts as language-independent nodes with multiple lexical realizations.^[40]^[41] Construction of these thesauri commonly involves leveraging parallel corpora—aligned texts in multiple languages—to extract and validate term pairs, followed by the formation of equivalence classes that group translation variants under a shared concept. For instance, statistical alignment techniques process bilingual texts to identify co-occurring terms, refining them into classes that account for variations in usage or morphology. Handling non-equivalent terms, particularly culture-specific ones without direct counterparts, requires strategies such as borrowing the original term (e.g., the Danish "hygge," denoting a sense of cozy contentment, is often retained as a loanword in English thesauri rather than translated) or providing descriptive approximations to approximate the concept. These methods ensure robustness but demand expert validation to avoid misalignment due to idiomatic or contextual differences.^[42]^[43]^[40] Notable examples include Eurodicautom, the European Commission's pioneering multilingual terminology database launched in 1975, which covered up to 12 official EU languages and supported translation by linking domain-specific terms across languages until its succession by IATE in 2004.^[44] In modern contexts, tools like OmegaT, an open-source computer-assisted translation application, incorporate bilingual glossaries and translation memories that function as dynamic thesauri, allowing users to manage and query term equivalents during localization workflows. These resources highlight the evolution from static databases to interactive systems for practical multilingual term handling.^[45] Applications of bilingual and multilingual thesauri span machine translation systems, where they provide lexical resources to resolve ambiguities and improve output fidelity by supplying aligned equivalents, and international indexing in global databases, enabling unified subject access across languages in institutions like the EU's terminology portals. However, challenges persist, including the potential loss of idiomatic nuances during equivalence mapping, as cultural embeddings in phrases may not transfer seamlessly, leading to reduced precision in cross-lingual retrieval or translation.^[46]^[43]

Contemporary Applications

Role in Information Science

In information science, thesauri function as controlled vocabularies that standardize terminology for indexing and retrieving information in libraries and databases, ensuring consistency and precision in knowledge organization. A foundational example is the Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH), which originated in 1898 when the Library of Congress adopted the American Library Association's List of Subject Headings for Use in Dictionary Catalogs to support cataloging in its dictionary-based system.^[47] First published between 1910 and 1914, LCSH has since become a globally adopted thesaurus for subject access in library catalogs, facilitating the assignment of authorized terms to resources and improving retrieval accuracy.^[47] This historical role underscores thesauri's evolution as essential tools for managing large-scale information collections, from print-era catalogs to modern digital environments. Key functions of thesauri in information science include term normalization, which enforces the use of preferred descriptors over synonyms or variants to maintain uniformity; disambiguation, achieved through hierarchical and associative relationships that clarify multiple meanings of terms; and enabling faceted search in digital libraries by allowing users to navigate results via multifaceted categories like broader/narrower terms.^[48]^[49] These capabilities address challenges in vocabulary control, reducing retrieval noise and enhancing user access to relevant content. The ANSI/NISO Z39.19-2005 (R2010) standard establishes guidelines for constructing, formatting, and managing monolingual controlled vocabularies, including thesauri, to support interoperability and effective indexing in knowledge organization systems.^[50] Thesauri find practical applications in metadata tagging for archival collections and semantic interoperability across heterogeneous data systems, where standardized terms bridge disparate sources. For example, the Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), developed by the Getty Research Institute, provides hierarchical terminology for describing visual arts, architecture, and cultural objects, aiding catalogers in tagging museum and archival records consistently.^[30] This enables cross-institutional data sharing and discovery in art history research, as seen in its integration with cultural heritage databases for precise resource description.^[30] Over time, thesauri have transitioned from static print indexes to dynamic digital ontologies, incorporating linked data principles post-2010 to support Semantic Web applications. This evolution aligns with standards like ISO 25964, with revisions underway as of 2025, allowing thesauri to express complex relationships as RDF triples for machine-readable interoperability, thus addressing limitations in traditional indexing by enabling automated linking and enhanced data reuse across domains.^[51]^[33]

Integration with Natural Language Processing

Thesauri play a pivotal role in natural language processing (NLP) by providing structured lexical knowledge that enhances computational understanding of language semantics. A seminal example is WordNet, a large lexical database developed starting in the 1980s at Princeton University, which organizes English words into synsets—sets of cognitive synonyms—linked by semantic relations such as hypernymy and meronymy.^[52] This structure has influenced modern NLP models, including BERT, where integrations combine WordNet's explicit relations with BERT's contextual embeddings to improve tasks like natural language understanding by supplementing neural representations with relational knowledge.^[53] In practical applications, thesauri facilitate synonym expansion in search engines, where queries are augmented with related terms to broaden retrieval and improve relevance; for instance, Google's search incorporates synonym rewriting to handle lexical variations.^[54] They also underpin semantic similarity measures, enabling the computation of term relatedness through path-based metrics in hierarchical structures, such as the Wu-Palmer method, which assesses similarity based on the depth of shared subsumers in a thesaurus graph.^[55] Cosine similarity is often applied to vector representations derived from thesauri to quantify this relatedness efficiently.^[56] Additionally, in question-answering systems, thesauri enrich query processing by mapping user questions to synonymous or related concepts, thereby expanding answer candidates and boosting precision in retrieval.^[57] Google's Knowledge Graph exemplifies thesauri integration on a large scale, leveraging semantic relations akin to those in thesauri to connect entities and infer contextual links, which powers enhanced search results with structured knowledge.^[58] Advancements in the 2020s have incorporated lexical resources into large language models (LLMs) to aid word sense disambiguation.^[59] Bilingual thesauri further support multilingual NLP by enabling cross-lingual synonym mapping in disambiguation tasks.^[60] Despite these benefits, challenges persist in scalability for big data environments, where manual thesaurus maintenance struggles against the volume of textual corpora, and in handling dynamic language changes, such as emerging slang or domain shifts that render static relations obsolete without automated updates.^[61]

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[PDF] Multilingual Thesauri and Ontologies in Cross-Language Retrieval
Abstract. This paper sets forth a framework for the use of thesauri and ontoiogies as knowledge bases in cross-language retrieval. It.
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Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH)
Sep 19, 2023 · A subject heading system is an alphabetical list of terms used for indexing documents. It is different from a → thesaurus, which is also an ...Introduction · A brief history and description... · Criticisms of LCSH · Conclusion
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The Role of Thesaurus Designers in Information Retrieval
Apr 16, 2024 · The foundation of thesaurus design begins with thoroughly understanding the subject domain. Designers immerse themselves in the field's ...<|separator|>
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Controlled Vocabularies, Taxonomy and Faceted Search - Claravine
Faceted search is when the search tool is configured to present results based on facets and categories presented in the taxonomy. When a user types a term that ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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https://www.claravine.com/fixing-search-sucks-controlled-vocabularies-taxonomy-and-faceted-search/
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(PDF) Thesauri and Semantic Web: Discussion of the Evolution of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The evolution of thesauri toward their integration with the Semantic Web is examined. Elements and structures in the thesaurus standard, ISO ...
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WordNet: A Lexical Database for English - ACL Anthology
1992. WordNet: A Lexical Database for English. In Speech and Natural Language: Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Harriman, New York, February 23-26, ...
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Integrating WordNet and BERT for Lexical Semantics in Natural ...
Dec 31, 2021 · We propose an integration of BERT and WordNet to supplement BERT with explicit semantic knowledge for natural language understanding (NLU).Missing: influence | Show results with:influence
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How a Search Engine Might Use Synonyms to Rewrite Search Queries
Dec 29, 2008 · Google uses a few different methods to rewrite search queries, using things like stemming, synonyms and statistical machine translation.
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Calculating the semantic distance between two documents using a ...
Jul 5, 2023 · The Wu-Palmer measure, introduced in 1994, is a semantic similarity measure based on the depth of nodes in a hierarchical thesaurus, generally ...
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[PDF] Extending Thesauri Using Word Embeddings and the Intersection ...
Word embeddings provide an easy access to word relatedness via the cosine similarity measure. Kiela et al. proposed that during the training phase,. Page 3 ...
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Enriching a thesaurus as a better question-answering tool and ...
Mar 5, 2025 · The findings imply that thesauri enriched with semantic relations are useful in question-answering and modern information retrieval, although ...
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Google Knowledge Graph and How it Works - Search Engine Journal
Mar 31, 2021 · Knowledge Graphs can help search engines like Google leverage structured data about topics. Semantic data and markup, in turn, help to connect concepts and ...
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Using Language Models to Disambiguate Lexical Choices in ...
We evaluate recent LLMs and neural machine translation systems on DTAiLS, with the best-performing model, GPT-4, achieving from 67 to 85% accuracy across ...
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[PDF] LLM-Aided Translation of SKOS Thesauri - arXiv
Jul 29, 2025 · Multilingual thesauri, often used for metadata, en- able collective benefit, especially for those communities directly connected to the research ...
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[PDF] Improvements in Automatic Thesaurus Extraction - ACL Anthology
Unfortunately, thesauri are expensive and time- consuming to create manually, and tend to suffer from problems of bias, inconsistency, and limited coverage. In ...