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Hypernasal speech

Hypernasal speech, also known as hypernasality, is a resonance disorder characterized by the excessive nasal resonance of non-nasal speech sounds, resulting from unintended airflow and acoustic energy escaping into the nasal cavity during production of oral vowels, glides, liquids, and voiced consonants, most notably on high vowels such as /i/ and /u/.^[1]^[2] This condition arises primarily from velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD), where the velopharyngeal sphincter fails to close completely, allowing excessive nasal airflow that perceptually alters the voice to sound overly nasal or muffled.^[3] The primary causes of hypernasal speech are structural or functional abnormalities of the velopharyngeal mechanism. Structural issues include congenital conditions such as cleft palate (with or without cleft lip), submucous cleft palate, oronasal fistulas, and genetic syndromes like 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (also known as velocardiofacial syndrome), as well as acquired factors like tumor resection or iatrogenic damage from surgery.^[1] Functional causes encompass neurogenic disorders, including cerebral palsy, dysarthria from conditions such as Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, or ataxia, as well as learned misarticulations due to hearing loss or apraxia of speech that impair proper velopharyngeal control.^[1]^[3] Prevalence is notably high in certain populations; for instance, approximately 28.8% of individuals with nonsyndromic cleft palate exhibit significant hypernasality post-surgical repair, while up to 55.2% of those with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome experience VPD leading to hypernasality.^[1] Symptoms of hypernasal speech extend beyond the auditory perception of nasal timbre, often reducing speech intelligibility, particularly in severe cases, and may be accompanied by nasal emission of air or compensatory articulation errors such as glottal stops or pharyngeal fricatives.^[1] Diagnosis typically involves perceptual evaluation by speech-language pathologists, supplemented by objective measures like aerodynamic assessments (e.g., nasal airflow rates), acoustic analyses (e.g., nasalance scores), and instrumental imaging such as nasopharyngoscopy or videofluoroscopy to visualize velopharyngeal closure.^[3] Treatment for hypernasal speech is multidisciplinary and tailored to the underlying cause, aiming to restore appropriate oral-nasal resonance balance. For structural VPD, surgical interventions like pharyngeal flap surgery or sphincter pharyngoplasty are common, often combined with prosthetic devices such as speech bulbs for temporary management.^[1] Functional cases may respond to behavioral speech therapy, including biofeedback, articulation training, or voice focus adjustments to enhance velopharyngeal function and reduce nasal airflow.^[1] Early intervention is critical, as untreated hypernasality can persist into adulthood and impact social communication, though outcomes vary based on etiology and timely management.^[1]

Overview

Definition

Hypernasal speech, also known as hypernasality, is a resonance disorder characterized by excessive nasal resonance during the production of non-nasal speech sounds, such as vowels and voiced oral consonants.^[1] This occurs due to velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD), in which the velum (soft palate) fails to adequately seal the nasal cavity from the oral cavity, allowing unintended airflow and acoustic energy to escape into the nasal tract.^[4] As a result, oral sounds acquire an abnormal nasal quality, reducing overall speech clarity and intelligibility.^[1] Hypernasality is distinct from hyponasality, which involves insufficient nasal resonance on sounds that typically require it, such as nasal consonants (/m/, /n/, /ŋ/), often producing a congested or denasalized quality.^[1] It also differs from cul-de-sac resonance, a muffled or indistinct speech pattern caused by blockage in a portion of the vocal tract (e.g., nasal, oral, or pharyngeal), which traps sound energy and results in reduced volume without excessive nasal airflow.^[1] These distinctions are crucial for accurate diagnosis, as misidentification can lead to inappropriate interventions.^[2] Perceptually, hypernasal speech is often described as having a nasalized timbre, particularly affecting high vowels like /i/ and /u/, which become prolonged and distorted with added nasal formants.^[1] In severe cases, voiced oral consonants (e.g., /b/, /d/, /g/) may also exhibit this resonance, creating an overall impression of imprecise or weak articulation.^[4] Clinicians assess these characteristics through perceptual evaluation of connected speech, using standardized stimuli to elicit the disorder.^[1]

Prevalence and Epidemiology

Hypernasal speech, primarily resulting from velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD), affects approximately 20-30% of individuals following surgical repair of cleft palate, with rates varying based on surgical timing and technique.^[1] In nonsyndromic cases, significant hypernasality persists in about 28.8% post-primary palatoplasty, though secondary interventions reduce this to around 18%.^[1] The overall incidence in the general population is unknown due to the diversity of etiologies, but remains low, largely driven by the prevalence of congenital anomalies like cleft palate (approximately 1 in 700 live births worldwide).^[1]^[5] Demographic patterns show hypernasal speech is more prevalent in children, with peak diagnosis occurring between ages 3 and 7 years as speech development highlights resonance issues.^[1] It is more common in males due to higher male-to-female ratios in cleft lip and palate (approximately 2:1), though isolated cleft palate shows near parity or slight female predominance.^[6] Geographic variations are notable, with higher persistence and severity in low- and middle-income countries linked to limited access to timely cleft care and speech therapy, exacerbating outcomes compared to high-resource settings.^[7] Key risk factors include congenital syndromes such as 22q11.2 deletion, where VPD incidence reaches up to 55%.^[1] Post-surgical persistence occurs in 15-20% of cleft repairs, influenced by factors like repair age and submucous clefts, which carry a 40-51% risk of hypernasality.^[8]^[1] Recent epidemiological studies, including longitudinal cohorts from 2020-2025, indicate that enhanced early detection and intervention—such as repairs before 7 months—have reduced the need for secondary VPD surgery from historical rates of 25% to as low as 1-6%, thereby lowering adult persistence from around 25% to 10%.^[9]^[10] These trends underscore the impact of multidisciplinary care in mitigating long-term resonance disorders.^[9]

Anatomy and Physiology

Key Structures

The velopharyngeal complex, crucial for separating oral and nasal airflow during speech to achieve proper resonance, consists of several primary anatomical structures. The soft palate, also known as the velum, forms the posterior third of the roof of the mouth and is a muscular, flexible structure lacking bony support, covered by stratified squamous epithelium and containing minor salivary glands. It plays a pivotal role in oral-nasal airflow separation by elevating to contact the posterior pharyngeal wall, thereby closing the velopharyngeal port and directing airflow through the oral cavity for non-nasal sounds. The pharyngeal walls, comprising the posterior and lateral aspects of the pharynx, are lined with mucosa and supported by constrictor muscles; they provide a dynamic surface against which the velum seals during speech, ensuring complete closure and preventing nasal air escape. The tongue base, the posterior third of the tongue, contributes to this mechanism by adjusting position to facilitate velar elevation and aid in articulation, while the nasal cavity, extending from the nostrils to the choanae, serves as the resonator for nasal sounds but must be isolated during oral speech through velar closure.^[11]^[12] Central to velar function is the levator veli palatini muscle, which originates from the petrous portion of the temporal bone and the Eustachian tube cartilage, inserting into the palatine aponeurosis to form a sling-like structure that elevates the soft palate. This muscle contracts bilaterally to lift the velum toward the pharyngeal walls, achieving the seal necessary for resonance control in speech. In a conceptual diagram of velum-pharynx interaction, the relaxed velum hangs inferiorly, allowing nasal breathing; upon elevation, it moves posteriorly and superiorly to appose the posterior pharyngeal wall, visualized as a dynamic barrier dividing the airstream, with the tongue base positioned to support this contact without obstruction.^[11]^[12] Supporting these primary elements is the hard palate, the anterior two-thirds of the palatal structure formed by the maxilla and palatine bones, which provides a rigid boundary separating the oral and nasal cavities and serving as the fixed anterior foundation for velar movement. The Eustachian tubes, paired channels connecting the middle ear to the nasopharynx, open during swallowing and speech via coordinated action with the levator veli palatini, thereby equalizing middle ear pressure and indirectly supporting velopharyngeal dynamics by maintaining nasopharyngeal patency.^[11]^[13] Embryologically, the soft palate and velum develop during weeks 6-12 of gestation as part of secondary palate formation. Between weeks 6 and 8, lateral palatine processes grow vertically beside the tongue before reorienting horizontally as the tongue descends; by weeks 9-12, these shelves elevate, fuse at the midline, and form the epithelial seam that separates the oral and nasal cavities, with the posterior unfused portion becoming the muscular soft palate. Disruptions in this process, such as failed shelf elevation or fusion, can lead to congenital anomalies like cleft palate, which affect velopharyngeal integrity.^[14]

Normal Velopharyngeal Function

The velopharyngeal mechanism achieves closure during speech production through the coordinated elevation of the soft palate (velum) primarily by the levator veli palatini muscle, coupled with medial contraction of the lateral pharyngeal walls via the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscles. This action creates a temporary seal between the oral and nasal cavities, preventing nasal airflow during non-nasal sounds. The closure occurs rapidly, synchronized with phonation, typically within 50-100 milliseconds of oral sound initiation to ensure precise articulation.^[4]^[15] In normal resonance, complete velopharyngeal closure directs airflow exclusively through the oral cavity for the production of vowels and oral consonants, resulting in oral resonance. For nasal sounds such as /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/, the velopharyngeal port intentionally opens to couple the nasal cavity acoustically, allowing nasal resonance while the oral cavity remains occluded by the lips, tongue, or velum. This selective control maintains balanced speech acoustics without hypernasality or hyponasality.^[16]^[15] Neural control of velopharyngeal function is mediated by the pharyngeal plexus, formed by branches of cranial nerves IX (glossopharyngeal) and X (vagus), which provide motor innervation to key muscles like the levator veli palatini, palatopharyngeus, and superior pharyngeal constrictor. Cranial nerve XII (hypoglossal) indirectly supports this through tongue movements that aid velar positioning during speech. Sensory feedback from receptors in the palate, innervated by cranial nerve V (trigeminal), enables rapid adjustments via proprioceptive and tactile loops to fine-tune closure.^[17]^[18]^[19] Velopharyngeal competence develops progressively in children, with consistent closure for speech sounds emerging around 12-19 months and reaching full maturity by 2-3 years of age. In adults, function remains stable from young adulthood through senescence, though age-related increases in nasal cavity volume may subtly alter resonance balance. Variations can arise from habits such as prolonged oral breathing, but these do not typically impair closure in healthy individuals.^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]

Etiology

Structural Causes

Structural causes of hypernasal speech primarily arise from anatomical defects that impair velopharyngeal closure, resulting in velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) where air escapes into the nasal cavity during speech production. These defects prevent the soft palate (velum) from adequately sealing against the posterior pharyngeal wall, leading to excessive nasal resonance on oral sounds. Common structural etiologies include congenital malformations and iatrogenic alterations, which disrupt the normal anatomy of the velopharyngeal port.^[1]^[4] Congenital structural issues are the most frequent contributors, with cleft palate being the predominant cause. Isolated cleft palate, which can be complete or incomplete and occur in isolation or as part of syndromes, affects approximately 0.5–0.7 per 1,000 live births (1 in 1,429–2,000 children) and often leads to VPI due to insufficient palatal tissue for effective closure; even after surgical repair, 20–30% of cases persist with hypernasality.^[4]^[24] Submucous cleft palate, a subtler form where the muscle layers of the soft palate fail to join properly beneath intact mucosa, is associated with hypernasality in about 51% of affected individuals (10% mild, 19% moderate, and 22% severe), and 5.5–16.7% may require secondary surgical intervention. These submucous clefts are typically detected through clinical palpation during oral examination, revealing signs such as a bifid uvula or notched hard palate, or via imaging modalities like nasendoscopy to visualize the underlying muscular diastasis.^[4]^[1]^[1] Iatrogenic structural causes often result from surgical interventions that inadvertently compromise velopharyngeal function. Adenoidectomy, commonly performed to address airway obstruction or recurrent infections, carries a 3.2% risk of inducing VPI by removing adenoidal tissue that compensates for an underlying short or dysfunctional palate, thereby unmasking a persistent velopharyngeal gap and causing postoperative hypernasality in susceptible individuals. Similarly, complications from tumor resection in the head and neck region can lead to gross tissue deficiency or scarring, disrupting the soft palate's mobility or alignment and resulting in inadequate closure; this is particularly noted in cases involving oral or pharyngeal malignancies where reconstructive efforts fail to restore normal anatomy.^[1]^[25]^[26] Beyond cleft-related anomalies, other non-cleft structural variations can predispose individuals to hypernasal speech. A deep pharynx or short velum, even in the absence of clefting, creates palatopharyngeal disproportion where the velum cannot reach the pharyngeal wall, leading to incomplete closure during speech. These features are notably prevalent in syndromes such as Pierre Robin sequence, where micrognathia and glossoptosis are accompanied by a U-shaped cleft palate in many cases; VPI occurs in 40–60% of affected patients, with higher rates (up to 60%) in syndromic variants compared to isolated cases (around 41%). Other structural causes include oronasal fistulas, which can persist after cleft repair and allow air leakage into the nasal cavity, and genetic syndromes such as 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (also known as velocardiofacial syndrome), affecting up to 55.2% of individuals with velopharyngeal dysfunction.^[27]^[1]^[28]^[1] The underlying pathophysiology of these structural causes involves inadequate palatal tissue or disproportionate anatomy that prevents complete velopharyngeal sealing, resulting in a persistent gap greater than 2 mm during speech attempts. This gap allows nasal airflow escape, producing hypernasal resonance and associated speech distortions, as confirmed by instrumental assessments showing failure of the velum to approximate the pharyngeal walls despite muscular effort.^[4]^[29]^[27]

Functional and Neurological Causes

Functional and neurological causes of hypernasal speech arise from impairments in velopharyngeal function due to neuromuscular deficits, learned behaviors, or compensatory mechanisms, rather than fixed anatomical defects. These etiologies account for approximately 20-30% of velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) cases, particularly those persisting after structural repairs like cleft palate surgery, and are often reversible through targeted interventions such as speech therapy.^[30] Neurological conditions disrupt the coordination and strength of muscles involved in velopharyngeal closure, leading to inadequate sealing between the oral and nasal cavities during speech. In cerebral palsy, spastic dysarthria commonly contributes to hypernasality, affecting around 30% of individuals with voice disorders associated with the condition, due to hypotonia and impaired motor control of the soft palate and pharyngeal muscles.^[31] Similarly, stroke or traumatic brain injury can damage cranial nerves (e.g., vagus or glossopharyngeal) or central pathways, resulting in flaccid or spastic paresis that causes air leakage and nasal resonance; hypernasality is a common feature of flaccid dysarthria following stroke or traumatic brain injury, with one study reporting a 95% incidence in severe closed head injury cases. Dysarthria from Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, or ataxia can also lead to hypernasality due to impaired velopharyngeal control.^[4]^[32]^[3] Functional causes often stem from maladaptive patterns developed in response to prior issues or sensory deficits. Inappropriate muscle compensation following cleft palate repair can perpetuate hypernasality through habitual use of nasalized articulations, such as substituting nasal consonants (e.g., /n/, /m/) for oral sounds or employing glottal stops to build pressure.^[4] Hearing loss, particularly conductive types common in cleft populations, exacerbates this by reducing auditory feedback, leading to compensatory nasal speech patterns; for instance, children with moderate hearing impairment using aids show resonance disorders in 20-30% of cases, ranging from mild to severe hypernasality.^[33] Behavioral factors, such as velopharyngeal mislearning in children with transient VPI, involve incorrect articulation placement (e.g., pharyngeal sounds instead of oral), which can become habitual without structural deficits. Apraxia of speech can also impair proper velopharyngeal control, contributing to functional hypernasality.^[1]^[3] Rare iatrogenic cases include prolonged endotracheal intubation causing palatal scarring or groove formation, mimicking VPI and resulting in hypernasal speech, though this is uncommon and typically resolves with conservative management.^[34]

Clinical Features

Symptoms and Signs

Hypernasal speech is characterized by excessive nasal resonance, where sounds intended for oral production resonate abnormally through the nasal cavity due to inadequate velopharyngeal closure. This auditory sign is most prominent on vowels and high vowels such as /i/ and /u/, resulting in a nasal timbre that alters words like "cat" to sound similar to "can."^[1] In milder cases, this resonance is confined to vowels, glides, and liquids, while in more severe instances, it extends to voiced oral consonants like /b/, /d/, and /g/, reducing overall speech clarity.^[1] Additionally, nasal emission—audible airflow escape through the nose—occurs during production of pressure consonants such as /p/, /b/, and /t/, often accompanied by nasal turbulence that produces a fricative-like noise.^[4] Visible signs include compensatory facial grimacing, where individuals strain facial muscles to attempt better velopharyngeal closure and reduce nasal airflow during speech efforts.^[4] Oral examination may reveal a short or immobile soft palate, contributing to the visible asymmetry or poor elevation during phonation tasks like sustaining /i/.^[4] In infants and young children, associated feeding difficulties manifest as nasal regurgitation of liquids and solids, stemming from the same velopharyngeal incompetence that impairs swallowing by allowing material to escape into the nasal cavity.^[4] Associated features encompass a high-pitched voice quality, often resulting from compensatory increased laryngeal airflow to overcome pressure loss.^[1] Consonants may sound imprecise or weak, particularly oral plosives, fricatives, and affricates, due to insufficient intraoral pressure (typically requiring 5-7 mm Hg for normal production).^[4] Speakers frequently develop compensatory articulation errors, such as glottal stops or nasal fricatives, to substitute for affected oral sounds and maintain some intelligibility.^[1] Severity of hypernasal speech is graded based on the extent of resonance and its impact: mild cases primarily affect vowels with minimal disruption to intelligibility; moderate severity involves consonants, leading to noticeable but understandable speech; and severe cases result in widespread nasalization that renders speech largely unintelligible.^[1]

Impact on Speech and Communication

Hypernasal speech significantly impairs speech intelligibility by allowing excessive nasal resonance during the production of oral sounds, particularly pressure consonants such as plosives and fricatives, which require precise velopharyngeal closure to build intraoral pressure.^[4] This results in distorted articulation and reduced clarity. In moderate cases, intelligibility can be substantially compromised, with studies indicating that hypernasality greatly diminishes overall comprehension of spoken language.^[35] The social and psychological consequences of hypernasal speech are profound, particularly among school-age children who may face bullying and social rejection due to their atypical resonance, exacerbating feelings of isolation and low self-esteem.^[36] In adults, persistent hypernasality often leads to diminished confidence in social interactions, contributing to broader psychosocial challenges.^[37] Communication barriers extend into professional environments, where hypernasal speech can cause frequent misunderstandings, potentially hindering career advancement and workplace relationships as listeners perceive the speaker as less competent or employable. Individuals often adopt compensatory strategies, such as exaggerated articulation or slower speech rates, which impose additional cognitive load and further strain conversational flow.^[1] Developmentally, hypernasal speech in toddlers with cleft palate is associated with delayed language acquisition, including a slower rate of word acquisition and smaller expressive vocabulary.^[38] In school-aged children, these impacts frequently necessitate educational accommodations, such as individualized speech support or modified classroom participation, to mitigate learning disruptions in approximately 26% of children with orofacial clefts.^[39]

Diagnosis

History and Physical Examination

The evaluation of hypernasal speech begins with a detailed patient history to determine the onset, which may be congenital, as in cases associated with cleft palate or syndromic conditions like 22q11 deletion syndrome, or acquired, such as following surgical interventions or neurological events.^[4] Family history is elicited for genetic predispositions, including hereditary clefting or related craniofacial anomalies, while surgical history focuses on prior palate repairs, adenoidectomies, or pharyngeal procedures, noting that 20-30% of cleft palate repairs may result in persistent velopharyngeal insufficiency.^[4] Associated symptoms, such as recurrent ear infections, nasal regurgitation of food or liquids, or feeding difficulties, are also documented, as these often accompany structural velopharyngeal dysfunction.^[4]^[40] Physical examination involves intraoral inspection to assess soft palate structure, height, symmetry, and mobility, often elicited by having the patient sustain phonation of vowels like /i/ or /a/ to observe velar elevation and any gagging or asymmetry indicative of dysfunction.^[4] Palate mobility is further evaluated for adequacy during speech tasks, alongside checks for anatomical variants such as submucous clefts, bifid uvula, oronasal fistulas, and tonsillar hypertrophy.^[1]^[40] The mirror test, a simple bedside method, detects nasal emission by holding a cold mirror under the nostrils during production of oral pressure sounds (e.g., /p/, /b/, /t/); fogging of the mirror signals inappropriate nasal airflow.^[4] Articulation screening employs standardized word lists or phrases, such as "pet the puppies" or counting from 60 to 80, to identify hypernasality on vowels, nasal emission on consonants, and compensatory articulation errors like glottal stops.^[4]^[1] Multidisciplinary input is essential, with speech-language pathologists (SLPs) playing a central role in perceptual evaluation using validated rating scales to assess hypernasality severity (mild, moderate, severe) based on connected speech samples, serving as the gold standard for initial diagnosis.^[1]^[41] SLPs collaborate with otolaryngologists and plastic surgeons to integrate history and exam findings, ensuring comprehensive bedside assessment before considering instrumental confirmation.^[1]^[4] Red flags include progressive worsening of hypernasality, which may suggest an underlying neurological etiology such as cerebral palsy or stroke, prompting urgent specialist referral.^[4] In typically developing children, mild physiological hypernasality typically resolves by early childhood (around age 3), so persistence beyond this age warrants thorough evaluation to rule out velopharyngeal dysfunction.^[20]^[40]

Instrumental Assessment

Instrumental assessment provides objective quantification of velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) underlying hypernasal speech, using acoustic, aerodynamic, imaging, and endoscopic techniques to measure nasalance, airflow, and structural dynamics during speech tasks.^[1] These methods complement perceptual evaluations by offering visual and measurable confirmation of inadequate velopharyngeal closure, guiding differential diagnosis of structural versus functional causes. Emerging artificial intelligence tools, including machine learning models trained on speech data, offer automated detection and severity quantification of hypernasality with high accuracy (up to 97% as of 2025), complementing traditional methods.^[42] Nasometry is an acoustic tool that quantifies nasalance, defined as the ratio of nasal to total (nasal + oral) acoustic energy multiplied by 100, using a device that separates sound input via a facial plate and microphones.^[43] Standardized protocols, aligned with American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) guidelines, involve recording nasalance scores on oral (e.g., passages without nasal consonants), nasal (e.g., /m/, /n/ focused), and oronasal speech samples to isolate hypernasality.^[1] For English speakers, normal nasalance on oral passages is typically below 20%, while scores exceeding 30% indicate hypernasality due to excessive nasal resonance on non-nasal sounds.^[44] Recent ASHA-endorsed applications emphasize real-time feedback for phoneme-specific disorders, though norms vary by age, gender, and dialect.^[1] Videofluoroscopy employs dynamic X-ray imaging to visualize velar elevation and lateral pharyngeal wall motion in multiple views (lateral, anteroposterior, basal) during speech elicitation tasks like sustained vowels or pressure consonants.^[45] Gap size at the velopharyngeal port is measured in millimeters; larger gaps generally correlate with greater severity of hypernasality, though the relationship depends on gap shape and speech context.^[46]^[47] This technique quantifies closure adequacy without invasive procedures, though radiation exposure limits its use in young children.^[48] Nasendoscopy, or fiberoptic nasopharyngoscopy, allows direct endoscopic visualization of velopharyngeal closure patterns through a flexible scope inserted via the nasal passage during speech production.^[49] The Golding-Kushner scale grades motion on a 0-4 continuum for palatal elevation (0: no movement; 4: full excursion beyond resting position) and lateral pharyngeal walls (0: no inward motion; 4: complete overlap), enabling assessment of sphincter competence.^[50] Scores below 2 typically signify significant insufficiency contributing to hypernasality, with high interrater reliability when standardized.^[51] In complex cases, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides non-ionizing, detailed anatomic and functional evaluation of velopharyngeal structures, particularly for submucous clefts or neuromuscular issues not evident on fluoroscopy.^[52] Dynamic speech MRI sequences capture real-time closure dynamics, revealing gaps or asymmetries associated with hypernasal resonance.^[53] Aerodynamic tests measure nasal airflow volume and pressure using pneumotachography or similar devices during oral sound production, such as fricatives (/s/, /ʃ/), to detect inappropriate nasal emission.^[54] Normal oral speech exhibits near-zero nasal airflow (<10% of total), whereas VPD results in elevated nasal flow (>10% contribution), confirming air escape and correlating with hypernasality severity.^[55] These metrics provide quantitative data on velopharyngeal orifice resistance, essential for distinguishing subtle dysfunction.^[56]

Treatment

Nonsurgical Approaches

Nonsurgical approaches to managing hypernasal speech primarily target functional velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) or mild structural cases where invasive interventions are not immediately indicated, focusing on improving velopharyngeal closure through targeted exercises and supportive devices. Speech therapy forms the cornerstone of these methods, emphasizing techniques to enhance muscle strength and coordination without altering anatomy. For instance, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) exercises involve using a CPAP device to provide resistance during non-speech tasks, such as sustained phonation or oral pressure buildup, which strengthens the velar and pharyngeal muscles over time.^[57] Patients receiving 8 weeks of velopharyngeal CPAP resistance training showed a net overall reduction in speech hypernasality.^[57] Biofeedback techniques complement these by providing visual or auditory cues on nasal airflow; tools like mirrors for observing velar movement or mobile apps for real-time acoustic feedback help patients self-monitor and adjust velopharyngeal function during speech production.^[1] Such biofeedback has shown efficacy in achieving consistent velar closure in connected speech for individuals with mild hypernasality.^[58] Therapy programs for functional VPI typically span 6-12 months, progressing from isolated sounds to conversational levels.^[1] Prosthetic devices offer temporary mechanical support for velopharyngeal closure in non-surgical candidates, such as those with neurological impairments or awaiting structural assessment. Palatal lift appliances, custom-fitted obturators that elevate the soft palate via an acrylic extension, prevent nasal air escape during speech and are particularly useful for mild VPI.^[59] These devices achieve reductions in hypernasality among patients with borderline velopharyngeal gaps, as measured by perceptual speech evaluations pre- and post-insertion.^[60] Patients often require an adaptation period of 1-3 months, during which speech therapy reinforces proper use to maximize oral resonance.^[61] Adjunctive therapies address contributing factors to optimize outcomes from primary interventions. Myofunctional therapy targets orofacial muscle coordination through exercises like tongue strengthening and swallow patterning, which indirectly support velar elevation and reduce compensatory nasal habits in functional VPI.^[62] When conductive hearing loss coexists—common in cleft-related cases—amplification via hearing aids enhances auditory feedback, enabling better self-correction of nasal resonance during therapy.^[1] Recent advances in nonsurgical management include teletherapy protocols, which have gained prominence for pediatric VPI, allowing remote delivery of speech exercises and biofeedback via video platforms. A 2025 systematic review on telehealth for children with cleft palate and VPD reported high caregiver satisfaction and engagement, with comparable resonance improvements to in-person sessions, though weaker for nasality-dependent features, over 3-6 months.^[63] These approaches promote accessibility, especially in underserved areas, while integrating apps for home-based CPAP or airflow monitoring.^[64]

Surgical Interventions

Surgical interventions for hypernasal speech primarily address structural velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) by correcting anatomical defects that prevent adequate velopharyngeal closure, typically employed when nonsurgical approaches prove insufficient.^[65] These procedures aim to reduce nasal airflow during speech production, thereby mitigating hypernasality and improving resonance. Common techniques include pharyngeal flaps, pharyngoplasties, and palatal reconstructions, selected based on the size, shape, and pattern of the velopharyngeal gap identified preoperatively.^[65] The posterior pharyngeal flap involves elevating a superiorly based myomucosal flap from the posterior pharyngeal wall and suturing it to the soft palate to create a static bridge that narrows the velopharyngeal port.^[66] This procedure is indicated for patients with large velopharyngeal gaps exhibiting a sagittal closure pattern, such as those following cleft palate repair.^[65] It achieves velopharyngeal competence in approximately 80-90% of cases, with one study reporting 92% of patients attaining normal or borderline function post-surgery.^[66] Sphincter pharyngoplasty constructs a dynamic muscle sling by raising superiorly based myomucosal flaps from the posterior pharyngeal walls, typically the palatopharyngeus muscles, and transposing them to the posterior nasopharynx to form a contractile sphincter.^[67] It is preferred for circular or coronal gap patterns with small to intermediate defects, offering the advantage of active closure during speech while minimizing risks of airway obstruction compared to static flaps.^[65] Outcomes show resolution of VPI and associated hypernasality in about 64% of patients, with overall improvement in 83%.^[67] For velar lengthening, the Furlow double-opposing Z-plasty palatoplasty repositions the levator veli palatini muscles and extends the soft palate length, often by up to 30-40% when augmented with a buccal myomucosal flap.^[68] This technique is suitable for VPI patients regardless of prior palatoplasty history and significantly reduces hypernasality, with mean scores improving from 1.4 to 0.3 on perceptual scales.^[68] In mild cases, minimally invasive fat injection augmentation pharyngoplasty uses autologous fat to bulk the posterior pharyngeal wall, providing effective closure with low morbidity as a 2023 update confirms its viability for mild to moderate VPI.^[69] Preoperative planning relies on nasendoscopy to visualize the velopharyngeal gap size, closure pattern (sagittal, coronal, or circular), and lateral wall motion, guiding procedure selection.^[65] Surgery is typically timed between ages 4 and 6 years, following comprehensive speech evaluation to ensure developmental readiness and optimize outcomes during preschool language acquisition.^[70]

Complications and Prognosis

Treatment Complications

Treatment complications for hypernasal speech, arising from velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI), vary by intervention type and can impact patient outcomes. Nonsurgical approaches, such as speech therapy, may lead to treatment fatigue and non-compliance due to the intensive and prolonged nature of sessions. Palatal obturators, used to aid velopharyngeal closure, can cause device discomfort, potentially leading to oral hygiene issues from food trapping and plaque accumulation under the prosthesis.^[71]^[72] Surgical interventions carry risks of immediate postoperative adverse events. Bleeding or hemorrhage occurs in approximately 0.7-5% of cases following pharyngeal flap procedures, sometimes requiring transfusion or reoperation. Flap dehiscence affects 2-4% of patients, while necrosis is less common at about 2%, often necessitating revision. Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) from velopharyngeal over-closure is reported in 7-11% of cases after pharyngeal flap surgery, particularly in younger children or those with syndromic conditions.^[73]^[74]^[75] General complications across treatments include infections at rates of about 3%, though often minor and managed with antibiotics. Children undergoing surgery face additional anesthesia risks, such as airway obstruction or emergence agitation, with overall complication rates around 7-8% related to intubation challenges in cleft anatomy. Revision surgery is needed in 10-20% of cases due to persistent VPI or complications like flap failure.^[74]^[76]^[77] Management of these complications involves vigilant monitoring, including polysomnography to detect and address postoperative OSA promptly. Speech re-evaluation using nasometry or videofluoroscopy is essential post-intervention to assess velopharyngeal function and guide further adjustments.^[75]

Long-term Outcomes

Long-term outcomes for hypernasal speech, primarily resulting from velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI), demonstrate substantial improvements in speech resonance and overall function following appropriate interventions, with success rates varying by treatment modality. Surgical procedures, such as pharyngeal flap or sphincter pharyngoplasty, achieve normalization of nasalance scores in 70-90% of cases over the long term, often with adjunct speech therapy enhancing results to up to 90% resolution of hypernasality after a median follow-up of 27 months.^[78]^[79] In contrast, speech therapy alone can resolve functional (non-structural) cases, particularly those involving mislearned articulation patterns or minimal VPI, by improving velopharyngeal closure mechanisms without surgical intervention.^[4] These metrics underscore the importance of early, tailored treatment to prevent compensatory speech habits that could complicate outcomes. Recurrence of VPI remains a concern, influenced by developmental and syndromic factors. VPI can recur in some adolescents due to disproportionate pharyngeal expansion during puberty, potentially necessitating re-evaluation and additional therapy or surgery.^[80] In patients with associated syndromes, such as 22q11.2 deletion, persistence or recurrence rates are higher, approximately 27%, owing to underlying anatomical and neuromuscular deficits that limit sustained velopharyngeal competence.^[81] Treatment significantly enhances quality of life, with improved speech intelligibility directly correlating to better social integration and reduced psychosocial burden. Post-treatment reductions in hypernasality lead to enhanced peer interactions and self-esteem, as evidenced by validated quality-of-life measures showing marked improvements in non-syndromic patients following VPI surgery.^[82] Recent 2025 studies indicate improvements in quality of life for treated individuals, reflecting alleviated emotional distress from speech-related stigma.^[83] Ongoing monitoring is essential for optimal management, typically involving annual speech-language pathology (SLP) assessments extending into adulthood to detect subtle changes in resonance or emerging compensatory errors. Multidisciplinary clinics provide lifelong oversight, integrating otolaryngology, speech therapy, and psychological support to address any late-onset issues and ensure sustained functional gains.^[79]^[84]

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Jan 12, 2023 · VPI is a disorder of the velopharyngeal sphincter or valve, which separates the nasal and oral cavities during speech, swallowing, vomiting, blowing, and ...
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Contemporary Prevalence of Oral Clefts in the US - NIH
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Cleft lip and palate and related factors: A 10 years study in university ...
Conclusion: According to the results of the present study, cleft lip is more frequent in males and cleft palate is more prevalent in females; the obtained ...
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It's Time to Define the Global Burden of Velopharyngeal Insufficiency
In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the elevated incidence of cleft palate, unavailability of speech services, and suboptimal surgical outcomes has ...Missing: variations | Show results with:variations
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Incidence of Velopharyngeal Insufficiency after Primary Cleft Palate ...
The patients with submucous cleft palate underwent primary cleft palate repair at an average of 44 months, and the incidence of VPI among them was 40.0%, which ...
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Early Cleft Palate Repair is Associated With Lower Incidence of ...
May 1, 2025 · Early cleft palate repairs underwent VPI surgery in 1.2% (13/1,000) of cases, compared with 6.1% (61/1000) in the traditional repair cohort.
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The Rate of Secondary Speech Surgery After Cleft Palate Repair
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Anatomy, Head and Neck, Palate - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Levator veli palatini muscle: elevates the soft palate and is involved in swallowing. Musculus uvulae muscle: functions to shorten the uvula. Palatoglossus ...
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25 Anatomy and Physiology of the Velopharynx - Thieme E-Books
The levator veli palatini muscle is the primary muscle responsible for elevation and retraction of the velum against the pharyngeal walls. The superior ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Eustachian tubes connect your middle ears to the back of your throat. The tubes help drain fluid from your middle ear and balance air pressure inside your ears.
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Palatogenesis: Engineering, pathways and pathologies - PMC
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Anatomy and physiology of the velopharyngeal mechanism - PubMed
Velopharyngeal closure is accomplished through the contraction of several velopharyngeal muscles including the levator veli palatini, musculus uvulae, superior ...Missing: base | Show results with:base
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Understanding Nasal Emission During Speech Production - NIH
Nasal consonant sounds (/m/, /n/, and /ŋ/) are produced with the VP valve open, which results in an acoustic coupling between the oral and nasal cavities. On ...
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The motor nerve supply of the velopharyngeal muscles - PubMed
The present study attempted to clarify the motor nerve supply of the velopharyngeal muscles. Experiments were carried out on 20 anesthetized rhesus monkeys.Missing: control | Show results with:control<|control11|><|separator|>
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Anatomy, Head and Neck: Pharyngeal Muscles - StatPearls - NCBI
Cranial nerve X innervates all the pharyngeal muscles except the stylopharyngeus, which is supplied by cranial nerve IX. The sensory innervation of the ...
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The Effect of Cranial Nerve Stimulation on Swallowing: A Systematic ...
May 14, 2020 · This systematic review summarizes published studies on the effect of cranial nerve stimulation (CNS) on swallowing and determines the level of evidence of the ...
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Development of Velopharyngeal Closure for Vocalization During the ...
Velopharyngeal closure for spontaneous speech production can be considered complete by 19 months, but closure occurs earlier for speech sounds with higher oral ...
[21]
Velopharyngeal Status of Stop Consonants and Vowels Produced ...
TD children exhibit consistent VP closure for stop consonants and vowels at 12 months of age. Some children with repaired CP do not achieve consistent closure ...
[22]
Age and Velopharyngeal Function During Speech Production
This investigation was designed to determine if velopharyngeal function during speech production, as reflected in measures of nasal air flow, differs with ...
[23]
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Hypernasality following adenoid removal - PubMed
Persistent hypernasality after adenotonsillectomy is not an uncommon complication, occurring in approximately 1 in 1500 procedures.
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18 Velopharyngeal Dysfunction - Plastic Surgery Key
May 18, 2020 · Lastly, VPI can stem from iatrogenic causes such as gross tissue deficiency secondary to tumor resection, trauma reconstruction, or ...
[26]
[PDF] Resonance Disorders & Velopharyngeal Dysfunction
Substitution of nasal consonants for oral consonants (i.e., ŋ/l, ŋ/r) causes perception of hypernasality in connected speech. ... • Voice sounds muffled and low ...
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Long-term Speech Outcomes of Cleft Palate Repair in Robin...
Jan 21, 2021 · Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) occurred in 41% of RS versus 17% of ICP patients (P = 0.012), and in 60% of patients with syndromic RS versus ...
[28]
Pearls and pitfalls in contemporary management of marginal ... - NIH
Aug 7, 2023 · For example, more than half of the patients with a velopharyngeal gap less than 2 mm turned out to be definitive VPI or VPC (15). Laine et ...
[29]
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Jul 20, 2017 · However, even after repair, 20% to 30% of children with cleft palate will have persistent VPI.Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
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Prevalence of Voice Disorders and Correlation Between ... - NIH
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"Stop talking through your nose!" What to do if you can't help it
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8425117/
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Palatal Groove Formation in Neonates and Infants With Orotracheal ...
intubation. Reported iatrogenic complications associated with the long-term use of orotracheal tubes include palatal groove forma¬ tion, acquired cleft ...
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Automatic hypernasality grade assessment in cleft palate speech ...
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Relationship Between The Perception of Hypernasality and Social ...
Aug 9, 2025 · ... Speech difficulties are associated with psychological injuries, such as social phobia, introversion, depression, bullying, and other social ...
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[PDF] Individuals with Cleft Lip and/or Palate Demonstrated Improved Self ...
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Retrospective bullying trajectories in adults with self‐reported oral ...
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https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bdra.20433
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Velopharyngeal Dysfunction (VPD): Anatomy, Clinical Assessment ...
Jun 30, 2025 · The levator veli palatini muscle forms a functional sling that elevates the soft palate. In cleft palate patients, this sling is often ...Missing: complex | Show results with:complex
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Nasometry cooperation in children 4–6 years of age - ScienceDirect
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The Use of the Nasometer and Interpretation of Nasalance Scores
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Nasometric values for normal nasal resonance in the speech of ...
Results: Normative nasalance data were obtained for the oronasal text (33.8%), the oral text (10.9%), and the nasal text (55.8%). Female speakers exhibited ...<|separator|>
[45]
A Comparison of Nasendoscopy and Multiview Videofluoroscopy in ...
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Comparison of velopharyngeal gap size in patients with ... - PubMed
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Videofluoroscopic Evaluation of Velopharyngeal Dysfunction
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[48]
NASOENDOSCOPY OF VELOPHARYNX BEFORE AND DURING ...
Nasoendoscopy is an important tool for assessing velopharyngeal function. The purpose of this study was to analyze velar and pharyngeal wall movement and ...
[49]
Generation of Consensus in the Application of a Rating Scale to ...
In conclusion, there was wide variability in application of the Golding-Kushner scale to nasendoscopic examination of VP function among a small group of ...
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Interrater and intrarater reliability in the evaluation of velopharyngeal ...
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This clinical report describes the implementation of MRI to evaluate a patient with long-standing velopharyngeal dysfunction.
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Velopharyngeal Dysfunction Workup - Medscape Reference
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Laryngeal Aerodynamics, Acoustics, and Hypernasality in Children ...
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Efficacy of continuous positive airway pressure for ... - PubMed - NIH
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A pilot study shows the positive effects of continuous airway ... - Nature
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The use of nasopharyngoscopy biofeedback therapy in the ...
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Speech therapy for compensatory articulations and velopharyngeal ...
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Velopharyngeal Dysfunction Treatment & Management
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Treatment of velopharyngeal insufficiency in a patient with a ... - NIH
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Pharyngeal bulb prosthesis and speech outcome in patients with ...
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Successful and rapid response of speech bulb reduction program ...
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Velopharyngeal Insufficiency - Stanford Medicine Children's Health
Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) is when the soft palate does not close tightly against the back of the throat, leading to air coming out the nose.Missing: >2mm | Show results with:>2mm
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Telehealth Delivery of Speech–Language Pathology Services for ...
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Speech pathology telepractice for children with cleft palate in the ...
This systematic review provides useful guidelines for providing speech pathology interventions through telepractice for children with cleft palate.
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Speech Outcomes After Sphincter Pharyngoplasty for ...
Oct 26, 2020 · They found a success rate of 78%, with greater success in younger patients and those with less pre-operative hypernasality but no association ...
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Effectiveness of secondary furlow palatoplasty with buccal ... - NIH
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Update on injection augmentation pharyngoplasty in the treatment of ...
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How Early Can We Predict the Need for VPI Surgery? - PMC
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Is telepractice effective in speech therapy for children with cleft lip ...
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The palatal obturator can cause anaesthetic complications including airway obstruction, inability to pass endotracheal tube due to dislodgement of prosthesis.
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A 10-year Review of Perioperative Complications in Pharyngeal ...
... complications such as bleeding, respiratory insufficiency, or flap dehiscence were evaluated. ... Velopharyngeal Insufficiency / surgery*
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Results and Complications of 1104 Surgeries for Velopharyngeal ...
Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) means that the velopharyngeal closure is inadequate or disturbed. VPI may be organic or functional, congenital or acquired ...
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“Rates of Revision and Obstructive Sleep Apnea after Surgery for ...
Aug 1, 2022 · OSA rate following sphincter pharyngoplasty was 11.1% compared to 7.2% after pharyngeal flap. However, this difference was not significant on ...
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Anaesthesia for cleft lip and palate surgery - PMC - NIH
Aug 25, 2021 · There are potential risks of circuit disconnect and TT dislodgement, including endobronchial intubation and unexpected extubation throughout the ...
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Surgical outcomes and revision rates for velopharyngeal ... - PubMed
The revision rate for syndromic and non-syndromic patients was 19.9 % [15.0-25.6] and 11.3 ... Treatment Outcome; Velopharyngeal Insufficiency* / surgery.
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Surgery for velopharyngeal insufficiency: The outcomes of the ...
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Long-term outcomes of sphincter pharyngoplasty in patients ... - NIH
Although sphincter pharyngoplasty remains successful in improving long-term speech outcomes, persistent OSA is a sequela that should be monitored.
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Genetics of Cleft Palate and Velopharyngeal Insufficiency - PMC
The rate of VPI has been documented as high as 33% in some studies with higher rates of recurrences following surgery associated with genetic syndromes such as ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Quality of life outcomes following velopharyngeal insufficiency surgery
Non-syndromic and non-SMC patients with severe pre-operative hypernasality may benefit significantly from VPI surgery and have improved post-operative quality ...
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It's Time to Define the Global Burden of Velopharyngeal Insufficiency
Jan 31, 2025 · Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) predominantly affects children with cleft palate, undermining their ability to communicate.
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Investigation of postoperative hypernasality after superiorly based ...
Aug 30, 2018 · We report on two adult patients who underwent superiorly based posterior pharyngeal flap surgery after cleft repair.<|separator|>