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Semantic change

Semantic change is the diachronic alteration of word meanings within a language, encompassing shifts in denotation, connotation, or sense relations driven by linguistic usage patterns and cognitive processes.^[1]^[2] This process, central to historical linguistics, occurs gradually across generations, often constrained by acquisition and processing mechanisms that favor incremental rather than radical transformations.^[2] Key types include broadening (expansion of meaning to more general senses, e.g., from specific to inclusive applications), narrowing (restriction to subsets of original referents), amelioration (gain of positive connotations), pejoration (acquisition of negative evaluations), and metaphorical or metonymic extensions based on perceptual or associative contiguities.^[3]^[1] Mechanisms typically involve metonymization, where contiguous senses (e.g., part-whole relations) facilitate shifts, or analogical mappings like metaphor, though empirical studies emphasize probabilistic drifts over deliberate innovation.^[4] Recent computational analyses reveal cross-linguistic regularities, such as directional biases toward concrete-to-abstract or specificity increases, informed by large-scale corpus data rather than prescriptive theories.^[5] While traditional scholarship focused on outcome classification, causal realism highlights usage-based causation, distinguishing culturally induced drifts (e.g., technological impacts) from internal linguistic pressures.^[6]

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Semantic change denotes the diachronic alteration in a word's denotation—the range of entities or concepts it directly references—or connotation—the evaluative or associative nuances it carries—manifested through evolving patterns of usage in spoken and written language corpora over time.^[3] This evolution is discerned empirically via quantitative analysis of historical texts, such as those in the Google Books Ngram Viewer or digitized archives, which track shifts in collocational frequencies and contextual distributions rather than relying on prescriptive decrees or exogenous impositions.^[7] Such changes reflect underlying cognitive and communicative adaptations grounded in how speakers reference reality, eschewing claims of meanings as purely arbitrary social artifacts detached from referential utility. The scope encompasses both protracted drifts, where meanings incrementally broaden or narrow across generations, and accelerated shifts triggered by exogenous pressures, including societal upheavals; for instance, analyses of biomedical literature from 2020 to 2023 reveal rapid semantic expansions in terms like "spike" and "variant" amid the COVID-19 outbreak, with quantifiable divergences in vector embeddings of word usages pre- and post-pandemic onset.^[8] It pertains exclusively to transformations in established lexical items' interpretive ranges, excluding mere synonymy—wherein parallel terms arise without modifying the original's semantics—or phonetic alterations, which modify sound forms independently of referential content.^[9] A canonical illustration is "awful," which transitioned from denoting awe-inspiring reverence in the 14th century to profound negativity by the 1800s, corroborated by corpus evidence of intensifying negative collocations diluting its original inspirational force through habitual application to lesser stimuli.^[10] Semantic change pertains specifically to alterations in the denotation or connotation of lexical items, distinct from phonetic changes that modify pronunciation without impacting referential meaning, such as the systematic consonant shifts documented in Grimm's Law, where Proto-Indo-European *p- evolved to Germanic f- (e.g., Latin *pes to English foot), preserving the core sense of the root across cognates. Phonetic evolution operates on the phonological form independently of semantics, as evidenced by comparative reconstruction methods that track sound correspondences via the comparative method, yielding regular patterns uncorrelated with meaning shifts.^[11] Similarly, morphological changes involve reconfiguration of word-internal structure, such as paradigm leveling or affixation alterations, which primarily affect grammatical encoding rather than lexical content; for instance, the simplification of inflectional endings in English from Old to Modern forms did not systematically redefine the semantics of surviving roots.^[12] Syntactic evolution, meanwhile, reshapes phrase-level combinations and dependencies, like the shift from synthetic to analytic constructions in Romance languages, but leaves individual word meanings intact unless secondary semantic drift occurs.^[13] Grammaticalization represents a specialized trajectory intersecting with semantic change, wherein full lexical items evolve into functional morphemes through processes like semantic bleaching—loss of concrete specificity—and increased obligatoriness, as seen in the English modal "will" transitioning from a lexical verb denoting volition to an auxiliary marking futurity, accompanied by phonological erosion and positional fixation.^[14] However, semantic change encompasses broader modifications, including non-grammatical shifts like extension or pejoration in content words, without the requisite morphosyntactic reanalysis or reduction typical of grammaticalization; the latter's unidirectionality from concrete to abstract stems from pragmatic inference in context, but semantic change proper can reverse or vary independently.^[15] Analogical processes, primarily morphological, extend patterns across paradigms (e.g., regularization of irregular verbs) but seldom induce semantic alteration unless mediated by usage frequency; borrowing introduces foreign forms that may retain original meanings or adapt superficially, yet true semantic change requires endogenous reinterpretation through native discourse patterns, excluding mere calques or loan translations without diachronic sense evolution.^[16] Contrary to notions of arbitrariness, semantic change manifests causally through traceable mechanisms like increased token frequency and contextual co-occurrence shifts, as corpus-based diachronic analyses reveal gradual sense differentiation via probabilistic associations rather than subjective fiat or unchecked manipulation; for example, empirical studies of large historical corpora demonstrate that novel senses emerge from high-frequency extensions in specific domains, constraining change to paths grounded in usage distributions rather than randomness.^[17] This evidence-based view counters earlier impressions of unpredictability by highlighting regularities in sense relatedness and acquisition biases, underscoring that meanings evolve via community-wide inference patterns, not isolated whims.^[18]^[2]

Core Types and Mechanisms

Extension and Restriction

Extension, also termed broadening or generalization, refers to a semantic shift in which a word's meaning expands to encompass a wider range of referents or contexts than originally.^[3] This process is documented in historical linguistics through comparative analysis of textual corpora and etymological records, revealing gradual probabilistic expansions rather than abrupt redefinitions.^[19] For instance, the English word holiday originated from Old English hāligdæg, denoting a day dedicated to religious observance, but broadened by the modern era to include any period of leisure or vacation from work.^[7] Similarly, thing shifted from Old English and Old Norse meanings of a specific 'public assembly' or 'council' to its current general sense of any object or matter.^[20] Restriction, conversely known as narrowing or specialization, involves a semantic shift where a word's meaning contracts to a more specific subset of its prior scope, limiting its applicability.^[3] Historical evidence from diachronic studies tracks these changes via dated attestations in dictionaries and literature, illustrating paths of specialization driven by linguistic usage patterns.^[1] A prominent example is meat, which in Old English mete referred to any food or nourishment, but narrowed by Middle English to denote specifically animal flesh, excluding plant-based or other edibles.^[7] Another case is deer, from Old English deor meaning any wild animal or beast, which specialized to refer only to the Cervidae family by late Middle English.^[3] These directional shifts are empirically observed as non-teleological, emerging from repeated usage in evolving contexts rather than deliberate intent, with patterns corroborated across Indo-European languages.^[1] Tracking via resources like the Oxford English Dictionary reveals dated sense attestations, such as meat's specialization appearing in texts from the 14th century onward.^[21]

Amelioration and Pejoration

Amelioration refers to the semantic elevation of a word's meaning toward a more positive connotation, often shifting from neutral or lowly origins to esteemed associations.^[22] This process contrasts with pejoration, the degradation of meaning toward negativity, where terms lose favorable implications over time.^[23] Both represent value-laden shifts driven by cultural reevaluations rather than mere extension or restriction of denotation. A classic instance of amelioration appears in the English word knight, derived from Old English cniht, originally denoting a "boy, youth, or servant." By around 1100 CE, amid feudal militarization in medieval England, it evolved to signify a mounted noble warrior embodying chivalry and honor.^[24] This upward shift reflects societal valorization of martial roles tied to landholding elites. Pejoration, conversely, dominates empirical observations of such shifts, occurring more frequently than amelioration across languages, as evidenced by analyses of lexical corpora showing pejorative evolutions outnumbering positive ones.^[25] Stephen Ullmann's 1962 framework on semantic change classifies pejoration alongside amelioration but notes its prevalence in natural linguistic drift, where positive origins erode under overuse or ironic application.^[26] For example, silly traces to Old English sælig, meaning "happy, blessed, or innocent," but by Middle English (circa 1200–1500 CE), it acquired connotations of helplessness, progressing to "foolish" by the 16th century through associations with naive vulnerability. In contemporary contexts, pejoration manifests robustly in politicized lexicon, resisting engineered positivity. The term woke, originating in African American Vernacular English by the 1930s to denote vigilance against racial injustice, broadened post-2010s to critique performative social awareness but rapidly pejorated into a derisive label for ideological excess or hypersensitivity, particularly via right-leaning discourse.^[27] This shift, documented in usage data from mid-2010s onward, underscores causal realism in semantic dynamics: terms imposed as virtues often degrade when perceived as dogmatic, outpacing ameliorative efforts in frequency and persistence.^[28]

Figurative Shifts

Figurative shifts in semantic change involve the transfer of meaning through non-literal mechanisms such as metaphor and metonymy, where words extend from concrete to abstract or associated senses based on perceptual or conceptual analogies.^[7] Metaphor facilitates this by mapping attributes from a source domain to a target domain, often drawing on embodied experiences; for instance, the English verb grasp, originally denoting physical seizure from Middle English graspen (c. 1300), shifted to signify mental comprehension by analogy to holding ideas, as evidenced in usage from the 16th century onward.^[7]^[29] This transfer reflects cognitive patterns where physical actions serve as analogs for abstract processes, supported by corpus analyses showing persistent dual senses without full replacement of the literal meaning.^[3] Metonymy and synecdoche, conversely, rely on contiguity or part-whole associations rather than resemblance, substituting a related entity for the intended referent.^[30] A classic case is crown evolving from denoting a literal headpiece (Latin corona, c. 1200 in English) to representing monarchical authority or the state itself, due to the habitual association between rulers and their regalia, observable from medieval texts through modern legal contexts like "lands of the Crown."^[7]^[30] This shift persists across languages and eras, as the symbol's proximity to power enables iterative extension without requiring perceptual similarity.^[1] Empirical investigations in cognitive linguistics caution against over-relying on unidirectional or strictly hierarchical models of these shifts, as corpus-based characterizations reveal multidirectional trajectories influenced by context-specific factors.^[31] For example, 2024 surveys of semantic change annotation highlight ambiguities in distinguishing metaphor from metonymy, with many instances exhibiting bidirectional influences or blends rather than discrete transfers, underscoring the need for data-driven typologies over prescriptive frameworks.^[31] Such findings, drawn from large-scale diachronic corpora, indicate that figurative mechanisms often interact with other processes, complicating causal attributions in real-language evolution.^[31]

Theoretical Typologies

Pre-20th Century Classifications

Early classifications of semantic change emerged in the 19th century, primarily through philological studies of Indo-European languages, focusing on observable shifts in word meanings without prescriptive linguistic norms. Christian Karl Reisig's posthumously published Lectures on Latin Linguistics (1839) introduced one of the first systematic typologies, distinguishing changes driven by resemblance (similarity-based extensions, akin to metaphor) and contiguity (proximity-based shifts, akin to metonymy), laying groundwork for later causal analyses.^[32]^[33] These categories emphasized etymological patterns derived from historical texts, prioritizing empirical observation of lexical evolution over theoretical abstraction. Hermann Paul's Principles of Language History (1880) advanced a psychologically oriented framework, attributing semantic shifts to speakers' mental associations and usage habits. Paul categorized changes into generalization (broadening of meaning), specialization (narrowing to a subset), and transference (shifts via figurative association), underscoring how individual innovations propagate through community adoption.^[34] His approach highlighted internal linguistic processes, such as analogy, as drivers of gradual meaning alteration, based on diachronic evidence from Germanic languages. Arsène Darmesteter's La Vie des Mots (1887) refined these ideas with a focus on directional shifts, proposing extension (widening from specific to general senses) and contraction (restriction to particular applications), alongside synecdochic changes between wholes and parts. Drawing from French and Romance examples, Darmesteter illustrated how contextual usage erodes original precision, yielding pragmatic adaptations verifiable in historical corpora.^[35] Michel Bréal's Essai de Sémantique (1897) integrated pragmatic factors, viewing semantic change as influenced by speakers' intentions and social contexts, with mechanisms like contamination (blending of senses) and abbreviation (shortening leading to new connotations). Bréal stressed meaning as dynamic and usage-dependent, using classical and modern French instances to demonstrate how communicative needs reshape lexicon over time.^[36] These typologies represented pioneering efforts to catalog recurrent patterns, such as metaphorical resemblance and metonymic adjacency, fostering recognition of semantic drift as a natural linguistic process unbound by ideological constraints. However, they relied heavily on intuitive selections from limited textual evidence, lacking quantitative metrics or large-scale corpus validation, which confined analyses to anecdotal illustrations rather than probabilistic models. Subsequent critiques in linguistic historiography have noted this overreliance on philological intuition, contrasting it with later empirical methods, though the frameworks' emphasis on verifiable historical shifts provided durable foundations for causal inquiry.^[37]^[1]

20th Century and Later Frameworks

Gustav Stern's Meaning and Change of Meaning (1931) advanced a framework attributing semantic shifts primarily to psychological associations, classifying substitutions into factual referent changes (e.g., expansions in word scope like "ship" from small vessels to ocean liners) and associative derivations grounded in mental links rather than mere phonetic decay.^[38] This emphasized empirical observation of English historical data, prioritizing verifiable psychological mechanisms over speculative etymologies.^[39] Leonard Bloomfield's Language (1933) complemented this by framing semantic change as observable alterations in communal speech patterns, driven by associative habits and cultural borrowing, with mechanisms including shifts in feature salience (e.g., "cleave" diverging into opposite senses via habitual differentiation).^[40] Bloomfield's approach rejected mentalistic introspection, insisting on behaviorally verifiable data from language use, thus promoting empiricism in typology construction.^[41] Stephen Ullmann's Semantics (1962) synthesized these into five types: metaphorical (similarity-based, e.g., "grasp" from physical to conceptual hold), metonymic (contiguity-based, e.g., "crown" for monarchy), folk-etymological (perceptual reshaping), elliptical (shortening, e.g., "bus" from "omnibus"), and connotation-driven (e.g., pejoration in "silly" from blessed to foolish).^[42] Ullmann integrated denotation with affective connotations, drawing on corpus evidence to illustrate how evaluative overtones propel shifts without rigid causality.^[43] Andreas Blank's contribution in Historical Semantics and Cognition (1999) refined typologies cognitively, proposing a comprehensive set of motivations—including autosemantic (internal sense extension) and extrasemantic (contextual inference)—to account for nuanced pathways beyond binary categories, validated through cross-linguistic historical corpora.^[44] Blank's typology expanded to interlink traditional processes with prototype effects, critiquing prior over-simplifications while grounding expansions in attested data.^[45] These frameworks faced critique for overprioritizing metaphorical similarity, as diachronic corpora reveal metonymy's comparable or superior frequency in shifts (e.g., part-whole inferences dominating over resemblance in lexical evolution).^[1] Their enduring value stems from empirical integration of social contexts—such as usage frequency—without unsubstantiated causal determinism, enabling testable predictions. Recent computational analyses further nuance this by modeling changes probabilistically, highlighting gradient boundaries over discrete types, as vector embeddings capture gradual sense drifts in large-scale diachronic datasets.^[41]

Causal Factors

Linguistic Internal Drivers

Polysemy, the association of a single lexical form with multiple related senses, accumulates through repeated contextual extensions, fostering gradual sense divergence as usages specialize in distinct environments. This internal process drives semantic change by eroding original holistic meanings, with empirical evidence from diachronic corpora showing that polysemous words exhibit higher rates of shift compared to monosemous ones, as competing senses compete for dominance within the form.^[46]^[47] Frequency imbalances, governed by Zipfian distributions where high-frequency senses inversely scale with rank, promote retention of dominant meanings while marginalizing peripherals; low-frequency senses are more susceptible to innovation or loss, as processing favors entrenched, high-usage variants for efficiency. Diachronic studies confirm that semantic innovations trace S-shaped frequency trajectories, reflecting self-reinforcing usage patterns that stabilize primary senses without external prompts.^[48]^[2] Analogy facilitates sense creation by mapping novel usages onto established semantic paradigms, enabling extensions via pattern generalization, while blocking preempts redundant shifts by prioritizing existing rivals, thus preserving lexical economy. These mechanisms, verifiable through corpus tracking of analogous constructions in resources like Google Books Ngram, underscore non-random pathways constrained by systemic coherence rather than unbounded elasticity.^[49]^[50] Underlying these drivers is cognitive economy, prioritizing minimal representational effort in acquisition and processing, which causally channels change toward compressible, predictable evolutions over arbitrary drifts; intergenerational transmission models reveal that perceptual and memory biases systematically filter senses, linking internal dynamics to innate linguistic constraints.^[51]^[52]^[53]

Extralinguistic Influences

Extralinguistic influences on semantic change arise from external societal, technological, or historical developments that introduce new contexts or associations compelling speakers to adapt word meanings. These factors often correlate with verifiable spikes in usage data, as tracked in corpora like Google Ngrams or dictionary updates, rather than purely internal linguistic pressures. Empirical studies using distributional semantics distinguish such "cultural shifts"—local reorientations tied to specific events—from broader "linguistic drift," where meanings evolve probabilistically without clear external triggers.^[54] Technological innovations exemplify rapid extralinguistic-driven extensions. The word cloud, historically referring to visible atmospheric masses, extended metaphorically to denote remote, on-demand computing infrastructure by the mid-2000s, coinciding with the commercialization of services like Amazon Web Services in 2006 and surging patent filings for "cloud computing" from 2008 onward.^[55]^[56] This shift reflects empirical correlations in technical literature, where the term's adoption tracked hardware virtualization advances rather than gradual internal analogy. Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 prompted the verb zoom—previously meaning rapid movement—to acquire a sense of conducting video conferences, with this usage proliferating in media and entering dictionaries like Merriam-Webster by April 2020 amid global lockdowns enforcing remote interactions.^[57] Social dynamics, such as prestige or taboo avoidance, can induce ameliorative or euphemistic shifts, but longevity depends on sustained communal reinforcement. For instance, attempts to soften terms for death or disability often follow a "euphemism treadmill," where innovations like "passed away" (18th-century origin) eventually taint and yield to alternatives, with reversion to plainer forms occurring when prestige wanes or directness prevails in usage data. Failed euphemisms, such as "sanitation engineer" for janitor (coined mid-20th century but largely abandoned by the 1980s), illustrate how extralinguistic motivations falter without embedding in habitual speech, as corpus analyses show persistent fallback to original terms absent ongoing social enforcement.^[58] Critiques of causal attribution highlight risks in overemphasizing ideological or cultural narratives. Computational models from 2016 onward reveal that many apparent social shifts mask underlying drift, with vector space analyses showing only 20-30% of changes aligning tightly with historical events versus random semantic neighbor fluctuations.^[54] A 2023 study on lexical evolution further cautions that directionality in shifts often stems from reconstruction biases rather than unidirectional ideological pressures, urging empirical validation through time-series data over interpretive overreach.^[59] This distinction underscores causal realism: extralinguistic correlations must demonstrate usage persistence beyond transient events to claim transformative influence.

Illustrative Examples

English-Language Cases

The word nice entered Middle English around 1300 as a borrowing from Old French, initially denoting "foolish" or "ignorant," derived from Latin nescius meaning "not knowing."^[60] By the 16th century, its sense had shifted toward "fastidious" or "precise," reflecting a move from negative to neutral connotations.^[60] In the 18th century, particularly during the period associated with Samuel Johnson's lexicographical work, nice centered on "exactness" or "discriminating," before further ameliorating in the 19th century to signify "pleasant" or "agreeable," a positive evaluation that dominates modern usage.^[61] An instance of semantic restriction, or narrowing, appears in girl, which first attested around 1290 referred to a "young person" or "child" of either sex, without gender specification. By the 16th century, the term had specialized to denote exclusively a "young female person," excluding males and aligning with contemporary denotations of youth, vivacity, or frivolity applied to females.^[62] This shift reduced the word's referential scope from gender-neutral youth to female-specific, as evidenced in historical corpora distinguishing it from terms like boy for males. The adjective gay exemplifies specialization in the 20th century, evolving from primary meanings of "joyous," "lighthearted," or "bright and showy" (attested since the 13th-14th centuries) to predominantly "homosexual," particularly among subcultural usage by the 1920s. The Oxford English Dictionary first recorded the homosexual sense in 1951, though slang evidence predates this, with the term appearing in print references to male homosexuality by 1920 and gaining broader traction post-World War II.^[63] Despite this primary shift, pejorative undertones persist in some contexts, such as ironic or derogatory applications to imply "lame" or inferior, observed in late 20th-century youth slang.^[64]

Cross-Linguistic Instances

In Chinese, the term tongzhi (同志), originally denoting "comrade" in a political sense during the socialist era, shifted in the 1990s to encompass sexual minorities, particularly within LGBTQ+ communities in Hong Kong and Taiwan, before spreading to mainland usage; this reappropriation involved broadening from ideological solidarity to personal identity and relationships, often implying same-sex partners.^[65]^[66] The change, driven by activist borrowing from its neutral connotation of "same will," illustrates ameliorative extension in response to social movements, distinct from state-imposed meanings.^[67] In Polish, 21st-century semantic shifts reflect globalization and technological influences, with terms undergoing expansion (e.g., broadening to include digital contexts) or narrowing amid anglicism influx, as tracked in corpora showing socio-cultural adaptations post-2000.^[68] Similarly, Ukrainian lexicon exhibits transfer and narrowing in military-related vocabulary following the 2022 Russian invasion, where pre-existing terms for conflict or territory acquired specialized, pejorative connotations tied to invasion specifics, evidenced in media corpora analyzing neologisms and semantic innovations from 2022 onward.^[69]^[70] These geopolitically induced changes highlight narrowing under external pressure, contrasting with internal drifts elsewhere. Computational analyses of multilingual corpora, including diachronic data from diverse language families, reveal recurrent cross-linguistic patterns in semantic shifts, such as metonymic extensions from concrete domains (e.g., body parts) to abstract ones (e.g., expressions or artifacts), with clustering techniques identifying non-random regularities across over 20 languages.^[5] Such empirical convergence—e.g., analogous shifts in cognate evolution like victory-related terms in Romance languages—underscores universal drivers like cognitive salience over cultural idiosyncrasy, as rates of change correlate with semantic properties rather than language-specific isolation.^[71]^[72]

Reappropriation

Processes and Historical Examples

Reappropriation constitutes a deliberate mechanism of semantic change wherein members of a targeted group repurpose a pejorative term through in-group self-application, frequently employing irony, solidarity, or reframing to attenuate its derogatory connotations and assert agency over its meaning.^[73] This process typically unfolds within subgroup contexts, such as activist communities or subcultures, where repeated usage fosters a redefined valence, though it does not invariably extend to broader societal acceptance or eliminate original offensive potentials.^[74] Linguistic analyses indicate that successful resignification hinges on communal consensus and contextual control, often leveraging humor or defiance to invert power dynamics embedded in the slur's history.^[75] A prominent historical instance involves the term "queer," which entered English by the early 16th century denoting peculiarity or strangeness but acquired pejorative connotations targeting homosexuals by the late 19th century, with documented slur usage in medical and legal texts from the 1890s onward.^[76] Reclamation emerged in the 1980s amid AIDS activism and queer theory, as groups like Queer Nation adopted it ironically in protests and publications—such as the 1990 manifesto—to signify non-normative sexualities and challenge heteronormativity, gradually shifting toward affirmative self-identification by the 1990s in academic and cultural discourse.^[76] Corpus examinations reveal this shift's confinement largely to LGBTQ+ in-group and allied contexts, with persistent derogatory out-group applications noted into the 21st century.^[77] The word "Yankee" exemplifies an earlier reappropriation, originating as a Dutch-derived nickname (possibly from "Janke," a diminutive of Jan) that British forces weaponized as an ethnic slur against American colonists during the mid-18th century, evoking rural simplicity or cowardice in accounts from the French and Indian War era.^[78] By the Revolutionary War (1775–1783), colonists subverted it through patriotic songs like "Yankee Doodle" (first popularized in 1775), transforming the insult into a badge of defiance and regional pride, particularly among New Englanders, with self-identifying usage solidifying post-independence as a broader American emblem.^[78] Historical records, including period diaries and broadsides, document this pivot, though regional variations persist—retaining pejorative tones in Southern U.S. contexts during the Civil War.^[79] In slang evolution, "bitch"—tracing to Old English for a female dog and extended pejoratively to women by the 15th century to imply lasciviousness or subservience—underwent partial reappropriation in 20th-century vernacular, notably within feminist and hip-hop subcultures from the 1970s onward, where ironic or empowering usages like "bad bitch" (documented in rap lyrics by the 1990s) recast it as denoting resilience or dominance.^[80] This shift, tracked in urban dictionaries and media corpora, remains subgroup-specific, with surveys showing acceptance primarily among young women in informal settings but rejection in professional or cross-group interactions, underscoring reappropriation's contextual boundaries.^[81] Empirical corpus studies from the early 2020s affirm that such changes exhibit limited diffusion, often reverting to original derogation outside in-group norms.^[82]

Empirical Evidence and Outcomes

Empirical assessments of reappropriation reveal predominantly mixed results, with successes confined to ingroup contexts often undermined by persistent derogatory connotations in broader usage. Psycholinguistic studies demonstrate that while in-group reclamation can foster solidarity—such as through self-labeling that enhances intra-group resilience—negative semantic associations endure, particularly when slurs are processed under negation, conditionals, or by out-groups, as shown in priming experiments where reclaimed terms still evoke original stereotypes.^[83]^[84] For "queer," reclamation since the 1990s has gained traction in academic and LGBTQ+ activist spheres, with 5-20% of non-heterosexual respondents in 2022 surveys embracing it as an identity label, yet corpus analyses and attitude surveys indicate retained offensiveness among older or conservative demographics, limiting widespread neutralization.^[85]^[86] The term "woke" exemplifies backfire risks: emerging in African American Vernacular English around 1938 as a marker of racial awareness, it was repurposed positively in the 2010s for social justice advocacy, but by 2017, media tracking and Google Trends data show pejorative dominance, associating it with perceived overreach in progressive ideology, as critiqued even by figures like Barack Obama in 2019 for diluting focus.^[87]^[88] This shift reflects outsider co-optation, where out-group adoption amplifies ironic or derogatory senses, overriding ingroup intent per usage frequency analyses.^[89] Critiques grounded in corpus linguistics underscore failures in broad adoption: reappropriation rarely eradicates historical scars, as evidenced by persistent negative valence in out-group texts, reinforcing stereotypes rather than dissolving them.^[75] A 2015 examination of slur reclamation processes highlighted these inconsistencies, noting that initial empowerment via bravado often falters against incomplete semantic overhaul, inviting renewed offense or trivialization.^[81] Overall, data affirm that natural linguistic drift—driven by diverse speaker contexts—prevails over deliberate fiat, with reclaimed terms exhibiting dual meanings that sustain original harms in non-ingroup applications.^[90]

Empirical Research

Traditional Methodologies

Traditional methodologies in empirical research on semantic change rely on philological examination of historical texts and the construction of diachronic dictionaries, involving manual curation and analysis of attested usages to trace meaning evolution. Philologists collect and inspect quotations from documents spanning centuries, identifying shifts through contextual patterns such as metaphorical extensions or associations with new referents.^[91] This approach emphasizes verifiable evidence from surviving corpora, avoiding speculative proto-reconstructions unless corroborated by multiple attestations. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), begun in 1857 with its first volume appearing in 1884, represents a cornerstone of this method, systematically logging word senses with dated citations that enable manual sense disambiguation and tracking of polysemy development over time.^[92] ^[21] Historical-comparative techniques supplement this by juxtaposing lexical items in related languages to detect divergent semantic trajectories, as in inferring broadening from cognate comparisons.^[93] Strengths lie in the granular contextual depth, revealing nuanced triggers like social contact or linguistic analogy that quantitative proxies might overlook. However, these methods face limitations including interpretive subjectivity, where analysts' biases can influence sense categorization, and their labor-intensive nature restricts scalability to small, curated datasets.^[94] ^[31] Antoine Meillet's early 20th-century analyses advanced understanding by classifying semantic change causes into linguistic factors, referent alterations, and social influences, underscoring extralinguistic triggers in philological inquiry. Applications to semantic typologies—such as extension, restriction, amelioration, and pejoration—validated recurrent patterns in historical texts but exposed quantification gaps, as manual tabulation struggles to establish shift frequencies or rates without exhaustive coverage.^[1] ^[3]

Computational Advances

Computational linguistics has increasingly relied on quantitative models to detect semantic shifts, leveraging large-scale corpora and vector space representations to move beyond qualitative, anecdote-based analyses. Diachronic word embeddings, such as adaptations of Word2Vec trained on time-sliced text data, enable the modeling of lexical meaning evolution by projecting words into continuous vector spaces where semantic proximity is quantified via metrics like cosine similarity.^[95] These approaches, emerging prominently after the 2013 introduction of Word2Vec, allow for the detection of change by comparing vector alignments across periods, revealing patterns such as regularity in shift magnitude or directional consistency in meaning trajectories.^[96] To differentiate culturally driven shifts—often tied to external events like technological innovations—from random linguistic drift, researchers have developed distributional measures including skewed pointwise mutual information (PMI) applied to aligned embeddings. A 2016 study demonstrated that cultural shifts produce asymmetric neighborhood changes detectable via skewed PMI, contrasting with the symmetric drift observed in baseline linguistic evolution, thus enabling data-driven attribution of tech-induced semantic alterations in historical corpora.^[97] Recent advances include explorations of statistical laws governing synonymy under semantic change, such as the law of differentiation (synonyms diverging in meaning) versus parallel change (synonyms shifting together), tested via distributional models on diachronic datasets.^[98] A 2024 survey formalizes characterization classes of semantic change—dimension (addition/loss of senses), relation (alterations in semantic linkages), and orientation (directional shifts in connotation)—providing a framework to classify detected changes and guide predictive modeling.^[99] These developments underscore the shift toward predictive, empirically grounded analyses in computational semantics.

Recent Findings and Applications

A large-scale analysis of U.S. congressional speeches from 1871 to 2020, published in 2025, demonstrated that semantic shifts in word meanings among adult speakers are not predominantly generational but occur through widespread adoption across age groups, challenging traditional models of language evolution that emphasize youth-driven innovation.^[100] Researchers quantified this by tracking cosine similarity in word embeddings over time, finding minimal age-based disparities in uptake rates for shifted meanings, with adults rapidly aligning to communal standards during periods of accelerated change.^[100] This evidence supports event-driven dynamics, where external pressures prompt collective realignment rather than isolated cohort effects. Empirical tracking during the COVID-19 pandemic revealed rapid semantic alterations in mental lexicons, as evidenced by a 2023 study using over 200,000 word-association responses collected pre- and post-outbreak onset.^[101] Measures of associative strength and valence shifts detected changes for pandemic-linked terms like "lockdown," which acquired heightened connotations of restriction and isolation within months, reflecting real-time cognitive adaptation to societal disruptions.^[101] Similarly, multilingual analyses of 21st-century corpora in English, Polish, and Ukrainian identified accelerated shifts in technology- and crisis-related vocabulary, driven by global events and digital amplification, with neologisms propagating faster across languages than in prior eras.^[102] In applications, semantic change detection informs bias mitigation in large language models (LLMs), where 2024 visual analytics frameworks monitor embedding drifts to identify amplified stereotypes, enabling interventions that preserve linguistic nuance without assuming deterministic ideological dominance.^[103] For instance, tracking diachronic shifts in LLM outputs reveals how training data inherits historical biases, but empirical tests show variability rather than uniform control, underscoring the need for causal validation over presumptive narratives.^[103] Additionally, the 2024 Intensional–Ontological Model integrates semantic change into linked data ontologies, allowing temporal versioning of meanings in knowledge graphs to support dynamic querying in humanities research, though it cautions against overgeneralizing shifts as engineered without corpus-scale evidence.^[104] These tools highlight semantic change's role in robust AI and data systems, emphasizing empirical tracking to discern genuine evolution from artifactual patterns.

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We show how two computational measures can be used to distinguish between semantic changes caused by cultural shifts (eg, technological advancements)
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14.6 Semantic change – Essentials of Linguistics, 2nd edition
Change in the meanings of words is often called semantic shift or semantic drift. As with most language change, semantic shifts usually involve some ...
[8]
Changing word meanings in biomedical literature reveal pandemics ...
May 5, 2023 · This indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic has had a sufficiently strong impact on the biomedical literature to cause rapid semantic change ...
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7 Phonetic change and semantic change - Oxford Academic
Oct 31, 2023 · When we deal separately with the double subject of modified forms and modified meanings in words, we are not creating an artificial division but ...
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[PDF] Semantic Shift and the Link between Words and Culture
This can be said of the word awful; once used to describe 'an entity inspiring of awe,' it is now used chiefly in the sense of 'bad' or 'unpleasant' (Greenough ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Chapter 8 Historical Linguistics | Laura Grestenberger
Syntactic change is discussed in Section 8.5. • Semantic change can occur to lexical categories, such as the change in meaning of English dog, which used to ...
[12]
[PDF] Historical linguistics: The study of language change - UBC Blogs
Morphology, or the forms of words: the most obvious difference here is the use of the grammatical forms, thy and thou, the second-person singular or familiar.
[13]
14.5 Syntactic change – Essentials of Linguistics, 2nd edition
A morphosyntactic pattern in a language can change from analytic to synthetic and vice versa, because of the deep inherent connection between morphology and ...
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Grammaticalization and semantic change - Oxford Academic
This article explores the relation between semantic change and grammaticalisation. It discusses the micro-steps of semantic change based on truth-conditional ...
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[PDF] Grammaticalization and Semantic Reanalysis Regine Eckardt
The prototypical instance of language change called 'grammaticalization' is a change where a word with independent content, preferably of one of the main ...
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The Role of Analogy in Language Change: Supporting Constructions
In this chapter, we will adhere to a broad view of analogy, following Behrens's twin chapter on the role of analogy in language acquisition.Missing: borrowing | Show results with:borrowing
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Frequency patterns of semantic change: corpus-based evidence of a ...
Nov 8, 2017 · This implies that any instance of semantic change should have its empirical counterpart in the frequency rise of the use of the form. This rise ...
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[PDF] A computational analysis of crosslinguistic regularity in semantic ...
Apr 4, 2023 · semantic change is not arbitrary and often relies on relatedness of senses. From the analogy-model point of view, a potential semantic.
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Broadening (Semantic Generalization) - English - ThoughtCo
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The role of the OED in semantics research
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) plays a central role in my Semantics research, functioning not only as a reference source but as a methodological ...
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Oct 3, 2019 · In linguistics, amelioration is the upgrading or elevation of a word's meaning, as when a word with a negative sense develops a positive one.
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Pejoration: Meaning & Examples - StudySmarter
May 3, 2022 · It is a type of semantic change. The process of pejoration occurs as the values of a society shift. This can lead to shifts in language and ...Definition of pejoration in a... · Pejorative: meaning · Pejoration: examples in the...
[24]
Origins of English: Amelioration and Pejoration - Daily Kos
Mar 15, 2014 · Pejoration is a type of semantic change that happens when a word's meaning becomes more negative. Notorious came into English in 1548 and ...
[25]
[PDF] PEJORATION AS A TYPE OF SEMANTIC CHANGE
Pejoration as a category of semantic change The presence of a substantial number of classifications of semantic changes. that have been advanced in the history ...
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(DOC) SEMANTIC CHANGE - Academia.edu
Ullman (1962) identifies the classifications as: semantic expansion (widening), semantic narrowing, semantic amelioration and semantic pejoration. SEMANTIC ...
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How 'Woke' Became the 'Woke Right' (and Why It Shouldn't Surprise ...
Feb 20, 2025 · “Woke” underwent what linguists call pejoration, by which a positive or neutral word takes on a negative meaning.
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Chapter 13.1 Methods of Semantic Change – ALIC
The sound pattern of a signifier can change over time through processes like assimilation, metathesis, reduction, and so on.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Notes on semantic change - Penn Linguistics
Iterated metonymy: The monarch wears a crown. In a state constituted as a monarchy, the monarch is the sovereign power, and so crown comes to mean the ...
[31]
Survey in Characterization of Semantic Change - arXiv
Feb 29, 2024 · On this survey, we will focus on three factors of semantic changes: the orientation (i.e., if the words meaning is getting more pejorative or ...
[32]
Using Synchronic Definitions and Semantic Relations to Classify ...
Jun 11, 2024 · Several taxonomies of semantic change have been proposed, from Reisig (1839) to Blank (1997) , that describe both the type of change as well as ...
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1 Historical‐philological Semantics - Oxford Academic
This holds for Karl Reisig, who may be credited with the oldest work in the historical‐philological tradition (1839), but also for scholars like Haase, ...
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Download book PDF
Both traditional semantics (Breal,. 1897; Darmesteter, 1887; Paul, 1886) and classical semantics (Ogden and. Richards, 1923; Stem, 1931; Ullmann, 1951) took ...
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This paper brings to light the contribution the early German semasiologists – most prominently Christian Karl Reisig, Friedrich Haase, and, later, ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
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His work, which covers a wide range of topics, from phonology and morphology to syntax and semantics, provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how ...
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Jan 5, 2020 · Taxonomies of semantic drift. Arguably the most well-known taxonomy of semantic change is Leonard Bloomfield's (Bloomfield, 1933). Among ...
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Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning - Google Books
Mar 28, 2019 · Author, Stephen Ullmann ; Edition, reprint ; Publisher, Basil Blackwell, 1962 ; Original from, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
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Rating 5.0 (6) This document discusses the topic of semantic change, or changes in meaning of words over time. It outlines several factors that facilitate semantic change.
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Historical Semantics and Cognition - Google Books
Editors, Andreas Blank, Peter Koch ; Edition, illustrated, reprint ; Publisher, Walter de Gruyter, 1999 ; ISBN, 3110166143, 9783110166149 ; Length, 312 pages.
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Andreas Blank discusses traditional classifications of the moti- vations for lexical semantic change and develops a comprehensive typology of these motivations ...
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(PDF) From Polysemy to Semantic Change: Towards a Typology of ...
Polysemy refers to a word's ability to develop multiple related meanings. This phenomenon contributes to linguistic flexibility, allowing words to adapt to new ...
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[PDF] Semantic Change and Semantic Stability: Variation is Key
I survey some recent approaches to studying change in the lexicon, particularly change in meaning across phylogenies. I briefly sketch.
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Frequency patterns of semantic change: corpus-based evidence of a ...
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Blocking | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
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How cognitive selection affects language change - PNAS
This research investigates the cognitive mechanisms underlying the rise and fall of English word forms using two complementary research paradigms.
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Jun 29, 2022 · We first found that cognitive constraints in language acquisition and processing shaped the evolution of a word's semantics: words acquired ...
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Cognitive economy in semantic memory - ResearchGate
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[PDF] Cultural Shift or Linguistic Drift? Comparing Two Computational ...
We show how two computational measures can be used to distinguish between semantic changes caused by cultural shifts (e.g., technological ad- vancements) and ...
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A Brief History of Cloud Computing - Dataversity
Dec 17, 2021 · In 2016 the cloud began to shift from developer-friendly to developer-driven. Application developers began taking full advantage of the ...
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The Impact of Coronavirus on English Word-stock - ResearchGate
... zoom or similar video conferencing application. It. used to describe dumping a romantic partner via zoom, but soon due to generalization of the meaning of.
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Euphemism for Poor Performance - English Stack Exchange
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... word nice is in the Middle English period (1150—1500). OED's earliest evidence for nice is from around 1300, in St. Mary Magdalen. nice is a borrowing from ...
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The Samuel Johnson notes: A very nice word | Sentence first
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[PDF] semantic changes of girl - Anglistik - LMU München
The meaning of girl has changed in both its denotations. (young human person > young female female child) and connotations ('youth',. 'vivacity', 'frivolity' > ...
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A gay paper: why should sociolinguistics bother with semantics?
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[PDF] The Semantic Changes of Tongzhi and Shifu
In a similar vein, the semantic change of tongzhi from “comrade” to “sexual minorities” occurred, not because tongzhi activists intended to change the meaning ...
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[PDF] The Reappropriation of tongzhi - Stanford University
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[PDF] Semantic Shifts in the 21st Century: English, Polish, and Ukrainian ...
Sep 30, 2025 · In Polish, semantic changes are related to globalization, the growing popularity of anglicisms and the influence of new technologies.
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[PDF] lexico-semantic innovations in the texts of the ukrainian mass media ...
Apr 8, 2023 · Abstract: The article classifies lexical and semantic innovations in the texts of the. Ukrainian mass media on military topics.
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Semantic Shifts in the 21st Century: English, Polish, and Ukrainian ...
Jul 19, 2025 · The study results show that semantic changes, such as expansion, narrowing and transfer of meaning, reflect modern socio-cultural processes. In ...
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[PDF] Chapter 7 Cross-lingual laws of semantic change
For example, the Romanian word victorie and the Italian word vittoria are cognates, as they both descend from the. Latin word victoria 'victory' – see Figure 7.
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[PDF] The Effect of Semantic Properties on Rates of Cross-linguistic ...
The rate of lexical change and innovation does not appear to be constant for all words, but rather varies between lexical items and groups of lexical items.
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From Derogation to Reclamation: How Does Language Change?
Linguistic reclamation is the process of taking possession of a derogatory label – usually introduced by a dominant group – by stigmatized group members. This ...Missing: mechanisms | Show results with:mechanisms
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Linguistic reappropriation: a battle of wills over meaning
Jul 5, 2022 · Linguistic reappropriation is when a word intended as a pejorative is redefined by the group at which the term was originally directed.Missing: mechanisms | Show results with:mechanisms
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[PDF] The language of hate and its reappropriation
Mar 25, 2023 · The aim of this chapter is to analyze the processes that may lead to the reappropriation of derogatory terms, by giving them new meanings for ...Missing: mechanisms | Show results with:mechanisms
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Reviled, reclaimed and respected: the history of the word 'queer'
Jan 18, 2023 · Queer is a word of uncertain origin that had entered the English language by the early 16th century, when it was primarily used to mean strange, odd, peculiar ...
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[PDF] A Queer Revolution: Reconceptualizing the Debate Over Linguistic ...
Linguistic reclamation, also known as linguistic resignification or reappropriation, refers to the appropriation of a pejorative epithet by its target(s).Missing: mechanisms | Show results with:mechanisms
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What exactly is a Yankee? | National Geographic
Mar 28, 2024 · Yankee comes from Janke, a nickname for Jonathon like “Jonny,” or from Jan Kees, meaning “John Cheese” which was intended as an insult.Missing: identifier | Show results with:identifier
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The Enduring Allure of the Yankee - - Doctranslate.io
Aug 21, 2025 · From Derision to Identity: The Shifting Meaning of 'Yankee'. The precise origin of 'Yankee' remains debated among scholars. One widely ...
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'Bitch' has a 1,000-year history. Its use has always been about power
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Power grab: reclaiming words can be such a bitch | Gary Nunn
Oct 30, 2015 · A case in point: Kate Moss calling an air steward a “basic bitch” because she refused to peel her a grape (or something). Reclaiming words, when ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Reclamation: Taking Back Control of Words - PhilArchive
Reclamation is the phenomenon of an oppressed group repurposing language to its own ends. A case study is reclamation of slur words. Popa-Wyatt and Wyatt ...Missing: mechanisms | Show results with:mechanisms
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From self to ingroup reclaiming of homophobic epithets: A ...
Racial minorities' reappropriation of racial jokes and slurs to humorously refer to ingroup members leads to intra-group solidarity and increases feelings ...
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[PDF] Identifying Slurs and Lexical Hate Speech via Light-Weight ...
Jul 14, 2023 · Thus, the meanings of slurs re- main relatively consistent across ... meaning of a slur is independent of the speaker's intentions or ...Missing: limits reappropriation
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Queer identities in the 21st century: Reclamation and stigma - PubMed
Queer has undeniably gained popularity as a reclaimed identity in the 21st century. Recent studies find that between 5% and 20% of non-heterosexuals identify ...
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A history of “wokeness” - Vox
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How 'woke' went from a social justice term to a pejorative favored by ...
Jul 10, 2022 · “Woke” has come to mean anything having to do with race or, more broadly, progressivism. It's not used only by conservatives.
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What Does 'Woke' Even Mean? How A Decades-Old Racial Justice ...
Jun 7, 2023 · Conservative politicians and pundits have co-opted “woke,” a term that originally meant to stay aware of racial injustice.
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(PDF) Slur reclamation, irony, and resilience - ResearchGate
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Tracing semantic change with Latent Semantic Analysis
Changes in meaning are tracked through the collection and careful inspection of examples that span decades and centuries. This process is inextricably tied to ...
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History of the OED - Oxford English Dictionary
The OED began in 1857, published by Oxford in 1879, completed in 1928, and became the ultimate authority on the English language.Dictionary Milestones · OED Editions · Chief Editors of the OED · Former OED staff
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[PDF] 1 The Comparative Method - Berkeley Linguistics
The comparative method is a set of techniques, developed over more than a century and a half, that permits us to recover linguistic constructs of earlier,.
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An evolution of forensic linguistics: From manual analysis to ...
The late 20th century marked a pivotal shift in forensic linguistics by introducing computational methods like corpus analysis and computational stylometry.
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[PDF] Diachronic Word Embeddings Reveal Statistical Laws of Semantic ...
Diachronic word embeddings can be used in two ways to quantify semantic change: (i) we can mea- sure changes in pair-wise word similarities over time, or (ii) ...
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[PDF] Diachronic Word Embeddings Reveal Statistical Laws of Semantic ...
We develop a robust method- ology for quantifying semantic change by evaluating word embeddings (PPMI,. SVD, word2vec) against known historical changes. We then ...
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[PDF] Cultural Shift or Linguistic Drift? Comparing Two Computational ...
We show how two computational measures can be used to distinguish between semantic changes caused by cultural shifts (e.g., technological ad- vancements) and ...
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A Tale of Two Laws of Semantic Change: Predicting Synonym ...
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[2402.19088] Survey in Characterization of Semantic Change - arXiv
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Semantic change in adults is not primarily a generational ... - PNAS
Jul 28, 2025 · We find a small but statistically significant effect of speaker age in determining semantic change; older speakers in the corpus are generally ...
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The Pandemic in Words: Tracking Fast Semantic Changes via a ...
Jun 9, 2023 · In this study we aimed to explore the collective changes in the mental lexicon as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Semantic Shifts in the 21st Century: English, Polish, and Ukrainian ...
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Seeing the Shift: Keep an Eye on Semantic Changes in Times of LLMs
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Toward a Representation of Semantic Change in Linked Data - MDPI
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