Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Homopolysaccharide

A homopolysaccharide, also known as a homoglycan, is a type of polysaccharide composed exclusively of repeating units of a single monosaccharide, connected through glycosidic bonds formed via dehydration synthesis.^[1] These linear or branched polymers typically consist of thousands to millions of monosaccharide units, such as glucose, fructose, or galactose, and exhibit high molecular weights ranging from 10⁴ to 10⁹ Da.^[2]^[3] In biological systems, homopolysaccharides serve essential functions, including energy storage and structural support. For instance, starch (in plants) and glycogen (in animals) act as readily mobilizable fuel reserves, while cellulose provides rigidity to plant cell walls and chitin reinforces fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons.^[4] Their structural diversity arises from variations in glycosidic linkage types—such as α-1,4 or β-1,4 bonds—and degrees of branching, which influence solubility, digestibility, and mechanical properties; for example, the β-1,4 linkages in cellulose enable hydrogen bonding for fibrous strength, rendering it insoluble in water.^[1]^[2] Certain microorganisms, particularly lactic acid bacteria like Leuconostoc and Weissella, produce extracellular homopolysaccharides such as dextrans (glucose-based) and levans (fructose-based) during fermentation, using enzymes such as glucansucrases for dextrans and levansucrases for levans, with sucrose as a substrate.^[3] These bacterial variants enhance food textures in products like yogurt and gluten-free bread, and hold potential in biomedical applications, including tissue engineering and drug delivery, due to their biocompatibility and bioadhesive properties.^[1]^[3]

Definition and Classification

Definition

Homopolysaccharides are a class of polysaccharides defined as linear or branched polymers consisting exclusively of one type of monosaccharide monomer, interconnected via glycosidic bonds.^[1]^[5] These macromolecules serve diverse structural and functional roles in biological systems, with the uniformity of their monosaccharide composition providing specific physicochemical properties.^[1] In contrast, heteropolysaccharides incorporate two or more distinct monosaccharide units in their structure, leading to greater structural complexity and functional versatility.^[1]^[5] The term "homopolysaccharide" entered scientific usage in the mid-20th century, with its earliest recorded appearance in 1948 by William Ward Pigman, amid rapid progress in carbohydrate chemistry driven by pioneers like Maurice Stacey, who advanced understanding of polysaccharide structures and syntheses during the 1940s.^[6]^[7]^[8] Homopolysaccharides based on glucose, for example, exhibit a general empirical formula of ( \ce{C6H10O5} )_n, where n denotes the number of repeating units, reflecting the dehydration occurring during glycosidic bond formation.^[9]^[10]

Classification Criteria

Homopolysaccharides are primarily classified according to the single type of monosaccharide that forms their repeating units, providing a foundational organizational principle for these polymers. Glucans, for example, are built entirely from glucose monomers, while fructans derive from fructose, and galactans from galactose; this monosaccharide specificity distinguishes them from heteropolysaccharides and allows for targeted study of their biosynthesis and functions.^[1] Secondary classification criteria refine this categorization by examining structural variations that influence solubility, digestibility, and mechanical properties. These include the degree of branching, contrasting linear forms such as cellulose with highly branched structures like glycogen; the configuration of glycosidic bonds, which may be α-1,4 linkages in storage polysaccharides or β-1,4 in structural ones; and the molecular weight, typically spanning 10^4 to 10^9 Da, which affects viscosity and biological availability.^[3] Evolutionarily, homopolysaccharides demonstrate remarkable conservation across biological kingdoms, from bacteria and archaea to plants and animals, highlighting their ancient origins in cellular architecture and metabolism. Bacterial variants, including dextran synthesized by lactic acid bacteria via glucansucrases, emerged as specialized adaptations during early microbial diversification, coinciding with the rise of bacterial lineages approximately 3.5 billion years ago.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[3]^[14]

Chemical Structure

Monosaccharide Units

Homopolysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrates composed exclusively of repeating units derived from a single type of monosaccharide, which serves as the fundamental building block for their structure and function.^[3] The most prevalent monomer is D-glucose, predominantly incorporated in its six-membered pyranose ring form, enabling the formation of diverse linear and branched architectures essential for energy storage and structural roles in living organisms.^[15] Other common monosaccharide units include D-fructose, D-mannose, and D-galactose, each contributing to specific homopolysaccharides such as fructans, mannans, and galactans, respectively.^[3]^[16] Monosaccharides, the monomeric units of homopolysaccharides, are classified based on their functional groups as aldoses—containing an aldehyde at the carbonyl carbon (e.g., glucose, mannose, galactose)—or ketoses, featuring a ketone group (e.g., fructose).^[15] In aqueous solutions, these open-chain forms cyclize to form ring structures, primarily furanose (five-membered ring) or pyranose (six-membered ring), with the pyranose form being more stable and common for hexoses like glucose in biological polymers.^[17] The anomeric carbon, formed during cyclization at the carbonyl position, gives rise to α or β configurations depending on the orientation of the hydroxyl group relative to the ring plane—α for axial in pyranose (below the plane in standard Haworth projection) and β for equatorial (above the plane).^[18] The stereochemistry of these monosaccharide units profoundly influences homopolysaccharide properties, with nearly all biological examples utilizing D-isomers, characterized by the hydroxyl group on the penultimate carbon (C5 in hexoses) oriented to the right in Fischer projections, mirroring D-glyceraldehyde.^[19] L-isomers, while rare in nature, occasionally appear in bacterial polysaccharides but do not dominate in eukaryotic systems.^[20] Homopolysaccharides exhibit a wide range of polymerization degrees, typically from more than 10 to thousands or more of units, with molecular masses often reaching 10^6 Da or more, dictating their solubility, viscosity, and biological roles.^[21] These monosaccharide units are linked through glycosidic bonds to form the polymer chain, as detailed in subsequent discussions of linkages.^[3]

Glycosidic Linkages

Glycosidic linkages represent the primary covalent bonds that interconnect monosaccharide units to form the linear or branched chains characteristic of homopolysaccharides. The most prevalent type is the O-glycosidic bond, in which the oxygen atom from a hydroxyl group on one monosaccharide forms an ether linkage with the anomeric carbon of an adjacent unit.^[22] These bonds are stereospecifically classified as α or β based on the configuration at the anomeric carbon, and by the carbon positions involved, such as α-1,4 linkages that predominate in the linear segments of starch, enabling sequential glucose connections, or β-1,4 linkages in cellulose, which enforce a repeating, unbranched arrangement of glucose residues.^[23] While α-1,6 branches occur in some storage homopolysaccharides like glycogen, the 1,4 variants dominate the backbone structures across major types.^[20] The formation of these O-glycosidic bonds proceeds through dehydration synthesis, a condensation reaction in which the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide's non-anomeric carbon attacks the electrophilic anomeric carbon of another, eliminating a water molecule and establishing an acetal bridge. This process, often enzymatically catalyzed in vivo, converts the hemiacetal functionality of the anomeric carbon into a stable acetal, locking the ring conformation and preventing reversion to the open-chain form under physiological conditions.^[24] In homopolysaccharides, repeated iterations of this mechanism yield high-molecular-weight polymers, with the specificity of the linkage type determined by the enzyme's stereoselectivity during biosynthesis. The configuration of glycosidic linkages profoundly dictates the three-dimensional conformation of homopolysaccharide chains, thereby influencing their functional properties. α-1,4 linkages, as in amylose, permit rotational flexibility around the bond axis, favoring compact helical coils with approximately six glucose units per turn, which compactly store energy while allowing solvent access.^[23] In contrast, β-1,4 linkages in cellulose enforce an extended, zigzag linear geometry due to the equatorial orientation of the anomeric hydroxyl, promoting anti-parallel chain alignment and extensive interchain hydrogen bonding that yields rigid, crystalline microfibrils. This stereochemical distinction arises from the axial versus equatorial positioning in the pyranose ring, with α bonds introducing gauche effects that curve the chain and β bonds aligning trans configurations for straightness.^[25] Glycosidic bonds exhibit a cleavage activation energy of approximately 20-30 kcal/mol, as determined from kinetic studies of thermal decomposition and hydrolysis, which underscores their relative stability compared to peptide bonds but vulnerability to specific enzymes.^[26] This energy barrier, typically around 23 kcal/mol for initial scission in cellulose models, modulates digestibility—α-linked structures in starch and glycogen are more readily hydrolyzed by mammalian amylases due to lower steric hindrance, whereas β-linked cellulose resists breakdown, contributing to its role in structural integrity and dietary fiber persistence.^[26] Variations in bond energy, influenced by solvent and pH, further highlight how these linkages balance biosynthetic efficiency with controlled degradation in biological systems.^[27]

Major Types

Starch

Starch is the primary homopolysaccharide used by plants for long-term energy storage, consisting predominantly of glucose monomers organized into two distinct polymeric components: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose, which typically comprises 20-30% of starch by weight, forms linear chains of glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds, providing a helical structure that contributes to starch's compact storage form. Amylopectin, making up the remaining 70-80%, is a highly branched polymer with the same α-1,4 linkages in its linear segments but featuring α-1,6 glycosidic bonds at branch points approximately every 24-30 glucose units, enabling denser packing and efficient mobilization. This composition varies slightly across plant species, influencing starch granule morphology and functionality.^[28] Starch is predominantly synthesized and accumulated in plant seeds, tubers, and roots, serving as a reserve for germination and growth; major sources include corn (maize) kernels, potato tubers, and wheat grains.^[29] Global production of starch from these sources exceeds 100 million metric tons annually as of 2025, driven largely by agricultural output for food, feed, and industrial uses.^[30] The molecular weight of amylose typically ranges from 10^5 to 10^6 Da, corresponding to chains of several thousand glucose units, while amylopectin can reach up to 10^8 Da due to its extensive branching and larger size.^[31] These properties allow starch granules to form semi-crystalline structures with alternating amorphous and crystalline regions, optimizing storage density.^[32] A key diagnostic feature of starch is its reaction with iodine, where amylose forms a characteristic blue-black complex by incorporating iodine molecules into its helical structure, providing a simple and specific test for starch presence in biological and food samples.^[33] This colorimetric response arises from charge-transfer interactions within the amylose-iodine helix, with the intensity depending on amylose content and chain length.^[34]

Glycogen

Glycogen serves as the primary homopolysaccharide for energy storage in animals, consisting of a highly branched polymer of glucose units that enables rapid mobilization of glucose during periods of high metabolic demand. Unlike linear polysaccharides, its structure facilitates efficient synthesis and breakdown, making it ideal for maintaining blood glucose levels and fueling muscular activity. This branched architecture distinguishes glycogen from other storage forms, allowing for quick access to energy reserves in vertebrates.^[35] The molecular structure of glycogen features linear chains of glucose residues linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds, with branching occurring approximately every 8–12 residues through α-1,6-glycosidic bonds, resulting in a tiered, tree-like configuration. This organization creates a compact molecule with a central core and multiple tiers of branches, typically containing 20,000 to 60,000 glucose units in mature particles. The branching is catalyzed by glycogen branching enzyme, which transfers segments of the chain to form the α-1,6 linkages, enhancing the polymer's solubility and metabolic accessibility.^[35] In humans, glycogen is predominantly stored in the liver, where it constitutes up to 5–6% of the organ's wet weight (approximately 100 g), and in skeletal muscle, accounting for 1–2% of muscle mass (around 400 g), yielding total body stores of about 500 g. Liver glycogen primarily regulates systemic blood glucose homeostasis, while muscle glycogen supports local energy needs during contraction. The tiered branching structure provides numerous non-reducing ends—up to thousands per molecule—enabling simultaneous enzymatic attack by phosphorylase for rapid glucose-1-phosphate release, which is critical for meeting acute energy demands. Glycogen was first isolated from animal liver by French physiologist Claude Bernard in 1857, marking a pivotal discovery in carbohydrate metabolism that laid the groundwork for understanding disorders involving its aberrant accumulation or deficiency. This finding shifted paradigms in physiology, revealing the liver's role in endogenous glucose production beyond dietary sources.^[36]

Cellulose

Cellulose is a linear homopolysaccharide composed of thousands of β-D-glucose units linked by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds, serving as the primary structural component in plant cell walls.^[37] It is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth, constituting approximately 50% of the dry weight of plant cell walls and with an estimated annual global biosynthesis of around 100 billion tons.^[38] This vast production underscores its critical role in providing mechanical support and rigidity to plants, enabling upright growth and resistance to environmental stresses.^[37] The molecular structure of cellulose features unbranched chains that adopt an extended conformation due to the β-1,4 linkages, which position glucose residues in a linear array with every other unit rotated 180 degrees.^[39] These chains associate laterally through extensive hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups, forming highly ordered microfibrils typically 3–6 nm in diameter and consisting of 36 parallel glucan chains.^[40] This hierarchical assembly— from individual chains to microfibrils—confers exceptional stability and resistance to deformation, distinguishing cellulose from other homopolysaccharides like starch.^[41] Cellulose exhibits a high degree of crystallinity, ranging from 60% to 80%, arising from the parallel packing of glucan chains into crystalline domains interspersed with less ordered amorphous regions.^[42] This crystallinity endows microfibrils with remarkable tensile strength, comparable to that of steel on a per-weight basis, allowing plant cell walls to withstand significant mechanical loads.^[37] The structural role of cellulose in cell walls is essential for maintaining plant integrity, as detailed in the biological roles section. Biosynthesis of cellulose occurs at the plasma membrane of plant cells, where large multiprotein complexes known as cellulose synthase rosettes assemble and extrude glucan chains into the extracellular space.^[43] Each rosette, comprising approximately 36 cellulose synthase enzymes, synthesizes multiple chains simultaneously, which then self-assemble into microfibrils as they are deposited outside the membrane.^[44] This process is powered by UDP-glucose and is tightly regulated to align microfibril orientation with cellular growth directions.^[43]

Chitin

Chitin is a prominent structural homopolysaccharide, serving as a key component in the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of arthropods, where it provides rigidity and protection due to its acetylated nature. Composed exclusively of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine monomers, chitin's linear chains enable the formation of robust microfibrils that contribute to mechanical strength in these organisms.^[45] Unlike other homopolysaccharides such as cellulose, the presence of the acetamido group (-NHCOCH₃) in its repeating units imparts unique hydrogen-bonding capabilities, enhancing its crystallinity and durability.^[46] The molecular structure of chitin consists of β-1,4-glycosidic linkages between N-acetylglucosamine units, resulting in a polymer that adopts extended, ribbon-like conformations. These chains self-assemble into hierarchical structures, including nanofibrils and larger fibers, which exhibit polymorphism in their crystalline forms: the α-form with antiparallel chain packing, the β-form with parallel chains, and the γ-form featuring a three-chain unit cell. The α-polymorph is the most common, predominant in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal walls, while β-chitin occurs in more hydrated environments like squid pens. This structural diversity influences properties such as density and hydration, with α-chitin displaying the highest crystallinity (up to 90%).^[47]^[48] Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer on Earth after cellulose, with an estimated annual production of 10¹¹ tons, primarily from marine sources. In fungi, it comprises 1–2% of the dry weight in yeast cell walls but can reach 10–20% in filamentous species, where it is covalently linked to β-glucans for structural integrity. In arthropods, chitin dominates the exoskeleton, forming up to 20–50% of the organic matrix in crustacean shells and insect cuticles, often mineralized with calcium carbonate for added hardness.^[49]^[50]^[51] To achieve toughness, chitin microfibrils in exoskeletons are embedded within a protein matrix, creating chitin-protein complexes where proteins such as cuticular proteins bind to chitin via hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions, distributing stress and preventing brittle failure. This composite architecture allows the exoskeleton to withstand mechanical loads while permitting flexibility during molting.^[52]^[53] Evolutionarily, chitin emerged around 715–810 million years ago in early eukaryotic lineages, as evidenced by fossilized filaments preserving chitin signatures, predating the diversification of fungi and animals. This timeline aligns with the rise of complex multicellularity, underscoring chitin's role in enabling protective structures in early eukaryotes.^[54]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Solubility Characteristics

Homopolysaccharides generally exhibit low solubility in water and most organic solvents due to extensive intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonding between their hydroxyl groups, which promotes aggregation and crystallinity. For instance, cellulose, composed of linear β-1,4-linked glucose units, is insoluble in water and common solvents but can form gels or dissolve in alkaline solutions like 8-10% sodium hydroxide or specialized solvents such as N-methylmorpholine N-oxide, where the alkali disrupts hydrogen bonds. In contrast, certain branched homopolysaccharides show enhanced solubility under specific conditions. Starch, particularly its amylopectin component with α-1,6 branch points, swells in hot water to form colloidal suspensions or viscous solutions through granule disruption, while linear amylose is less soluble and tends to retrograde upon cooling. Similarly, glycogen, a highly branched α-1,4 and α-1,6-linked glucose polymer, disperses readily in water to form clear solutions due to its compact, soluble structure in aqueous environments. Solubility is influenced by structural factors such as degree of branching, which reduces chain entanglement and increases hydrophilicity—evidenced by amylopectin's higher solubility compared to amylose—and by environmental conditions like ionic strength, where high salt concentrations can induce "salting out" by reducing water availability for solvation. These interactions are often quantified through intrinsic viscosity measurements ([η]), which reflect polymer chain flexibility and solvation; for example, cellulose typically shows [η] values of 100-500 mL/g in suitable solvents like cadoxen, indicating moderate chain extension.

Thermal and Mechanical Properties

Homopolysaccharides exhibit a range of thermal properties that are influenced by their molecular structure and crystallinity, making them suitable for diverse applications in materials science and food processing. Cellulose, a β-1,4-linked glucan, demonstrates high thermal stability, with decomposition occurring above 300°C, typically around 330°C for dried samples, due to its strong hydrogen-bonded crystalline structure. In contrast, starch, composed of α-1,4 and α-1,6 linkages in amylose and amylopectin, undergoes gelatinization at lower temperatures between 50°C and 70°C, where hydrated granules swell, lose their ordered crystallinity, and form a viscous paste. This process is endothermic and reversible under controlled conditions but leads to structural disruption upon cooling. Mechanical properties of homopolysaccharides vary significantly based on their chain conformation and intermolecular interactions, contributing to their roles in structural biomaterials. Native cellulose microfibrils possess exceptional tensile strength, with a modulus of approximately 100-150 GPa, attributed to the extended β-sheet-like alignment of glucose chains that enables load-bearing in plant cell walls. Chitin, featuring β-1,4-linked N-acetylglucosamine units, exhibits comparable stiffness with a longitudinal modulus up to 150 GPa in its crystalline whiskers, but it displays greater elasticity than cellulose due to its acetyl groups facilitating more flexible hydrogen bonding networks. These properties highlight the polysaccharides' utility in high-performance composites. In solution, many homopolysaccharides display viscoelastic behavior, balancing elastic recovery and viscous flow under deformation, which is crucial for processing and biological functions. Glycogen and amylopectin, both highly branched α-glucans, form solutions that exhibit shear-thinning rheology, where viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate, allowing easier flow during enzymatic degradation or industrial extrusion. This non-Newtonian characteristic arises from the disentanglement of branched chains under stress, enabling adaptive responses in cellular environments or food formulations. Thermal denaturation in homopolysaccharides often involves irreversible conformational changes, particularly in α-glucans like starch components. Upon heating during gelatinization, amylose and amylopectin undergo a helix-to-coil transition, where double-helical segments unwind into random coils, accompanied by the loss of crystalline order and granule integrity. This process, observable via differential scanning calorimetry as a single endothermic peak, is driven by the disruption of intra- and inter-chain hydrogen bonds, rendering the polysaccharide more amorphous and soluble but altering its native functionality permanently.

Biological Roles

Energy Storage Functions

Homopolysaccharides such as starch and glycogen function as primary energy reserves in plants and animals, respectively, by storing glucose units in a polymeric form that can be mobilized as needed for metabolic processes. In plants, starch accumulates in chloroplasts during photosynthesis and serves as a temporary sink for excess carbon, which is later remobilized to support growth and respiration. This storage mechanism allows plants to balance diurnal fluctuations in carbon fixation, ensuring energy availability during periods of darkness or stress.^[55] Starch in plants is converted to sucrose in the cytosol for long-distance transport through the phloem to non-photosynthetic tissues, where it is then hydrolyzed by amylases into glucose for cellular respiration and energy production. This process enables efficient distribution of stored energy across the plant body, supporting functions like root growth and seed development. In contrast, glycogen in animals is stored mainly in the liver and skeletal muscles, where it undergoes rapid breakdown during fasting or intense exercise via phosphorolysis catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase, yielding glucose-1-phosphate that enters glycolysis without net ATP consumption. The highly branched structure of glycogen facilitates this quick mobilization, allowing multiple non-reducing ends for simultaneous enzymatic access.^[56]^[57] The efficiency of these homopolysaccharides as energy stores stems from their compact nature and osmotic neutrality; a single glycogen or starch molecule can hold thousands of glucose units without exerting significant osmotic pressure, unlike free glucose which would draw water into cells and disrupt volume homeostasis. This polymeric form provides approximately 4 kcal/g of energy upon complete oxidation, comparable to glucose but in a more stable, high-density package that minimizes cellular space requirements. Hormonal regulation fine-tunes this storage and release: in animals, insulin promotes glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) in the liver and muscles by activating glycogen synthase following nutrient-rich meals, while glucagon triggers breakdown (glycogenolysis) during low blood glucose states to maintain homeostasis.^[58]^[59]^[60]

Structural and Protective Roles

Homopolysaccharides play essential roles in providing structural integrity and protection to various organisms, primarily through cellulose and chitin. In plants, cellulose forms the primary component of the cell wall, consisting of linear chains of β-1,4-linked glucose units assembled into microfibrils that create a robust network. This structure enables the cell wall to withstand internal turgor pressure, which arises from osmotic influx of water and drives cellular expansion. The orientation of these cellulose microfibrils, often aligned transversely to the growth axis, dictates the directionality of plant cell elongation, allowing anisotropic growth that shapes tissues and organs.^[37]^[61] In animals, particularly arthropods, chitin serves as the key structural element of the exoskeleton, forming crystalline microfibrils that impart rigidity and mechanical support to the body. These chitin-based structures protect against physical damage and desiccation while facilitating molting, a process where the old exoskeleton is degraded and shed to accommodate growth, involving coordinated chitin synthesis and enzymatic breakdown. In fungi, chitin reinforces the cell wall, contributing to its rigidity and resistance to osmotic stress by maintaining structural integrity during fluctuations in environmental water potential and turgor. This reinforcement prevents cell lysis under hypotonic conditions and supports hyphal expansion.^[52]^[62]^[63]^[64]^[65] The mechanical advantages of cellulose and chitin stem from their microfibrillar architecture, characterized by high aspect ratios—typically 10–100 for cellulose nanocrystals and similar for chitin nanofibers—which enable efficient load distribution and high tensile strength. These fibrils provide exceptional compressive resistance in composite matrices, such as plant cell walls under turgor or arthropod cuticles under external pressure, without requiring continuous metabolic energy input once synthesized, unlike dynamic protein-based structures. This inert stability minimizes long-term energetic costs while delivering durable support.^[66]^[47]^[67] Ecologically, the recalcitrance of cellulose—its resistance to degradation due to crystalline structure and β-linkages—acts as a bottleneck that has profoundly influenced herbivore evolution, necessitating the development of specialized digestive symbioses in insects, mammals, and other grazers to access this energy-rich polymer. This evolutionary pressure has driven innovations like microbial consortia in ruminant guts and termite hindguts, shaping diverse feeding strategies and ecosystem dynamics.^[68]^[69]^[70]

Biosynthesis and Metabolism

Synthetic Pathways

The biosynthesis of homopolysaccharides occurs primarily through enzymatic processes involving glycosyltransferases, which catalyze the transfer of activated monosaccharide units from nucleotide-sugar donors to elongating polysaccharide chains, forming specific glycosidic linkages. In general, these activated donors, such as UDP-glucose for glycogen and cellulose or ADP-glucose for starch, provide the high-energy substrate necessary for polymerization without requiring external energy input during chain extension. For instance, glycogen synthesis in animal cells relies on glycogen synthase, a glycosyltransferase that sequentially adds α-D-glucose units from UDP-glucose to the non-reducing ends of existing chains via α-1,4-glycosidic bonds, initiating from a protein primer called glycogenin.^[71] This process exemplifies the conserved mechanism across homopolysaccharides, where the nucleotide-activated sugars are derived from monosaccharide activation pathways.^[72] Starch synthesis in plant plastids follows a similar but distinct pathway, utilizing ADP-glucose as the primary donor, which is generated by ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase from glucose-1-phosphate and ATP. Starch synthase isoforms, including granule-bound starch synthase for amylose and soluble starch synthases for amylopectin, extend linear α-1,4-glucan chains by transferring glucose from ADP-glucose. Branching is introduced by starch branching enzymes, which cleave α-1,4 linkages and create new α-1,6 branches, enabling the formation of the branched amylopectin structure essential for starch granule architecture. This coordinated enzymatic action occurs within amyloplasts in non-photosynthetic tissues or chloroplasts in leaves, ensuring efficient carbon storage.^[73] Cellulose biosynthesis takes place at the plasma membrane via large multimeric cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs), consisting of multiple cellulose synthase catalytic subunit (CesA) proteins that assemble into rosette-like structures in plants. These complexes processively polymerize β-1,4-glucan chains from UDP-glucose, with each CesA subunit contributing to the synthesis of one glucan chain; the chains are then bundled into microfibrils extruded into the extracellular space to form the cell wall. The directional movement of CSCs is guided by cortical microtubules, ensuring oriented deposition. In fungi and arthropods, chitin synthesis employs analogous chitin synthase (CHS) enzymes, which use UDP-N-acetylglucosamine to produce β-1,4-N-acetylglucosamine chains for structural support.^[74]^[75] The genetic foundation of these pathways involves conserved gene families encoding the key synthases. In plants, the CesA multigene family provides the catalytic subunits, with specific isoforms like CesA1, CesA3, and CesA6 required for primary cell walls and CesA4, CesA7, CesA8 for secondary walls; mutations in CesA genes, such as the rsw1 allele in Arabidopsis CesA1, disrupt complex assembly, reduce cellulose content by about 50% at restrictive temperatures, and result in dwarfism due to impaired cell expansion. In fungi, multiple CHS genes encode isoenzymes with specialized roles in hyphal growth and septum formation, where disruptions lead to cell wall defects and viability issues. These genes highlight the evolutionary conservation and specificity of homopolysaccharide assembly.^[76]^[77]

Microbial Extracellular Homopolysaccharides

Certain bacteria, such as lactic acid bacteria (Leuconostoc and Weissella), synthesize extracellular homopolysaccharides like dextrans (α-1,6-glucose linkages with branches) and levans (β-2,6-fructose linkages) using glycosyltransferases known as glucansucrases and fructansucrases. These enzymes utilize sucrose as both donor and acceptor, cleaving the glycosidic bond to transfer glucose or fructose units, respectively, without nucleotide-sugar intermediates, enabling in situ polymerization during fermentation. This process contributes to biofilm formation and food texture modification.^[3]

Degradation Mechanisms

Homopolysaccharides are degraded through enzymatic and phosphorolytic processes that facilitate nutrient recycling and energy release in various organisms. These mechanisms primarily involve hydrolysis by specific glycoside hydrolases or phosphorolysis, which cleaves glycosidic bonds using inorganic phosphate to produce phosphorylated sugars, thereby conserving cellular energy.^[78] Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch, a key α-1,4-glucan homopolysaccharide, is mediated by amylases that operate via endo- or exo-acting modes. Endo-acting α-amylases cleave internal α-1,4-glycosidic bonds randomly within the polysaccharide chain, generating oligosaccharides and increasing substrate accessibility for further breakdown.^[79] In contrast, exo-acting β-amylases hydrolyze from the non-reducing ends, sequentially releasing maltose units until encountering branch points.^[80] These enzymes are produced by plants, microbes, and animals, enabling starch mobilization during germination or digestion.^[81] For cellulose, another prominent β-1,4-glucan homopolysaccharide, degradation relies on cellulase enzyme complexes that exhibit synergistic action, particularly in microbial systems. Cellulases include endoglucanases, which create nicks in the crystalline microfibrils; exoglucanases, which release cellobiose from chain ends; and β-glucosidases, which hydrolyze cellobiose to glucose.^[82] In microbes like fungi and bacteria, these components form multi-enzyme complexes, such as cellulosomes, where scaffold proteins tether enzymes to enhance proximity and efficiency on insoluble substrates, achieving up to several-fold higher degradation rates than free enzymes.^[83]^[84] Phosphorolytic cleavage provides an energy-efficient alternative for glycogen degradation, a branched α-1,4- and α-1,6-glucan. Glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes the phosphorolysis of α-1,4-glycosidic bonds at non-reducing ends, releasing glucose-1-phosphate without hydrolytic water, which bypasses the subsequent ATP-requiring phosphorylation step in glycolysis and conserves one ATP molecule per glucose unit compared to free glucose uptake.^[78]^[85] This process is reversible and tightly regulated by allosteric effectors like AMP and glucose-6-phosphate in muscle and liver isoforms.^[86] Chitin degradation occurs via chitinases (glycoside hydrolases family 18 or 20), which hydrolyze β-1,4 linkages to produce N-acetylglucosamine oligomers or monomers. These enzymes are produced by bacteria, fungi, insects (for molting), and plants (for defense), often in synergy with chitobiases for complete breakdown to GlcNAc, which enters amino sugar metabolism.^[87] Microbial consortia play a central role in homopolysaccharide degradation in certain ecosystems, exemplified by rumen bacteria that break down cellulose via fibrolytic enzymes. In ruminants, anaerobic bacteria such as Fibrobacter succinogenes and Ruminococcus species produce endoglucanases, exoglucanases, and hemicellulases that collectively solubilize plant cell walls, yielding volatile fatty acids for host energy.^[88] These consortia form biofilms on fibrous substrates, with enzyme secretion and syntrophy enabling 60-90% total cellulose digestion, primarily in the rumen.^[89] In contrast, the human gut microbiome generally lacks robust cellulolytic capacity, with cellulase-producing bacteria like certain Ruminococcus species being scarce in industrialized populations, limiting cellulose fermentation to minimal levels and resulting in its excretion as dietary fiber.^[90]^[91] Disruptions in homopolysaccharide degradation pathways can lead to metabolic disorders, such as glycogen storage disease type I (GSD I), also known as von Gierke disease. This autosomal recessive condition arises from deficiencies in glucose-6-phosphatase, the enzyme that dephosphorylates glucose-6-phosphate (derived from glucose-1-phosphate after phosphorolysis) to free glucose for release into the bloodstream.^[92] In GSD Ia, the catalytic subunit is affected, causing hepatic glycogen accumulation, hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, and hepatomegaly due to impaired gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis completion.^[93] Management focuses on frequent carbohydrate feeding to maintain euglycemia, as the core degradation defect persists lifelong.^[94]

Applications and Significance

Industrial Uses

Homopolysaccharides play a pivotal role in various industrial sectors due to their abundance, renewability, and versatile properties, including biodegradability and structural integrity. Extracted primarily from plant and marine sources, these polymers are processed into modified forms to enhance functionality for manufacturing applications. Key examples include starch, cellulose, and chitin, which contribute to sustainable production in food processing, materials, and energy sectors.^[95] Starch, a glucose-based homopolysaccharide, is extensively utilized in the food industry as a thickener and stabilizer, where modified variants improve texture and viscosity in products like sauces, dairy, and frozen foods. Approximately 52% of global starch production is directed toward food applications, with modified starches accounting for over 74% of the food starch market due to their enhanced performance in processed items. In the paper industry, starch serves as a critical wet-end additive and sizing agent, boosting paper strength properties such as tensile and bursting resistance while reducing production energy needs. Cationic modifications further optimize its retention on fibers, making it indispensable for high-quality paperboard manufacturing.^[96]^[97]^[98] Cellulose, the most abundant homopolysaccharide, underpins the textile industry through regenerated fibers like viscose and lyocell, produced via processes such as the viscose method involving wood pulp dissolution in sodium hydroxide and carbon disulfide. These fibers, comprising about 7% of global textile production, offer breathability and sustainability, with lyocell's N-methylmorpholine N-oxide solvent enabling up to 99.7% recyclability. In biofuels, enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass converts it to ethanol, supporting renewable energy; the cellulosic biofuel market is projected to reach $5.9 billion in 2025, contributing to advanced biofuel demand amid global shifts toward low-carbon fuels.^[99]^[100]^[101] Chitin, derived from crustacean exoskeletons, functions as a flocculant in water treatment, where its derivatives adsorb dyes and heavy metals from industrial wastewater through mechanisms like pseudo-second-order kinetics. Surface-modified chitin composites enhance removal efficiency for organic pollutants, promoting eco-friendly purification. Additionally, chitin nanofibers reinforce polymer composites, improving mechanical strength and biodegradability for applications in packaging and structural materials.^[102]^[103] The global polysaccharides market, encompassing these homopolysaccharides, is valued at approximately $16 billion in 2025, driven by demand for sustainable and bio-based materials in industrial processing.^[104]

Biomedical Applications

Chitosan, a deacetylated derivative of the homopolysaccharide chitin, is widely utilized in biomedical applications due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and inherent antimicrobial properties. In wound management, chitosan-based dressings promote healing by maintaining a moist environment, absorbing exudates, and exhibiting broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli through disruption of bacterial cell membranes.^[105] These dressings, often formulated as films, hydrogels, or sponges, accelerate re-epithelialization and reduce infection risk in chronic wounds like diabetic ulcers.^[106] For drug delivery, chitosan's mucoadhesive nature enables strong adhesion to mucosal surfaces via electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding, facilitating prolonged release of therapeutics such as antibiotics or growth factors and enhancing bioavailability in oral or nasal routes.^[107] Starch-based materials, derived from the homopolysaccharide amylose and amylopectin, serve as biodegradable implants in biomedical contexts owing to their tunable degradation rates and low immunogenicity. These implants, often blended with polymers like polylactic acid, provide controlled release of hydrophobic drugs over weeks, as demonstrated in subcutaneous models where starch matrices fully degrade without inflammation after 4 weeks.^[108] Hyperbranched structures mimicking glycogen, a branched starch analog, have been engineered for targeted therapy, particularly in oncology, where pH-sensitive glycogen nanoparticles conjugated with galactose and doxorubicin selectively accumulate in liver cancer cells via asialoglycoprotein receptor binding, minimizing off-target effects and enabling tumor-specific drug release in acidic microenvironments.^[109] Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), rigid rod-like nanoparticles from the homopolysaccharide cellulose, are employed in regenerative medicine as tissue scaffolds due to their high mechanical strength, low toxicity, and ability to mimic extracellular matrix components. In bone and cartilage engineering, CNC-reinforced hydrogels support cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells, promoting vascularization and tissue integration in vivo.^[110] For diagnostics, functionalized CNCs labeled with near-infrared dyes enable efficient cellular tracking and bioimaging, exhibiting dose-dependent uptake in macrophages, fibroblasts, and dendritic cells with superior photostability for long-term monitoring without cytotoxicity.^[111] Emerging advancements leverage glycogen, a hyperbranched homopolysaccharide, in nanogel formulations for insulin delivery to address diabetes, which affects approximately 830 million adults globally as of 2022. Phytoglycogen nanoparticles, modified with boronic acid for glucose responsiveness, form insulin-loaded nanocomplexes that release the hormone rapidly upon hyperglycemia, maintaining normoglycemia for up to 13 hours in diabetic mouse models via subcutaneous injection, thus offering a biodegradable alternative to conventional therapies.^[112]^[113]

References

[1]
Polysaccharides; Classification, Chemical Properties, and Future ...
Jan 27, 2021 · Homopolysaccharides are homoglycans that consist of the same monosaccharides, whereas heteropolysaccharides are heteroglycans that consist of ...
[2]
7. ANALYSIS OF CARBOHYDRATES
Some polysaccharides contain all the same kind of monosaccharide (homopolysaccharides), whereas others contain a mixture of different kinds of monosaccharide ( ...
[3]
Variability of Bacterial Homopolysaccharide Production and ... - NIH
Jan 21, 2022 · Bacteria can produce diverse homopolysaccharides (HoPSs), which are polymers of glucose, fructose or galactose.
[4]
Lecture 16. Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Jan 8, 2019 · Some homopolysaccharides are storage forms of fuel. Starch (amylose and amylopectin) and glycogen. Dextrans. Some homopolysaccharides serve ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[5]
Homopolysaccharide - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Homopolysaccharides are defined as polysaccharides that consist of only one type of monosaccharide, such as starch and cellulose, which are both ...
[6]
homopolysaccharide, n. meanings, etymology and more
The earliest known use of the noun homopolysaccharide is in the 1940s. OED's earliest evidence for homopolysaccharide is from 1948, in the writing of W. Pigman.
[7]
Maurice Stacey 1907-1994 - PubMed
Maurice Stacey 1907-1994 ; Publication types. Bibliography; Biography; Historical Article; Portrait ; MeSH terms. Bacteria / chemistry; Carbohydrates / chemistry* ...Missing: homopolysaccharide term
[8]
Carbohydrates of Living Tissues - Maurice Stacey, Sydney Alan Barker
Title, Carbohydrates of Living Tissues ; Authors, Maurice Stacey, Sydney Alan Barker ; Publisher, Van Nostrand, 1962 ; Original from, the University of Michigan.
[9]
Review Polysaccharide hydrogels for modified release formulations
... formula (C6H10O6)n. Dextrans can be defined as glucose homopolysaccharides that feature a substantial number of consecutive α-(1 → 6) linkages in their ...
[10]
Starch - BYJU'S
Starch is a polysaccharide made up of 1,4 linkages between glucose monomers. The chemical formula of the starch molecule is (C6H10O5)n.Missing: homopolysaccharide | Show results with:homopolysaccharide<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
Structural characterization of intact polysaccharides by MALDI-in ...
Polysaccharides occur throughout all kingdoms of life including plants, microorganisms and animals. They differ profoundly in structure and function ranging ...
[12]
Architecture, Function, Regulation, and Evolution of α-Glucans ...
Apr 12, 2024 · The current picture shows that bacteria have evolved an intricate α-glucan metabolism that ultimately relies on the evolution of a specific enzymatic machinery.
[13]
Dating the Bacterial Tree of Life Based on Ancient Symbiosis
Our analysis estimates that the last bacterial common ancestor occurred approximately 4.0–3.5 billion years ago (Ga), followed by rapid divergence of major ...
[14]
8.4: Carbohydrates - Chemistry LibreTexts
Oct 4, 2022 · The simplest polysaccharides consist of only one monosaccharide repeating unit. Three examples of homopolysaccharides, glycogen/starch, ...
[15]
Mannan - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Mannan is a polymer of d-mannose units linked by β-1,4-glycosidic linkage. Mannan are important structural components in the lignocellulose parts of plants.
[16]
[PDF] Chapter 20 Carbohydrates - Organic Chemistry
Furanoses and Pyranoses (20.1A) Monosaccharides with 5-membered rings are called furanoses and those with 6 membered rings are pyranoses because their ...Missing: alpha beta DL
[17]
The Big Damn Post Of Carbohydrate-Related Chemistry Definitions
Feb 19, 2018 · This post aims to provide single place giving you the definitions of terms like anomeric carbon, alpha versus beta, pyranose versus furanose, and all the other ...Missing: DL | Show results with:DL
[18]
[PDF] Sugars and Polysaccharides
Mar 24, 2015 · Polysaccharides (glycans): monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds. • Homopolysaccharides are composed of one type of monosaccharide ...
[19]
Homopolysaccharide - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
In some bacterial species, all strains produce only one or several related homopolysaccharides and, accordingly, are characterized by a limited sero-variation.Missing: evolution timeline
[20]
[PDF] Digestibility and metabolism of soluble amylose and amylopectin ...
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates with a degree of polymerization of 3-10, such as raffinose, stachyose, syrups, etc. 4. Polysaccharide. The degree of ...
[21]
Glycosidic bond (article) | Carbohydrates - Khan Academy
The most common type of glycosidic bond in biochemistry is the O-glycosidic bond, where the oxygen atom connects two sugar units.
[22]
7.5: Polysaccharides of Glucose
### Summary of Glycosidic Linkages in Homopolysaccharides (Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose)
[23]
Glycosidic Bond - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Glycosidic bonds are defined as covalent bonds that link a chemical group to a saccharide, formed through a reaction involving the elimination of water, which ...
[24]
Conformational Properties of α- or β-(1→6)-Linked Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are monosaccharide units linked together via α- or β-(1→X, where, X = 1, 2, ..., 6) glycosidic linkages. In addition to ring conformational ...
[25]
Energetics of cellulose and cyclodextrin glycosidic bond cleavage
The low temperature kinetic regime exhibited glycosidic bond cleavage (Ea,1 = 23.2 ± 1.9 kcal mol−1, k0,1 = 2.0 × 107 s−1), while the high temperature kinetic ...
[26]
Twisting of glycosidic bonds by hydrolases - ScienceDirect.com
Nov 2, 2009 · Different GH families twist scissile glycosidic bonds differently, increasing their potential energies from 0.5 to 9.5 kcal/mol.
[27]
Structural, morphological, functional and digestibility properties of ...
The amylose content among the starches varies from 0 to 8% in waxy, 20–30% in normal, and more than 40% in high-amylose, respectively. Chains of amylopectin are ...
[28]
How do plants make starch? - John Innes Centre
Apr 24, 2019 · Many plants, including crop plants like wheat and potatoes, also make starch in their seeds and storage organs (their grains and tubers), which ...
[29]
[PDF] Global Market for Starch and Starch Products
Jun 20, 2023 · The global starch market was 134.5 million tonnes in 2022, with a 5.1% CAGR, reaching 199.8 million tonnes by 2030. Food and beverage is the ...
[30]
Determination of the molecular mass of amylose - ScienceDirect.com
The Mw (Rg) of amylopectin and amylose in high amylose corn starch were slightly smaller than those in normal corn starch: 113×106 (175 nm) and 2.7×106 g/mol ( ...<|separator|>
[31]
323. Amylose and amylopectin (WHO Food Additives Series 5)
Amylopectin is considered to be composed of anhydroglucose chains with many branch points; the molecular weight may reach as high as 80 000 000. One hundred per ...
[32]
The Iodine/Iodide/Starch Supramolecular Complex - PMC - NIH
Over time, many experiments have shown that the starch–iodine complex shows absorption at ~600 nm: a strong dark blue color [23]. A more detailed description ...
[33]
Why Does Iodine Turn Starch Blue? - ChemistryViews
Dec 6, 2016 · Amylose is the compound that is responsible for the blue color. Its chain forms a helix shape, and iodine can be bound inside this helix.
[34]
The Plant Cell Wall - Molecular Biology of the Cell - NCBI Bookshelf
These highly ordered crystalline aggregates, many micrometers long, are called cellulose microfibrils, and they have a tensile strength comparable to steel.
[35]
[PDF] Systems biology-guided understanding of white-rot fungi for ... - NREL
The dry weight con- centration of each component varies between plant types but, in general, cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer ( 50%), followed by ...
[36]
Emerging Technologies for the Production of Renewable Liquid ...
Plant cell walls are composed predominantly of cellulose, a range of non-cellulosic polysaccharides and lignin ... It has been calculated that 100 billion tons of ...
[37]
How Cellulose Stretches: Synergism between Covalent and ... - PMC
Cellulose has a simple primary structure, a linear chain of β-glucose units joined covalently by 1,4′ glycosidic (C–O–C) links (Figure 1). Cellulose chains ...
[38]
A Molecular Description of Cellulose Biosynthesis - PMC - NIH
Cellulose microfibril. a cable-like, paracrystalline structure composed of multiple parallel β-1,4-glucan chains. Glucan. polymer of glucose molecules. Donor.
[39]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3950890/
[40]
Surface Modification of Bacterial Cellulose for Biomedical Applications
The structural singularity of the BC fibrillated 3D network produces distinct mechanical properties, with high degree of crystallinity (60–80%) and a Young's ...
[41]
Cellulose biosynthesis in plants: from genes to rosettes - PubMed
... cellulose synthase enzyme complex visualized in the plasma membrane as rosettes. At least 10 CesA isoforms exist in Arabidopsis and have been shown by ...
[42]
Cellulose Synthase Complexes: Composition and Regulation - PMC
This review is an update on the most recent progress on the characterization of the composition, regulation, and trafficking of CSCs.
[43]
Chitin - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Chitin is a linear polysaccharide made up of N-acetyl-d-glucosamine monomers that are connected by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. It is found in a wide variety of ...
[44]
Chitinases from Bacteria to Human: Properties, Applications, and ...
Nov 19, 2015 · Chitin is a linear stable polymer of β-1,4-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), which is 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose, and is the second highest ...
[45]
Understanding the structural diversity of chitins as a versatile ... - PMC
Aug 2, 2021 · Chitin is a polysaccharide composed of 1–4 linked 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranose, figure 2. On the evolutionary map, it is safe to say ...
[46]
Structural Polymorphism of Chitin and Chitosan in Fungal Cell Walls ...
Aug 25, 2021 · The results provided three structural implications. First, the structure of chitin is highly polymorphic in fungal cell walls.
[47]
Chitin - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Chitin, the second most abundant natural polysaccharide, after cellulose, is a linear polymer composed of repeating β(1,4)-N-acetylglucosamine units (Figure 18) ...
[48]
The Fungal Cell Wall: Candida, Cryptococcus, and Aspergillus ...
Jan 9, 2020 · It represents 1–2% of the dry weight of yeast cell wall while in filamentous fungi, it can reach up to 10–20%. Chitin is synthesized from n- ...
[49]
The Potential of Insects as Alternative Sources of Chitin - PMC
Jul 15, 2020 · Chitin is a biopolymer and is the most abundant biopolymer after cellulose, with a production of approximately 1010–1012 tons annually [5,6,7].
[50]
Insect Cuticular Chitin Contributes to Form and Function - PMC - NIH
Chitin contributes to the rigidity of the insect cuticle and serves as an attachment matrix for other cuticular proteins.Missing: toughness | Show results with:toughness
[51]
Nanochitin: Chemistry, Structure, Assembly, and Applications - PMC
In principle, elementary chitin nanofibrils are wrapped by proteins forming chitin–protein complex superstructures, embedded in minerals (crystalline ...
[52]
Review Progress in chitin analytics - ScienceDirect.com
Jan 15, 2021 · The ancient origin of chitin was demonstrated in the fossil filaments of eukaryotic organisms found in 810 to 715 million years (Myr) old ...Missing: ago early
[53]
Starch as a source, starch as a sink: the bifunctional role of starch in ...
Sep 4, 2017 · Starch plays a dual role in carbon allocation, acting as both a source, releasing carbon reserves in leaves for growth and development, and as a sink.
[54]
A review of starch, a unique biopolymer – Structure, metabolism and ...
Starch is quantitatively the most dominant storage carbohydrate on Earth and is synthesized mostly in plants and some cyanobacteria [1]. Starch is accumulated ...Review Article · 1. Starch · 3. Enzymology Of Starch
[55]
Glycogen metabolism and structure: A review - ScienceDirect.com
Dec 15, 2024 · This review discusses glycogen metabolism and structure, including molecular architecture, branching dynamics, and the role of associated components within the ...
[56]
Physiology, Glucose - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 30, 2024 · Excess glucose is stored in the body as glycogen, a glucose polymer, utilized during fasting. In addition, glucose can be produced through ...
[57]
Carbohydrates - PMC - NIH
The energy value of digestible carbohydrates is generally accepted as 4 kcal/g for both sugars and starches. Fermentation of fiber in the gut will produce ...
[58]
Glucose Metabolism and Regulation: Beyond Insulin and Glucagon
Jul 1, 2004 · Based on current understanding, glucose homeostasis is governed by the interplay of insulin, glucagon, amylin, and incretin hormones.
[59]
A self-regulatory cell-wall-sensing module at cell edges controls ...
Mar 7, 2024 · Plant cell growth is driven by non-directional turgor pressure, which is translated into directional growth through construction and ...Missing: directionality | Show results with:directionality
[60]
Chitin Synthases Are Critical for Reproduction, Molting, and ... - NIH
Jan 13, 2021 · Chitin, a polysaccharide of N-acetylglucosamine, is a structural building block of the exoskeleton of arthropods and is synthesized by the ...
[61]
Chitinase (CHI) of Spodoptera frugiperda affects molting ... - NIH
Chitin is the main component of insect exoskeleton and midgut peritrophic membrane. Insect molting is the result of the balance and coordination of chitin ...
[62]
Cell Wall Remodeling Enzymes Modulate Fungal Cell Wall Elasticity ...
Jul 28, 2015 · We show that the cell wall is not rigid but elastic, displaying rapid structural realignments that impact survival following osmotic shock.
[63]
Chitin induces accumulation in tissue of innate immune cells ...
Apr 22, 2007 · Chitin provides osmotic stability and tensile strength to fungal cell walls and scaffolds the rigid exoskeleton in insects. ... support a ...Missing: stress | Show results with:stress
[64]
Structural Color from Cellulose Nanocrystals or Chitin Nanocrystals
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) (and chitin nanocrystals (ChNCs)) are elongated, birefringent nanoparticles that, due to their high aspect ratio, behave as a ...
[65]
Micro- and Nanocellulose in Polymer Composite Materials: A Review
Cellulose also possesses excellent mechanical properties, such as tensile and flexural strengths, tensile and flexural moduli, and thermal resistance, as well ...<|separator|>
[66]
Evolution of High Cellulolytic Activity in Symbiotic Streptomyces ...
Jun 8, 2016 · The evolution of cellulose degradation was a defining event in the history of life. Without efficient decomposition and recycling, dead ...
[67]
An Insect Herbivore Microbiome with High Plant Biomass-Degrading ...
Herbivores can gain indirect access to recalcitrant carbon present in plant cell walls through symbiotic associations with lignocellulolytic microbes.
[68]
How interactions with plant chemicals shape insect genomes - PMC
Sep 24, 2019 · Transitions associated with herbivory and insectivory reveal the need to digest recalcitrant carbohydrates such as chitin or cellulose for ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[69]
Crystal structure of glycogen synthase: homologous enzymes ...
Glycogen biosynthesis involves the action of several enzymes among which glycogen synthase catalyzes the synthesis of the α-1,4-glucose backbone. We now report ...<|separator|>
[70]
UDP-Sugar Producing Pyrophosphorylases: Distinct and Essential ...
The primary synthesis of UDP-sugars is catalyzed by specific pyrophosphorylases, which use UTP and a sugar-1-P (which may be N-acetylated) as substrates to form ...
[71]
Formation of starch in plant cells - PMC - NIH
The starch in non-photosynthetic tissues, such as seeds, stems, roots or tubers, is generally stored for longer periods and regarded as storage starch.
[72]
Cellulose Biosynthesis: Current Views and Evolving Concepts - PMC
In nature, synthesis of cellulose requires the enzyme cellulose synthase that uses UDP-glucose as the substrate. These two features of cellulose synthesis ...
[73]
Chitin synthesis and fungal pathogenesis - PMC - NIH
Chitin, a β(1,4)-linked homopolymer of N-acetylglucosamine, is a simple polysaccharide that is represented in the cell walls of all fungi studied to date [1,2].Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[74]
Characterization of Cellulose Synthesis in Plant Cells - PMC
This review article covers the current knowledge about the cellulose biosynthesis-related gene family.
[75]
Mapping of a Cellulose-Deficient Mutant Named dwarf1-1 in ... - NIH
Most cellulose-deficient mutants have been mapped to cellulose synthase (CESA) genes (Arioli et al., 1998; Taylor et al., 2003; Sethaphong et al., 2013). dwf1-1 ...
[76]
Biochemistry - Glycogenolysis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jan 27, 2024 · Glycogenolysis is initiated by the action of a specific enzyme called phosphorylase, which yields glucose-1-phosphate (P). Glucose-1-P is an ...
[77]
Enzymatic Depolymerization of Starch - SpringerLink
They act in two different modes. α-Amylase is an endo-hydrolase, and has more affinity for interior bonds than those located near the ends of substrates ...
[78]
Insight of the α-Amylase Family of Enzymes | 4 | Endo- and Exo-Acting
Exo-acting β-hydrolases, comprised by β-amylase and glucoamylase, catalyse starch, glycogen or related polysaccharides and oligosaccharides hydrolysis by a ...Missing: enzymatic | Show results with:enzymatic
[79]
Amylolytic enzymes and products derived from starch: a review
It also deals with the five groups of enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of starch: the endo- and exoamylases, which act primarily on the alpha-1,4 linkages ...
[80]
Synergistic Effects on Crystalline Cellulose Degradation between ...
These different family cellulase components are known to cooperate synergistically to degrade crystalline cellulose (3, 15). Anaerobic bacteria, as well as ...
[81]
Fungal cellulases and complexed cellulosomal enzymes exhibit ...
Many biomass-degrading organisms secrete synergistic cocktails of individual enzymes with one or several catalytic domains per enzyme, whereas a few bacteria ...Missing: microbes | Show results with:microbes
[82]
Combinatorial optimization of the hybrid cellulase complex structure ...
Sep 28, 2024 · Assembling different cellulases on a scaffold enhances cellulose degradation synergistically by creating new accessible sites for the enzymes ...
[83]
Glycogen Breakdown - Oregon State Ecampus
The polymer is composed of units of glucose linked alpha(1-4) with branches occurring alpha(1-6) approximately every 8-12 residues. The end of the molecule ...
[84]
Increasing free-energy (ATP) conservation in maltose-grown ...
As a result no ATP is hydrolyzed in the hexokinase reaction to convert glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. This modification increases the net ATP yield by 1 ATP ...
[85]
Degradation of Cellulose and Hemicellulose by Ruminal ... - PMC
Cellulose and hemicellulose are degraded and fermented by anaerobic microbes in the rumen to produce volatile fatty acids, the main nutrient source for the ...
[86]
Starch and Cellulose Degradation in the Rumen and Applications of ...
Nov 3, 2022 · This review will summarize the ruminal microbes and enzymes involved in starch and cellulose degradation.
[87]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27076/
[88]
Cryptic diversity of cellulose-degrading gut bacteria in industrialized ...
Mar 15, 2024 · It was long believed that crystalline cellulose was not digested in the human gut, in contrast to ruminants and other herbivores (6, 7).
[89]
Glycogen Storage Disease Type I - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Apr 6, 2025 · GSD I, or Von Gierke disease, is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder that impairs glucose production through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
[90]
Glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency
May 20, 2011 · Glycogen storage disease type I (GSDI) is a group of rare inherited diseases resulting from a defect in the glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) ...
[91]
Glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency (glycogen storage disease I, von ...
Sep 4, 2024 · Glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency (G6PD; OMIM #232200), also known as von Gierke disease, is a glycogen storage disease (GSD). It was the ...
[92]
Customizing Starch Properties: A Review of Starch Modifications ...
Aug 21, 2023 · Starch has been a convenient, economically important polymer with substantial applications in the food and processing industry.
[93]
Physicochemical, structural and functional properties of native and ...
Jan 1, 2019 · At present 52% of starch is being used by the food industries (confectionery, drinks and other processed foods) while 48% starch is being used ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[94]
Food Starch Market - Size, Share & Industry Analysis, 2025 - 2030
Aug 5, 2025 · Modified starch accounts for 74.37% of the market share in 2024, driven by its enhanced functionality and versatility across food applications ...
[95]
Utilization of starch in paper industry - ResearchGate
Starch has been one of the most important wet end additives used in paper industry. Basically, it was used as beater additive to substitute for refining ...Abstract · References (0) · Recommended Publications
[96]
Trends on the Cellulose-Based Textiles: Raw Materials and ...
Mar 28, 2021 · Cellulose presents unique structural features, being the most important and available renewable resource for textiles. The physical and chemical ...
[97]
Microbial Cellulases and Their Industrial Applications - PMC
Microbial cellulases have shown their potential application in various industries including pulp and paper, textile, laundry, biofuel production, food and feed ...
[98]
Cellulosic Biofuel Decade Long Trends, Analysis and Forecast 2025 ...
Rating 4.8 (1,980) Mar 17, 2025 · The global cellulosic biofuel market is experiencing robust growth, projected to reach a value of $5.941 billion in 2025 and exhibiting a ...
[99]
Applications of chitin and chitosan based biomaterials for the ...
Dec 1, 2021 · The surface modified chitin and chitosan biopolymeric composites based adsorbents, have an important role in the toxic organic dyes from removal wastewater.
[100]
Chitin nanofibers: recent advances in preparation and applications ...
May 19, 2025 · Chitin nanofibers (ChNFs) are biomaterials with high surface area, porosity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, used in biomedical and ...
[101]
Polysaccharides Market Size, Insights, and Strategic Forecast Report
Polysaccharides Market size was valued at USD 15.2 billion in 2023 and is poised to grow from USD 15.96 billion in 2024 to USD 23.58 billion by 2032, ...
[102]
Recent Advancements in Chitosan-Based Biomaterials for Wound ...
Jan 30, 2025 · Chitosan is a positively charged natural polymer with several properties conducive to wound-healing applications, such as biodegradability, ...
[103]
Chitosan-Based Biomaterial in Wound Healing: A Review - PMC
Feb 28, 2024 · Chitosan-based wound dressings establish an ideal atmosphere for wound healing, by maintaining moisture, promoting cell migration, and reducing ...
[104]
Biomedical Applications of Chitosan and Its Derivative Nanoparticles
Chitosan has excellent biological properties, including being nontoxic, mucoadhesive, hemocompatible, biodegradable, and possessing antitumor, antioxidant, and ...
[105]
A starch-based implant as a controlled drug release system
Our results indicate the promising potential of the biodegradable biocompatible starch-based implant for the controlled release of hydrophobic drugs.
[106]
pH-Sensitive tumor-targeted hyperbranched system based on ...
This glycogen based drug delivery system minimized uptake and drug leakage in normal organs, enhanced accumulation and efficient drug release at tumor sites.Missing: mimics | Show results with:mimics
[107]
Nanocellulose-Based Biomedical Scaffolds in Future Bioeconomy
This manuscript assesses the technological aspects (chemistry of cellulose, nanocellulose producing methods, its purity, and biological properties)
[108]
Functionalized Cellulose Nanocrystals for Cellular Labeling and Bioimaging
### Summary of Functionalized Cellulose Nanocrystals for Cellular Labeling and Tracking
[109]
An Engineered Nanosugar Enables Rapid and Sustained Glucose ...
Mar 12, 2023 · Here, biodegradable and charge-switchable phytoglycogen nanoparticles capable of glucose-stimulated insulin release are engineered. The ...
[110]
Diabetes - World Health Organization (WHO)
Nov 14, 2024 · In 2022, 14% of adults aged 18 years and older were living with diabetes, an increase from 7% in 1990. More than half (59%) of adults aged 30 ...Urgent action needed · Global Diabetes Compact · Noncommunicable diseases