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ALS

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease or motor neuron disease, is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects the motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord, resulting in the gradual loss of voluntary muscle control, weakness, and eventual paralysis.^[1]^[2] The disease typically leads to respiratory failure as a primary cause of death, with most individuals surviving 3 to 5 years after diagnosis, though about 10% live longer than a decade.^[1]^[3] Early symptoms of ALS often include muscle twitching (fasciculations), cramps, stiffness, and weakness, particularly in the limbs, hands, or feet, which may cause tripping, dropping objects, or slurred speech.^[2]^[1] As the disease progresses, it affects speaking, swallowing, and breathing, leading to complications such as aspiration pneumonia, malnutrition, and in some cases, frontotemporal dementia affecting cognition and behavior.^[2] Unlike many neurological conditions, ALS generally spares sensory function, intellect, and bowel/bladder control until late stages.^[1] The exact cause of ALS remains largely unknown, with approximately 90-95% of cases occurring sporadically without a clear genetic link, while 5-10% are familial, often associated with mutations in genes such as SOD1, C9orf72, TARDBP, or FUS.^[3]^[1]^[4] Risk factors include age (most common between 55 and 75 years), male sex (though the gap is narrowing), military service, smoking, and exposure to environmental toxins like pesticides or heavy metals.^[2]^[1] It affects about 33,000 people in the United States at any time (as of 2022), with roughly 5,000 new diagnoses annually, and is slightly more prevalent among non-Hispanic White individuals.^[3]^[5] Diagnosis of ALS involves a combination of clinical evaluation, electromyography (EMG) to detect nerve and muscle electrical activity, nerve conduction studies, MRI to exclude other conditions, and blood/spinal fluid tests, as no single definitive test exists.^[1] There is no cure, but treatments such as riluzole, edaravone, and tofersen (for specific genetic forms) can modestly slow progression, while multidisciplinary care—including physical therapy, speech therapy, nutritional support, and ventilatory assistance—helps manage symptoms and improve quality of life.^[1] Ongoing research emphasizes genetics, biomarkers, and novel therapies like stem cell interventions to address unmet needs.^[1]

Classification

Sporadic versus familial forms

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is primarily classified into sporadic and familial forms based on the presence or absence of a family history of the disease. Sporadic ALS, the most prevalent form, accounts for approximately 90–95% of all cases and occurs in individuals with no identifiable genetic inheritance pattern or family history of ALS.^[6] In contrast, familial ALS (fALS) comprises 5–10% of cases, characterized by an identifiable inheritance pattern, most commonly autosomal dominant, where a mutation in a single gene from one parent increases the risk of developing the disease.^[7] This classification holds globally, though the proportion of fALS shows regional variation, with estimates of 9% in Europe, 6% in North America, 4% in Asia, and 5% in Latin America based on a meta-analysis of 165 studies involving over 60,000 ALS cases.^[8] Distinguishing sporadic from familial ALS early in the diagnostic process has important implications for patient management and family planning. Identifying fALS enables targeted genetic counseling, testing for at-risk relatives, and enrollment in clinical trials focused on genetic therapies, which may not apply to sporadic cases.^[6] Conversely, assuming all cases are sporadic can overlook opportunities for genetic evaluation, especially since up to 10% of apparent sporadic cases may harbor ALS-associated mutations.^[6] Accurate differentiation also informs prognosis discussions, as family history can influence expectations around disease course. Clinically, fALS often presents at a younger age compared to sporadic ALS, with an average onset approximately 5 years earlier, typically in the 40s or 50s rather than the 50s or 60s.^[9] Additionally, fALS tends to follow a more aggressive trajectory in many instances, potentially leading to faster progression and shorter survival times, though variability exists even within families.^[10] These differences underscore the etiological distinction while highlighting the need for individualized assessment regardless of form.

Clinical subtypes and variants

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is classically characterized by the simultaneous involvement of upper motor neurons (UMNs) and lower motor neurons (LMNs), leading to a combination of spasticity, hyperreflexia, muscle weakness, atrophy, and fasciculations.^[11] In the most common presentation, known as limb-onset ALS, symptoms begin in the arms or legs, accounting for approximately two-thirds of cases, with initial weakness often appearing in distal muscles such as the hands or feet.^[11] Bulbar-onset ALS, which comprises about 25% of cases, starts with dysfunction in the muscles controlling speech, swallowing, and facial expression, manifesting as dysarthria, dysphagia, and emotional lability; this form is more prevalent in females and tends to have a more rapid progression.^[12] Several rare variants of ALS exhibit predominant involvement of either UMNs or LMNs, distinguishing them from the classic form while sharing core neurodegenerative features. Progressive muscular atrophy (PMA) is defined by selective LMN degeneration, resulting in muscle wasting, weakness, and fasciculations without significant UMN signs such as spasticity; it typically onsets later in life, affects males more frequently, and may evolve into classic ALS in up to 30% of cases within 18 months.^[11] Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) involves primarily UMN pathology, presenting with symmetric spasticity, stiffness, and hyperreflexia starting in the legs and ascending; it is considered a distinct entity or ALS variant with a slower course and longer survival, often exceeding 10-20 years if LMN signs remain absent.^[13]^[11] Flail arm syndrome, also called brachial amyotrophic diplegia, is a LMN-predominant variant confined initially to the upper limbs, causing profound bilateral weakness and atrophy in the shoulders and arms while sparing the legs; it occurs more often in males and has a relatively indolent progression with mean survival of 61 months.^[11] Similarly, flail leg syndrome features isolated lower limb involvement with foot drop and proximal weakness, representing 3-3.5% of ALS cases, predominantly in males, and associated with extended survival of 76-96 months.^[11] Progressive bulbar palsy represents a bulbar-onset subtype with early and severe LMN involvement in cranial nerves, leading to slurred speech, difficulty chewing and swallowing, tongue atrophy, and drooling; it shares a similar prognosis to bulbar-onset ALS but progresses more rapidly in the bulbar region.^[13]^[12]

Patterns of onset and progression

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) typically manifests in late middle age, with the average onset occurring between the late 50s and early 60s for sporadic cases.^[14] The disease is rare before age 40 and increases exponentially thereafter, though familial forms often present earlier, between 40 and 60 years.^[15] In some populations, particularly among males, age at onset shows a bimodal distribution, with one peak in the fourth decade and another in later life.^[16] The initial site of symptom onset varies, with approximately 70% of cases beginning in the limbs (spinal onset), 25% in the bulbar region (affecting speech and swallowing), and about 5% primarily involving respiratory muscles.^[17] Limb-onset ALS is more common in younger patients, while bulbar-onset predominates in older individuals and is associated with certain subtypes like progressive bulbar palsy.^[18] Progression in ALS exhibits marked variability, ranging from rapidly progressive forms that lead to death within one year of onset to slowly progressive cases lasting decades.^[19] This heterogeneity is influenced by factors such as age at onset, site of initial symptoms, and genetic background, with younger age and limb onset often correlating with slower progression.^[20] Sex differences play a role in ALS patterns, with a slight male predominance observed in cases under 65 years, after which the ratio equalizes.^[2] Males tend to experience earlier onset and more frequent limb involvement, while females show higher rates of bulbar onset in later life.^[21]

Signs and symptoms

Initial motor symptoms

The initial motor symptoms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) typically manifest as subtle, progressive changes in muscle function, often beginning asymmetrically in the limbs or bulbar region. Common early signs include muscle weakness and fasciculations, which are involuntary muscle twitches visible under the skin, frequently affecting the hands, arms, or legs. These symptoms arise due to the degeneration of lower motor neurons, leading to denervation of skeletal muscles, and they usually develop insidiously over weeks to months.^[22]^[14] In limb-onset ALS, which accounts for approximately 70% of cases, patients often first notice asymmetric weakness in the distal extremities, such as difficulty with fine motor tasks in the hands or gait instability in the legs. Hand involvement may present as clumsiness, such as trouble buttoning clothes, writing, or grasping objects, while leg symptoms can include foot drop, frequent tripping, or a sensation of heaviness when walking. These manifestations reflect early upper and lower motor neuron involvement, with fasciculations commonly observed in the affected muscles.^[22]^[23] Bulbar-onset ALS, occurring in about 25% of patients, initiates with symptoms in the muscles of the face, mouth, and throat, characterized by subtle slurring of speech, nasal or hoarse voice quality, or mild difficulties with swallowing saliva or soft foods. These early bulbar signs can be mistaken for fatigue or minor speech impediments but progressively impair articulation and oral motor control. Limb-onset and bulbar-onset patterns represent the primary modes of disease presentation, as detailed in discussions of progression.^[23]^[2] A key distinguishing feature of ALS is the typical absence of primary sensory symptoms, such as numbness or tingling, which helps differentiate it from other peripheral neuropathies or neuromuscular disorders. Pain may occur secondarily due to factors like muscle cramps or joint strain rather than direct sensory neuronal involvement. Sensory nerve function remains intact in classic ALS.^[22]^[24]

Progression of muscle weakness

ALS typically begins with focal weakness in a single region, such as a limb or hand, which then spreads contiguously along neuroanatomical pathways involving both upper and lower motor neurons, leading to generalized involvement over months to years.^[25] This progression follows corticospinal tracts from the motor cortex and lower motor neuron connections within spinal segments, resulting in a predictable outward dissemination from the site of onset to adjacent and contralateral areas.^[26] For instance, limb-onset cases often start unilaterally and extend to the opposite side before involving axial muscles.^[22] The stages of muscle weakness evolve from localized deficits to widespread impairment, beginning with asymmetric involvement in distal muscles like the fingers or toes, which may progress proximally to affect the forearm or thigh.^[14] As the disease advances, weakness spreads contralaterally across the body midline and eventually incorporates proximal and axial musculature, such as the shoulders, hips, and trunk, impairing posture and mobility.^[22] This sequential pattern underscores the relentless nature of ALS.^[26] Accompanying this weakness are progressive features including muscle atrophy, visible as wasting in affected limbs due to denervation from lower motor neuron loss.^[14] Muscle cramps, often an early indicator, intensify as weakness develops, causing painful contractions in calves, thighs, or hands.^[22] Spasticity emerges as upper motor neuron involvement predominates, leading to stiffness particularly in upper limb flexors and lower limb extensors.^[14] Concurrently, upper motor neuron signs such as hyperreflexia become prominent, with exaggerated reflexes persisting even in atrophied muscles, reflecting corticospinal tract degeneration.^[22]

Respiratory and bulbar involvement

Respiratory involvement in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) primarily stems from progressive weakness of the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles, leading to impaired ventilation and eventual respiratory failure. Diaphragmatic weakness often manifests as dyspnea, initially during exertion but progressing to occur at rest or with orthopnea, where breathing becomes labored in the supine position. Nocturnal hypoventilation is a common early indicator, resulting from reduced diaphragm function during sleep, which exacerbates carbon dioxide retention and oxygen desaturation, even in patients with preserved daytime lung function. This hypoventilation affects up to 67% of ALS patients independently of disease onset type or overall functional scores.^[14]^[27]^[28]^[29] Bulbar involvement, affecting approximately 25-30% of patients at onset, disrupts the muscles controlling speech, swallowing, and facial expression due to degeneration of lower motor neurons in the brainstem. Dysarthria, characterized by slurred or nasal speech, emerges as an early symptom, progressing to severe impairment that hinders communication. Dysphagia, or difficulty swallowing, follows closely, leading to choking episodes, inefficient bolus clearance, and increased sialorrhea from impaired oral control and reduced swallowing frequency. Pseudobulbar affect, involving involuntary episodes of laughing or crying disproportionate to emotional state, occurs in about 33% of cases and is linked to upper motor neuron involvement in bulbar regions.^[14]^[22]^[30]^[31] The interplay between bulbar and respiratory symptoms heightens risks of aspiration, where food or saliva enters the airway, potentially causing pneumonia—a leading cause of morbidity in ALS. Dysphagia contributes to nutritional decline through reduced caloric intake, dehydration, and weight loss, affecting over 70% of patients regardless of onset site and accelerating overall disease progression. Respiratory failure, often precipitated by diaphragmatic and bulbar weakness, typically becomes fatal within 2-5 years post-diagnosis, with bulbar-onset cases showing a median survival of about 2 years due to compounded swallowing and breathing challenges.^[32]^[33]^[34]^[14]

Cognitive, behavioral, and emotional changes

Cognitive impairment affects 15-50% of individuals with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), manifesting as a spectrum from mild deficits to full-blown frontotemporal dementia (FTD) in approximately 15% of cases.^[35] These impairments primarily involve executive functions, such as planning, decision-making, and cognitive flexibility, with language and memory often relatively preserved early in the disease.^[36] Up to 35% of ALS patients exhibit some form of cognitive or behavioral alteration, contributing to the heterogeneity of the condition.^[35] Behavioral changes are common in ALS, occurring in 30-60% of patients, and frequently include apathy, disinhibition, and executive dysfunction.^[37] Apathy, characterized by reduced motivation and initiative, is particularly prevalent, affecting up to 75% of cases and often leading to withdrawal from social activities.^[38] Disinhibition may present as impulsive or socially inappropriate behaviors, while executive dysfunction can impair judgment and problem-solving, further complicating daily functioning.^[39] These symptoms can occur independently of severe motor decline and are more pronounced in patients with bulbar-onset ALS.^[40] Emotional lability, known as pseudobulbar affect (PBA), involves episodes of uncontrollable laughing or crying that are disproportionate to the patient's internal emotional state, with a prevalence of 28-38% in ALS.^[40]^[41] PBA is often associated with upper motor neuron involvement and bulbar dysfunction, exacerbating communication challenges.^[40] These episodes can cause significant distress, social isolation, and reduced quality of life for affected individuals.^[42] The overlap between ALS and FTD, termed ALS-FTD syndrome, highlights a shared clinical spectrum where motor and cognitive symptoms coexist, affecting up to 15% of ALS patients with severe dementia criteria.^[43] This syndrome underscores the need for integrated assessment of both domains. Behavioral and cognitive changes in ALS substantially increase caregiver burden, with symptoms like apathy and disinhibition strongly predicting higher levels of stress, anxiety, and overall burden for family caregivers.^[39]^[36] Such impacts emphasize the importance of early recognition and support strategies tailored to non-motor symptoms.^[44]

Causes

Genetic factors and inheritance

Approximately 5–10% of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) cases are familial, distinguished from the more common sporadic form by a clear family history of the disease, while the remainder occur without such history.^[8] Familial ALS (fALS) is primarily caused by mutations in specific genes, with the majority following an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, meaning a single mutated copy of the gene from one parent is sufficient to increase disease risk.^[45] Rarer cases exhibit autosomal recessive inheritance, requiring mutations in both gene copies, as seen in ALS2 caused by biallelic variants in the ALSIN gene (ALS2), which typically presents with juvenile-onset upper motor neuron-predominant symptoms.^[46] The most prevalent genetic causes of fALS involve mutations in a handful of genes that account for the majority of hereditary cases. Superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) mutations are found in approximately 20% of fALS patients, particularly in certain populations like those of European descent, and are associated with a classic ALS phenotype often beginning in adulthood.^[47] The C9orf72 hexanucleotide repeat expansion is the most common, occurring in about 40% of fALS cases and also linked to ALS-frontotemporal dementia overlap syndromes, with repeat lengths exceeding 30 typically conferring high risk.^[48] Mutations in TARDBP (encoding TDP-43) and FUS each contribute to roughly 4–5% and 1–5% of fALS, respectively, often leading to earlier onset and more rapid progression compared to sporadic ALS.^[49] Together, variants in SOD1, C9orf72, TARDBP, and FUS explain over 70% of fALS cases across diverse cohorts.^[49] Genetic testing is recommended for all individuals diagnosed with ALS, regardless of family history, to identify actionable mutations and inform family counseling, with particular emphasis on those with fALS or early-onset sporadic cases (under age 40).^[50] Evidence-based consensus guidelines from 2023 advocate a single-step approach using multigene panels that include at least C9orf72 repeat analysis, SOD1 sequencing, and assessment of other major genes like TARDBP and FUS, often through next-generation sequencing to detect a broad spectrum of variants.^[50] Recent advances have expanded these panels to cover over 50 ALS-associated genes, improving diagnostic yield to 60–70% in fALS and 10–20% in sporadic cases, while highlighting penetrance variability—such as age-dependent incomplete penetrance in C9orf72 carriers, where lifetime risk may reach only 33% by age 80 rather than full expression.^[51]^[52] This variability underscores the influence of genetic modifiers and environmental factors on disease manifestation, though testing remains crucial for precision medicine opportunities like targeted therapies for SOD1 variants.^[52]

Environmental and lifestyle risk factors

Epidemiological studies have identified several environmental and lifestyle factors associated with an increased risk of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), though establishing causality remains challenging due to the disease's multifactorial nature and reliance on observational data. These factors primarily involve exposures to toxins and occupational or behavioral patterns that may interact with genetic predispositions, but they do not fully explain sporadic ALS cases. Modifiable elements, such as smoking cessation or protective body weight maintenance, offer potential avenues for risk reduction despite incomplete mechanistic understanding. Smoking is one of the more consistently linked lifestyle risk factors for ALS, with meta-analyses indicating approximately a 1.5-fold increased risk among current smokers compared to never-smokers. This association appears stronger in women and follows an inverted U-shaped dose-response pattern, suggesting moderate exposure levels confer higher risk than heavy or former smoking. Military service also correlates with elevated ALS incidence, with U.S. veterans showing up to a 1.5- to 2-fold higher risk than civilians, potentially due to exposures during deployments such as lead, burn pits, or intense physical training. Similarly, athletic professions, particularly professional soccer and American football, are associated with heightened risk; for instance, Italian male soccer players born between 1926 and 1950 exhibited a sixfold increase in ALS mortality compared to the general population, possibly linked to repetitive head impacts or strenuous exercise. Occupational and environmental exposures to certain chemicals further contribute to ALS risk. Pesticide exposure, especially among agricultural workers, is supported by meta-analyses showing a 1.4- to 2-fold odds ratio for ALS in exposed individuals, with organochlorines and organophosphates implicated in neurotoxicity. Heavy metals like lead and mercury have been linked through biomonitoring studies, where elevated cerebrospinal fluid levels correlate with up to a 2.5-fold higher ALS odds, independent of genetic factors, potentially via oxidative stress on motor neurons. Cyanotoxins, notably β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) produced by cyanobacteria, are hypothesized to play a role based on clusters in regions with contaminated water or food chains, though direct causation requires further validation. Among lifestyle factors, a high body mass index (BMI) appears protective, with population-based studies reporting a 20-30% lower ALS risk for every 5-unit BMI increase above 25 kg/m² in midlife, possibly reflecting metabolic reserve against neurodegeneration. In contrast, head trauma, including concussions from sports or accidents, is a potential trigger, with case-control analyses showing a 1.5- to 3-fold risk elevation for severe injuries, though evidence is inconsistent and may involve reverse causation in some cases. Geographic clusters, such as the ALS-parkinsonism-dementia (ALS-PD) complex on Guam, highlight environmental influences, where historical incidence rates reached 50-100 times global averages, attributed to dietary cycad seed consumption contaminated with BMAA and other toxins. Despite these associations, no single environmental factor has definitive causal proof for ALS; comprehensive reviews emphasize gene-environment interactions and the need for prospective cohort studies to disentangle correlations from causation.

Other hypothesized contributors

In addition to genetic and environmental factors, several other biological mechanisms have been hypothesized to contribute to the etiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), though evidence remains preliminary or inconsistent. One emerging area involves the activation of retrotransposons, particularly long interspersed nuclear element-1 (LINE-1), which are mobile genetic elements comprising about 17% of the human genome. In ALS, TDP-43 pathology, a hallmark of most cases, disrupts RNA metabolism by impairing small interfering RNA (siRNA) silencing, leading to derepression of retrotransposons. This activation results in increased expression of LINE-1 transcripts in postmortem cortical samples from ALS patients, defining a molecular subtype (ALS-TE) characterized by retrotransposon upregulation alongside TDP-43 aggregates. Studies in Drosophila models expressing human TDP-43 demonstrate that neuronal retrotransposon activation, including LINE-like elements, correlates with neurodegeneration through DNA damage and impaired RNA processing, suggesting a role in motor neuron vulnerability. Recent 2025 research further links LINE-1 dysregulation to chromatin accessibility changes in C9orf72-ALS models, exacerbating RNA metabolism disruptions and potentially contributing to sporadic cases. Viral infections have long been proposed as potential triggers for ALS, but supporting evidence is weak and largely associative. Enteroviruses, such as coxsackievirus, have been detected in spinal cord tissues of some ALS patients at rates of 60-88% via RT-PCR, compared to 0-14% in controls, with persistent infection hypothesized to induce TDP-43 pathology and RNA-processing defects in motor neurons. However, conflicting studies report no such viral RNA in ALS tissues, and mechanistic links remain unproven due to methodological inconsistencies and lack of causation. Similarly, retroviruses like HIV have been associated with ALS-like syndromes in over 30 cases, presenting with upper and lower motor neuron signs that may partially reverse with antiretroviral therapy, potentially through direct neuronal toxicity or immune-mediated damage. A 2021 case series of three HIV-positive patients with slowly progressive limb-onset symptoms supports this link, estimating a 23 per 100,000 prevalence in HIV populations versus 4-6 per 100,000 generally, though broader evidence for HIV or other retroviruses as causal in sporadic ALS is limited. Recent 2024-2025 research highlights gut microbiome alterations as a potential modulator of ALS progression via the gut-brain axis and neuroinflammation. ALS patients exhibit dysbiosis, including increased abundance of pro-inflammatory bacteria like Enterobacteriaceae and Veillonella, and decreased butyrate-producers such as Prevotella and Lactobacillus, observed within 6-15 months of symptom onset. These shifts correlate with elevated intestinal permeability and systemic inflammation, promoting neuroinflammation through NLRP3 inflammasome activation and cytokine release (e.g., IL-17), which may exacerbate motor neuron degeneration. In C9orf72 mouse models, microbiota-induced immune responses influence disease survival, with reduced short-chain fatty acids like propionate trending in spinal-onset ALS, suggesting a role in early pathogenesis. Therapeutic modulation, such as butyrate supplementation, has delayed onset in preclinical models by mitigating inflammation, positioning the microbiome as a modifiable contributor. Metabolic factors, including mitochondrial stressors and lipid dysregulation, are also hypothesized to play roles in ALS susceptibility. Mitochondrial dysfunction, driven by oxidative stress and impaired calcium homeostasis, limits ATP production and promotes motor neuron death, with mutations in ALS-linked genes like SOD1 exacerbating fragmentation and reactive oxygen species accumulation. Hyperlipidemia, conversely, has been associated with delayed onset and prolonged survival in some cohorts, potentially by enhancing energy availability and reducing TDP-43 mislocalization, though hypolipidemia in early stages may heighten risk through metabolic imbalance.

Pathophysiology

Motor neuron degeneration

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is characterized by the progressive degeneration and loss of upper motor neurons (UMNs) in the motor cortex and lower motor neurons (LMNs) in the brainstem and spinal cord. UMNs, which originate in the primary motor cortex and descend via the corticospinal tract, exhibit neuronal loss, gliosis, and axonal degeneration, leading to reduced inhibitory control over LMNs. LMNs, located in the anterior horn of the spinal cord and cranial nerve nuclei, show extensive depletion, with surviving neurons displaying chromatolysis and shrinkage. This dual loss disrupts voluntary motor control, though the precise sequence—whether UMN or LMN degeneration predominates initially—remains debated across ALS variants.^[53]^[11]^[54] Key neuropathological hallmarks of ALS include intracellular inclusions within affected motor neurons. Bunina bodies, small eosinophilic granules composed of cysteine-rich proteins, are often found in the cytoplasm of remaining LMNs, particularly in the spinal cord, and are considered a specific feature of ALS. Ubiquitinated inclusions, which accumulate as skein-like or compact structures, mark protein misfolding and impaired proteostasis in degenerating neurons. The most prevalent hallmark is the aggregation of TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43), which relocates from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, forming diffuse or granular inclusions that correlate with neuronal loss; TDP-43 pathology is observed in over 95% of ALS cases, irrespective of genetic status. These inclusions are accompanied by microglial activation and astrocytic gliosis, amplifying local neuroinflammation.^[55]^[56]^[57] Axonal degeneration precedes overt motor neuron soma loss in ALS, initiating at distal terminals and progressing retrogradely. This die-back phenomenon results in neuromuscular junction (NMJ) denervation, where motor axons withdraw from muscle fibers, causing atrophy and fiber-type grouping. Surviving motor neurons undergo compensatory reinnervation, sprouting new terminals to innervate denervated muscle fibers, which manifests as collateral sprouting and temporary functional recovery. However, repeated denervation-reinnervation cycles exhaust axonal resources, accelerating overall degeneration and leading to permanent muscle denervation. Electromyography often reveals these dynamics through fibrillation potentials and polyphasic motor unit potentials.^[58]^[59]^[60] Recent insights from 2025 studies highlight the selective vulnerability of fast-fatiguing motor units in ALS pathogenesis. Fast-fatigable (FF) motor neurons, which innervate type IIb glycolytic muscle fibers, degenerate earliest due to their high metabolic demands and reliance on calcium handling, contrasting with more resilient slow and fast-fatigue-resistant units. This preferential loss explains the rapid onset of muscle fatigue and weakness in proximal limbs, with NMJ instability emerging as a critical early event in FF units. Such findings underscore motor unit diversity as a determinant of disease spread.^[59]^[61]

Biochemical and cellular mechanisms

In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), protein aggregation plays a central role in neurodegeneration, particularly through the mislocalization and aggregation of TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) and superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1). TDP-43, a nuclear RNA-binding protein, undergoes pathological mislocalization to the cytoplasm in approximately 97% of ALS cases, leading to its aggregation into ubiquitinated inclusions that disrupt RNA processing and promote neuronal toxicity.^[62] This cytoplasmic accumulation, often triggered by stress or mutations in the C-terminal glycine-rich domain (e.g., G376D, A315T), results in nuclear depletion and the formation of hyperphosphorylated, truncated fragments that impair alternative splicing and exacerbate protein homeostasis collapse.^[62] Similarly, SOD1 misfolding affects 10-15% of familial ALS cases, where over 200 mutations destabilize the protein's structure, promoting monomerization, oligomer formation (e.g., toxic trimers), and amyloid-like aggregates that propagate prion-like along neuroanatomical pathways.^[62] These SOD1 aggregates, often disulfide cross-linked, induce oxidative damage and mitochondrial impairment, contributing to motor neuron death independent of its enzymatic activity.^[62] Glutamate excitotoxicity further drives ALS pathogenesis via overactivation of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, leading to excessive calcium influx and downstream cellular damage. In ALS motor neurons, reduced expression or dysfunction of the excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) results in elevated synaptic glutamate levels, with 60-70% loss of EAAT2 function observed in sporadic cases, amplifying glutamatergic signaling.^[63] This triggers AMPA receptor overactivation, particularly calcium-permeable variants due to incomplete RNA editing of the GluA2 subunit by adenosine deaminase acting on RNA 2 (ADAR2), affecting up to 56% of ALS patients compared to none in controls.^[63] The resultant calcium influx overwhelms neuronal buffering capacity, activating proteases, lipases, and endonucleases while inducing mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and endoplasmic reticulum stress, ultimately culminating in apoptosis.^[63] Mitochondrial dysfunction is a hallmark of ALS cellular pathology, characterized by impaired energy production and heightened ROS generation that amplify oxidative stress. In ALS patient-derived cells, including those with TDP-43 mutations like p.G376D, there is reduced abundance of respiratory chain complexes I (NDUFS3) and II (SDHB), leading to decreased oxygen consumption rates, ATP synthesis, and mitochondrial membrane potential.^[64] This bioenergetic failure is compounded by diminished antioxidant defenses, such as lower levels of catalase, superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD-2), and glutathione peroxidases (GPX-1, GPX-4), resulting in elevated hydrogen peroxide and ROS accumulation that damages lipids, proteins, and DNA.^[64] These alterations, evident in both familial and sporadic ALS models, contribute to motor neuron vulnerability by disrupting axonal transport and synaptic function. In cases linked to C9orf72 hexanucleotide repeat expansions, the most common genetic cause of ALS, RNA processing defects and dipeptide repeat (DPR) toxicity represent key biochemical mechanisms updated through 2024-2025 research. The GGGGCC repeat expansion produces sense and antisense RNA foci that sequester RNA-binding proteins, disrupting nuclear speckle integrity and causing widespread splicing dysregulation, including exon skipping and intron retention in up to 50% of affected transcripts in patient-derived neurons.^[65] This impairs phase separation of splicing factors like SRRM2, leading to global transcriptome alterations that compromise protein homeostasis.^[65] Concurrently, repeat-associated non-AUG translation generates toxic DPRs (e.g., poly-GR, poly-GA, poly-GP), which form cytoplasmic aggregates sequestering SRRM2 and other nuclear proteins, exacerbating nucleocytoplasmic transport defects and neurodegeneration in C9orf72-ALS models and postmortem tissues.^[65] Recent findings confirm that DPRs co-aggregate with ~90% of SRRM2 in patient brains, linking these mechanisms to progressive motor deficits.^[65]

Diagnosis

Clinical evaluation and criteria

The clinical evaluation of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) begins with a thorough medical history to identify progressive weakness, muscle atrophy, fasciculations, or bulbar symptoms such as dysarthria or dysphagia, often starting in a single region before spreading.^[11] A comprehensive neurological examination follows, assessing for combined upper motor neuron (UMN) and lower motor neuron (LMN) signs across four anatomical regions: bulbar (cranial nerves), cervical (upper limbs), thoracic (trunk), and lumbosacral (lower limbs). UMN signs include hyperreflexia, spasticity, clonus, and pathological reflexes like the Babinski sign, while LMN signs manifest as muscle weakness, atrophy, and fasciculations.^[18] The presence of these signs in multiple regions supports the suspicion of ALS, with the diagnosis relying on standardized criteria to ensure specificity and facilitate early intervention.^[66] The revised El Escorial criteria, established in 1998 by the World Federation of Neurology, provide a framework for classifying ALS based on clinical and electrophysiological evidence. Definite ALS requires UMN and LMN signs in at least three regions; probable ALS involves signs in two regions with predominant UMN involvement or UMN signs alone in three regions; possible ALS includes UMN and LMN signs in one region or UMN signs in two; and suspected ALS features LMN signs in two regions. These criteria emphasize the need for progressive involvement without alternative explanations but have been critiqued for lower sensitivity in early disease stages.^[67] To address limitations in sensitivity, the Awaji criteria, proposed in 2009, modify the El Escorial framework by equating electrophysiological evidence of LMN dysfunction—such as active denervation (fibrillation potentials and positive sharp waves) and chronic denervation (reduced recruitment and large motor unit potentials)—with clinical LMN signs. Fasciculations are also afforded equivalent diagnostic weight to fibrillations due to their high specificity in ALS. This adjustment expands the probable ALS category and enables earlier diagnosis, particularly in bulbar-onset cases, without compromising specificity.^[68] The Gold Coast criteria, introduced in 2020 and validated in subsequent studies through 2025, further simplify early diagnosis by requiring only: (1) documented progressive motor impairment via history or serial exams, (2) combined UMN and LMN dysfunction confirmed clinically, and (3) exclusion of alternative causes. Unlike prior criteria, it permits diagnosis with involvement in a single region for classical ALS phenotypes, enhancing sensitivity to approximately 92% while maintaining high specificity, thus broadening eligibility for clinical trials.^[69] Recent meta-analyses confirm its superior diagnostic accuracy over El Escorial and Awaji criteria in diverse populations.^[70] A multidisciplinary assessment is essential to exclude mimics such as multifocal motor neuropathy, cervical myelopathy, or inclusion body myositis, involving neurologists, electromyographers, and sometimes neuroradiologists for integrated evaluation. This approach, recommended in European and American guidelines, ensures diagnostic confidence and supports holistic care from onset.^[71]^[72]

Laboratory and imaging tests

Electromyography (EMG) is a key electrodiagnostic test in ALS evaluation, revealing signs of active denervation such as fibrillation potentials and positive sharp waves, which indicate muscle fiber denervation, alongside fasciculation potentials that are present in the vast majority of patients.^[73]^[74] These findings support lower motor neuron involvement but are not specific to ALS, as they can occur in other neurogenic processes.^[75] Nerve conduction studies complement EMG by assessing nerve function and are typically normal in ALS or show reduced compound muscle action potentials consistent with axonal loss, helping to rule out demyelinating disorders like chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy through the absence of conduction blocks or significant slowing.^[74]^[76] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and spinal cord primarily serves to exclude structural lesions, such as tumors, syringomyelia, or cervical spondylosis, that could mimic ALS symptoms.^[77] In ALS, conventional T2-weighted MRI may show hyperintensities along the corticospinal tract in up to 50-90% of cases, reflecting degeneration, though this finding lacks diagnostic sensitivity and specificity.^[78]^[79] Advanced techniques, like magnetization transfer imaging, can detect hyperintense signals in the corticospinal tract with higher contrast, aiding in distinguishing ALS from controls.^[80] Emerging biomarkers, particularly neurofilament light chain (NfL), have gained validation for supporting ALS diagnosis and prognosis. Measured in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or serum, elevated NfL levels reflect neuroaxonal damage and correlate with disease severity, progression rate, and survival; for instance, higher baseline serum NfL predicts shorter survival in over 80% of cases.^[81]^[82] Recent 2024-2025 studies confirm NfL's utility as a prognostic tool in clinical trials, with CSF levels approximately 40-44 times higher than serum, providing a non-invasive monitoring option.^[83]^[84] In August 2025, researchers reported a novel blood test analyzing nearly 3,000 neurological and skeletal muscle proteins via machine learning, achieving over 98% accuracy in distinguishing ALS from controls and other neurological conditions, and detecting predictive protein signatures related to skeletal muscle, nerve signaling, and energy metabolism up to a decade before clinical symptoms appear.^[85]^[86] In familial ALS cases, genetic testing may complement these biomarkers to identify specific mutations.^[87]

Differential diagnosis

Diagnosing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) requires careful exclusion of mimicking conditions, as up to 10-15% of initial diagnoses may prove incorrect upon further evaluation.^[88] These mimics often present with progressive motor weakness, fasciculations, or atrophy, but differ in etiology, progression, and response to specific interventions. Electrophysiological studies, such as electromyography (EMG), play a key role in differentiation, as detailed in laboratory assessments. Multifocal motor neuropathy (MMN) is a prominent ALS mimic, characterized by asymmetric, distal-predominant weakness without upper motor neuron signs.^[89] Unlike ALS, MMN features multifocal conduction blocks on nerve conduction studies and often responds to intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy.^[90] Cervical spondylosis, particularly when causing myelopathy, can imitate ALS through compressive effects on the spinal cord, leading to limb weakness and hyperreflexia.^[91] Distinguishing features include neck pain, sensory deficits, and imaging evidence of spinal stenosis or disc herniation, which are absent in ALS.^[92] Kennedy's disease (spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy) presents with slowly progressive bulbar and limb weakness, often misdiagnosed as ALS due to overlapping motor symptoms.^[93] It is differentiated by X-linked inheritance, androgen receptor gene mutations, gynecomastia, sensory neuropathy, and a more indolent course without upper motor neuron involvement.^[94] Rarer mimics include inclusion body myositis, an inflammatory myopathy with asymmetric quadriceps and finger flexor weakness, confirmed by muscle biopsy showing rimmed vacuoles.^[24] Lyme disease (neuroborreliosis) may cause subacute motor deficits mimicking ALS, but is identified through positive cerebrospinal fluid serology and antibiotic responsiveness.^[95] Paraneoplastic syndromes, linked to underlying malignancies like small-cell lung cancer, feature rapid progression and detectable autoantibodies (e.g., anti-Hu), prompting oncologic evaluation.^[96]

Management

Disease-modifying medications

Disease-modifying medications for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) aim to slow disease progression by targeting underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, such as excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and genetic factors. Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved four such agents, though one has been withdrawn following confirmatory trials; these include riluzole, edaravone, and tofersen, with limited applicability based on patient genetics or disease stage.^[97]^[98]^[99] Riluzole, approved by the FDA in 1995, is a benzothiazole derivative that inhibits glutamate release and blocks glutamatergic neurotransmission in the central nervous system, providing neuroprotective effects against excitotoxicity implicated in motor neuron degeneration.^[100]^[101] Clinical trials demonstrated that riluzole at 100 mg daily prolongs median survival by approximately 2–3 months compared to placebo, with efficacy established through extended time to tracheostomy or death in two pivotal studies.^[102]^[103] It remains a standard first-line therapy for all ALS patients, though its modest benefit underscores the need for combination approaches.^[104] Edaravone, approved by the FDA in 2017 as an intravenous formulation (Radicava) and in 2022 as an oral suspension, functions as a free radical scavenger that mitigates oxidative stress by neutralizing peroxyl radicals, a key contributor to neuronal damage in ALS.^[105]^[106] A phase 3 trial in early-stage patients with preserved respiratory function showed that edaravone slowed functional decline by 33% over 24 weeks, as measured by the ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised (ALSFRS-R), compared to placebo.^[107] Long-term data indicate improved survival rates at 18, 24, and 30 months without significant adverse effects, though benefits are most pronounced in patients with milder disease at initiation.^[108]^[109] Tofersen (Qalsody), an antisense oligonucleotide approved by the FDA in April 2023 under accelerated approval for adults with ALS caused by superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) gene mutations (affecting about 2% of cases), binds to SOD1 mRNA to reduce aberrant protein production and downstream neurotoxicity.^[97]^[110] Administered intrathecally every four weeks, it significantly lowers cerebrospinal fluid SOD1 concentrations and plasma neurofilament light chain (NfL) levels—a biomarker of neuroaxonal damage—by up to 60% and 40% over six months, respectively, supporting its approval based on surrogate endpoints.^[111]^[112] Confirmatory trials are ongoing to verify clinical benefits on motor function and survival.^[98] Relyvrio (AMX0035), a combination of sodium phenylbutyrate and taurursodiol approved by the FDA in September 2022 amid controversy over limited phase 2 data, was intended to reduce neuronal death by mitigating endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial dysfunction.^[113] However, the phase 3 CENTAUR trial in 2024 failed to demonstrate efficacy, showing no difference in ALSFRS-R scores versus placebo, leading Amylyx Pharmaceuticals to voluntarily withdraw it from the U.S. and Canadian markets in April 2024, with formal FDA withdrawal processed in August 2025.^[99]^[114] This case highlighted challenges in accelerated approvals for rare diseases like ALS.^[115]

Symptomatic and supportive treatments

Symptomatic treatments for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) focus on alleviating specific symptoms to improve quality of life without altering disease progression. These interventions target common manifestations such as muscle spasticity, pain, excessive salivation, emotional lability, respiratory secretions, constipation, and depression, often using pharmacological agents tailored to individual needs.^[116] For spasticity, which affects many patients due to upper motor neuron involvement, baclofen and tizanidine are commonly recommended as first-line muscle relaxants. Baclofen, a GABA-B agonist, reduces muscle tone by inhibiting excitatory neurotransmitter release in the spinal cord, with typical oral doses starting at 5-10 mg three times daily and titrated up to 80 mg/day based on response and tolerance. Tizanidine, an alpha-2 adrenergic agonist, similarly decreases spasticity by enhancing presynaptic inhibition, administered at 2-4 mg every 6-8 hours, not exceeding 36 mg/day to avoid sedation. Both drugs carry a weak recommendation supported by limited randomized controlled trial evidence and expert consensus, with monitoring for side effects like drowsiness and hypotension essential.^[116]^[117]^[116] Muscle cramps and associated pain, reported by over 90% of ALS patients, are managed with sodium channel blockers such as mexiletine and quinine. Mexiletine, an oral antiarrhythmic, has demonstrated efficacy in reducing cramp frequency and intensity in double-blind trials, with doses of 300-900 mg/day showing significant symptom relief and good tolerability. Quinine sulfate, historically used for cramps, is prescribed at low doses of 100-200 mg/day but requires cardiac monitoring due to risks of arrhythmias, as highlighted in guidelines. These agents provide symptomatic control, though evidence remains at a low level from small randomized studies.^[116]^[118]^[116] Sialorrhea, or excessive drooling from impaired swallowing, is effectively treated with anticholinergic medications like glycopyrrolate, which inhibits salivary gland secretion without significant central nervous system penetration. Oral glycopyrrolate at 1-2 mg every 4-6 hours reduces saliva production, with data from patient registries indicating over 70% response rates when used alongside other agents like atropine. Injectable forms (0.1 mg every 4 hours) are options for advanced cases, supported by weak recommendations from systematic reviews emphasizing its favorable side-effect profile compared to alternatives.^[116]^[119]^[120] Pseudobulbar affect (PBA), characterized by involuntary laughing or crying, responds to dextromethorphan/quinidine (DMQ), a combination that enhances dextromethorphan's NMDA receptor antagonism while quinidine inhibits its metabolism. DMQ at 20 mg/10 mg twice daily significantly reduces PBA episode frequency and severity, as shown in multiple phase 3 trials involving ALS patients, with benefits persisting over 12 weeks and mild side effects like dizziness. Guidelines weakly recommend DMQ based on this evidence, positioning it as a targeted therapy for emotional lability.^[116]^[121]^[116] Respiratory symptoms, including thick mucus and weak cough, are addressed with mucolytics and mechanical aids. Mucolytics such as guaifenesin or acetylcysteine thin secretions to facilitate clearance, recommended at standard over-the-counter doses (e.g., guaifenesin 200-400 mg every 4 hours) in combination with hydration, per expert consensus. Cough-assist devices, using mechanical insufflation-exsufflation, improve airway clearance in patients with reduced peak cough flow, reducing hospitalization risks as evidenced by observational data. These supportive measures carry weak recommendations due to limited trial evidence but are standard in ALS care.^[116]^[117]^[122] Constipation, exacerbated by immobility and medications, is managed with laxatives after optimizing fiber and fluid intake. Osmotic laxatives like polyethylene glycol (17 g daily) or magnesium salts soften stool by drawing water into the colon, providing reliable relief with minimal systemic absorption, as supported by clinical guidelines. These agents are weakly recommended when dietary measures fail, with monitoring for electrolyte imbalances.^[116]^[117]^[116] Depression and emotional distress in ALS are treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as sertraline or citalopram, which improve mood by enhancing serotonin transmission, starting at low doses (e.g., sertraline 25-50 mg/day) to minimize side effects like nausea. Guidelines weakly endorse SSRIs based on expert consensus and small studies showing reduced depressive symptoms, often combined with psychotherapy for holistic support.^[116]^[120]^[116]

Multidisciplinary care approaches

Multidisciplinary care for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) involves coordinated input from a team of specialists, including neurologists, nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, speech-language pathologists, dietitians, respiratory therapists, psychologists, and social workers, to address the progressive multisystem impacts of the disease. This approach optimizes health care delivery, prolongs survival by an average of 7.5 months compared to general neurology care, and enhances quality of life through improved symptom management and access to supportive interventions.^[123] Evidence from European Academy of Neurology (EAN) guidelines strongly recommends clinic-based multidisciplinary teams to improve coordination and patient outcomes.^[116] Physical therapy focuses on maintaining mobility and preventing complications such as contractures and falls by incorporating moderate-intensity exercise programs, including resistance training and stretching, which can slow motor deterioration and reduce stiffness in early-stage patients.^[124] Occupational therapy emphasizes adaptive strategies and equipment, such as mobility aids, orthotics, and home modifications, to preserve independence in daily activities like dressing and eating for as long as possible.^[123] Speech therapy targets bulbar symptoms, including dysarthria and dysphagia, by providing techniques to improve swallowing safety and communication clarity, often recommending early introduction of augmentative tools to mitigate frustration.^[124] Nutritional support is essential to counteract weight loss and malnutrition, which affect up to 50% of ALS patients due to dysphagia and increased metabolic demands. Dietitians monitor body weight and caloric intake every three months, advising high-calorie, high-carbohydrate diets to stabilize nutritional status.^[124] Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tubes are recommended for enteral feeding when oral intake is impaired, such as with ≥5-10% unintended weight loss or body mass index <18.5 kg/m², as they prolong survival by stabilizing weight and reducing aspiration risk, with placement ideally before forced vital capacity (FVC) falls below 50%.^[125] Respiratory aids address progressive weakness in respiratory muscles, with non-invasive ventilation (NIV), such as bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP), initiated upon signs of insufficiency like orthopnea, nocturnal hypoventilation, or FVC <65%, to extend survival by approximately 7 months and slow FVC decline from -2.2% to -1.1% per month.^[125] EAN guidelines strongly endorse NIV for symptomatic patients, emphasizing early discussion and monitoring every three months via pulmonary function tests to improve sleep quality and daytime energy levels.^[116] Psychological support, provided by team psychologists, helps manage emotional challenges like anxiety and depression, which occur in 20-30% of patients, through interventions such as acceptance and commitment therapy to enhance coping and family dynamics.^[116] Communication aids, including eye-tracking devices, are crucial for patients with advanced bulbar involvement, enabling independent text generation and environmental control with high acceptance rates (up to 96%) and improved quality of life by fostering autonomy despite severe physical limitations.^[126] Canadian guidelines recommend early provision of such augmentative and alternative communication tools, tailored via speech-language pathologists, to maintain social participation.^[124]

Emerging therapies and clinical trials

Emerging therapies for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) in 2024-2025 emphasize targeted genetic interventions, regenerative approaches, and neuroprotective agents, with over 16 biopharmaceutical companies advancing candidates through clinical trials.^[127] These developments build on precision strategies to address specific genetic mutations and biomarkers, aiming to slow disease progression in genetically defined subgroups.^[128] Gene therapies, particularly antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), target mutations in genes like SOD1 and C9orf72, which account for a subset of familial ALS cases. Tofersen, an ASO designed to reduce SOD1 protein production, received accelerated FDA approval in 2023 for SOD1-ALS based on reductions in neurofilament light chain (NfL) levels, a biomarker of neuronal damage; open-label extension data from the Phase 3 VALOR trial in 2025 confirmed clinical benefits, including slower functional decline in treated patients compared to placebo.^[129]^[130] For C9orf72-ALS, BIIB105, another ASO, entered Phase 1/2 trials but was discontinued in 2024 after showing no clinical benefit and accelerated decline in treated participants.^[131] Ongoing efforts include ION363, an ASO for FUS-ALS mutations in Phase 3, and AP-101, a monoclonal antibody targeting misfolded SOD1 protein, which met its primary endpoint of slowing progression in a Phase 2 trial reported in 2025.^[127]^[132] Stem cell trials focus on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for neuroprotection and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived motor neuron replacement to restore function. A Phase 3 randomized trial of MSCs engineered to secrete neurotrophic factors (MSC-NTF cells) in 196 participants demonstrated safety and reductions in CSF inflammatory markers like NfL and MCP-1, though it failed to meet the primary ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised (ALSFRS-R) endpoint; subgroup analyses in 2025 suggested benefits in early-stage patients, prompting further investigations.^[133]^[134] Mesenchymal stem cell infusions from adipose tissue are under evaluation in an open-label Phase 2 trial initiated in 2025, assessing safety and tolerability in up to 20 ALS patients.^[135] For motor neuron replacement, iPSC-derived approaches have advanced to a Phase 1 clinical trial (NCT06765564) initiated in early 2025, showing promise in animal models for engraftment and functional recovery.^[136]^[137]^[138] Small molecule therapies aim to provide neuroprotection by modulating cellular energy and inflammation, with CNM-Au8—a gold nanocrystal suspension—advancing as a key example. In the HEALEY ALS Platform Trial (Regimen C), CNM-Au8 met encouraging secondary endpoints for neuroprotection, including stabilization of ALSFRS-R scores and NfL reductions after 24 weeks, leading to FDA discussions in 2025 on using NfL as a surrogate endpoint for approval; as of November 2025, Clene Nanomedicine is preparing to submit a New Drug Application for accelerated approval.^[139]^[140]^[141] At least 16 companies are active in this space, including QurAlis, whose QRL-201 (a STMN2 splicing modifier) advanced to dose-range-finding in its Phase 1 ANQUR trial in 2025, restoring axon stability in ALS models, and QRL-101 (a Kv7 channel activator) showed biomarker effects predicting slower progression in Phase 1 data reported in March 2025.^[127]^[142]^[143] Precision medicine approaches increasingly stratify trials using biomarkers like NfL to select patients and monitor responses, enabling faster evaluation of therapies in heterogeneous ALS populations. The HEALEY ALS Platform Trial incorporates NfL as a pharmacodynamic endpoint across multiple regimens, with 2025 analyses showing its utility in predicting progression and treatment effects up to a decade presymptomatically when combined with proteomic signatures.^[134]^[144] In FDA-reviewed protocols from 2005-2024, NfL was included in over 100 ALS trials as a secondary outcome, with 2025 guidelines from Mayo Clinic endorsing its use for prognosis and individualized dosing in precision trials.^[145] Multibiomarker models integrating NfL with markers like MAP2 and NPTX2 are refining patient stratification, as demonstrated in ongoing biomarker-driven studies reported in 2025.^[146]

Prognosis

Survival expectations

The median survival time for individuals with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is typically 2 to 5 years from symptom onset and 1 to 2 years from diagnosis.^[147]^[148] Survival varies significantly by site of onset, with bulbar-onset ALS associated with a shorter median duration of approximately 2 years, compared to 3 to 5 years for limb-onset cases.^[149]^[150] Historically, median survival from diagnosis was around 1 year prior to the 1990s, but has improved to the current range due to the introduction of riluzole in 1995, which extends survival by about 3 months, and noninvasive ventilation (NIV), which further prolongs life by supporting respiratory function.^[151]^[152]^[153] As of 2025, approximately 20% of people with ALS survive more than 5 years after symptom onset, with long-term survival beyond 10 years occurring in about 10% of cases and beyond 20 years being rare, affecting around 5%.^[154]^[155]

Prognostic factors and staging

Prognostic factors in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) encompass a range of clinical, demographic, and biological variables that influence disease trajectory and outcomes. Younger age at symptom onset is associated with more favorable prognosis, as patients under 50 years often experience slower progression compared to older individuals. Limb-onset ALS, where initial symptoms affect the extremities, correlates with longer survival than bulbar or respiratory onset, which indicate more rapid decline due to early involvement of critical functions. Slower initial disease progression, measured by tools like the ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised (ALSFRS-R), also predicts better outcomes, reflecting a less aggressive phenotype. Additionally, the use of non-invasive ventilation (NIV) serves as a positive prognostic indicator, extending survival by supporting respiratory function without invasive measures.^[156]^[157] Conversely, several factors portend poorer prognosis. Bulbar onset, involving speech and swallowing difficulties, and respiratory onset are linked to accelerated deterioration and reduced survival. The co-occurrence of frontotemporal dementia (FTD) exacerbates outcomes, increasing mortality risk by nearly threefold due to combined motor and cognitive impairments. Elevated levels of neurofilament light chain (NfL), a biomarker of neuronal damage detectable in blood or cerebrospinal fluid, strongly predict faster progression and shorter survival, with higher concentrations at diagnosis indicating more severe disease.^[158]^[159] Staging systems provide structured frameworks for tracking ALS progression and stratifying patients. The King's College clinical staging system delineates five stages based on the anatomical spread of disease across four regions—bulbar, upper limb, lower limb, and thoracic—while incorporating milestones for nutritional and respiratory failure. Stage 1 involves involvement of one region, progressing to Stage 4 with dysfunction in multiple regions plus either percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy dependence or death from respiratory failure; Stage 5 denotes death. This system emphasizes disease burden and has demonstrated utility in clinical trials for assessing progression rates. The Milano-Torino (MiToS) staging system, alternatively, focuses on functional decline across multiple domains including swallowing, communication, breathing, and mobility (writing, feeding, dressing, and walking). It comprises six stages (0–5), with advancement tied to loss of independence in these domains, offering a complementary view that correlates well with survival and is particularly sensitive to mid-to-late disease changes.^[160]^[161]^[162]^[163] Recent advancements as of 2025 include AI-based prognostic models that leverage longitudinal ALSFRS-R scores to forecast individual trajectories with high accuracy. These machine learning approaches, such as deep learning frameworks applied to datasets like PRO-ACT, integrate clinical variables to predict functional decline and survival, enabling personalized risk stratification beyond traditional factors. Semi-supervised models further enhance predictions by handling sparse data common in ALS cohorts, supporting their integration into clinical decision-making.^[164]^[165]^[166]

Epidemiology

Incidence and prevalence

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) has an estimated annual incidence of 1 to 2 cases per 100,000 people worldwide, based on population-based studies across multiple regions.^[167] This rate reflects the number of new diagnoses each year, with variations attributed to differences in diagnostic practices and study methodologies.^[168] The prevalence, or the total number of individuals living with the disease at any given time, is approximately 4 to 6 cases per 100,000 people globally.^[169] These figures underscore ALS as a rare but devastating condition, with the disparity between incidence and prevalence largely due to the disease's progressive nature and average survival of 2 to 5 years after symptom onset.^[3] Age-adjusted incidence rates for ALS peak between 60 and 70 years, with the highest risk occurring in this age group across diverse populations.^[169] The condition is approximately 1.5 times more common in males than in females, though this sex disparity diminishes after age 70.^[167] These demographic patterns highlight the importance of targeted surveillance in older adult populations, particularly men. As of 2025, projections from the U.S. National ALS Registry estimate around 34,000 individuals living with ALS in the United States, reflecting a steady increase from 32,893 cases in 2022 due to an aging population.^[5] Globally, the total number of prevalent cases is estimated at approximately 250,000 to 300,000, informed by recent Global Burden of Disease analyses showing growth from about 269,000 in 2019.^[170] Recent analyses indicate ongoing growth, with projections showing a 25% global increase by 2040 from 2024 levels.^[171] These estimates provide critical context for resource allocation in ALS care and research worldwide.

Geographic and demographic variations

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) exhibits notable geographic variations in incidence, with higher rates observed in Europe and North America compared to Asia and Africa. In Europe, standardized incidence rates range from 2.1 to 3.8 per 100,000 person-years, while North America reports similar figures around 1.9 to 2.2 per 100,000. In contrast, East Asia and South Asia show lower rates, often below 1 per 100,000, and African regions, such as the Western Cape Province of South Africa, report incidences of approximately 0.8 per 100,000, though higher than in some East Asian populations. These disparities highlight a pattern of elevated occurrence in populations of European descent across continents. Historical clusters of ALS have been documented in specific regions, particularly in the Western Pacific. The island of Guam experienced a high incidence rate of up to 50–100 times the global average in the mid-20th century, associated with the Chamorro population, while the Kii Peninsula in Japan showed rates 7–10 times higher than national averages during the same period. More recently, clusters have emerged among Italian professional soccer players, with studies indicating a 6-fold increased risk of ALS compared to the general population, particularly among those active between 1970 and 2001. These localized hotspots underscore uneven distribution patterns, though their rates have declined in some areas like Guam. Demographically, ALS incidence rises with age, peaking in the 70s, and is projected to increase globally due to aging populations, projected to increase by approximately 25% worldwide by 2040, according to a 2025 analysis.^[171] Ethnic variations show higher rates among Caucasians, with non-Hispanic whites experiencing incidences 1.5–2 times greater than African Americans, Asians, or Hispanics. For instance, in the United States, ALS prevalence is markedly higher among whites aged 60 and older. As of 2025, ongoing studies are exploring links between geographic variations and environmental exposures, including air pollutants like sulfur dioxide from fossil fuel combustion and proximity to toxic algal blooms, which may contribute to higher rates in industrialized or coastal regions.^[172]^[173]^[174]^[175]^[176]^[177]^[178]^[174]^[179]^[180]^[181]^[182]^[183]

History

Early descriptions and research

The earliest clinical descriptions of what is now recognized as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) emerged in the mid-19th century. In 1850, French physician François-Amilcar Aran published a seminal account of progressive muscular atrophy, detailing 11 cases characterized by insidious muscle weakness and wasting without sensory involvement, which he attributed to a neurogenic origin rather than primary muscle disease.^[184] This work laid groundwork for distinguishing motor neuron disorders from myopathies. Building on this, Jean-Martin Charcot, in 1869, provided the first comprehensive delineation of ALS as a distinct entity, separating it from isolated progressive muscular atrophy and primary lateral sclerosis by emphasizing the combined involvement of upper and lower motor neurons, based on observations of multiple patients and autopsy findings showing sclerosis of the lateral corticospinal tracts.^[185] Charcot's description highlighted progressive weakness, spasticity, and fasciculations, establishing ALS as a unique neurodegenerative process affecting the motor system.^[184] In the early 20th century, pathological investigations advanced understanding of ALS through detailed examinations of motor neuron degeneration. Joseph Babinski contributed to the recognition of upper motor neuron involvement by describing the extensor plantar response (Babinski sign) in 1896, a pathological reflex indicating corticospinal tract disruption that became a hallmark for diagnosing ALS alongside lower motor neuron signs.^[186] Similarly, Romanian neuropathologist Georges Marinesco pioneered studies on neuronal changes, including chromatolysis and neuronophagia—the phagocytosis of degenerating neurons—in motor pathways, providing early histological evidence of selective motor neuron loss in the spinal cord and brainstem during the 1900s to 1920s.^[187] These findings confirmed Charcot's clinical-pathological correlations, revealing widespread degeneration of anterior horn cells and pyramidal tracts without inflammatory or vascular causes, solidifying ALS as a primary motor neuron disease.^[184] Epidemiological insights into ALS during the 1930s and 1950s were derived primarily from case series rather than large-scale population studies, underscoring its rarity and sporadic occurrence. Early compilations, such as those by Aran and Guillaume Duchenne in the 1850s and 1860s, documented dozens of isolated cases across Europe, noting a typical onset in mid-adulthood and inexorable progression to respiratory failure, with no familial patterns observed in most instances.^[188] The 1939 diagnosis of baseball player Lou Gehrig exemplified a high-profile sporadic case, drawing global attention to the disease's devastating impact and prompting initial U.S. case registries that estimated an incidence of about 1-2 per 100,000 annually by the 1950s.^[185] Prior to genetic research, ALS was viewed almost exclusively as an acquired, idiopathic condition, with epidemiological efforts like the 1950s Guam surveys revealing unusually high incidence clusters (up to 100 per 100,000) but no consistent environmental or hereditary links in the broader population.^[189] This era emphasized the disease's unpredictable onset and uniform fatality, shaping clinical management focused on symptom palliation.

Development of diagnostic criteria

The development of standardized diagnostic criteria for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) began in the early 1990s to address the need for consistent identification of the disease, particularly for clinical trials and research. In 1990, the World Federation of Neurology convened experts at El Escorial, Spain, to establish initial criteria that emphasized confirmation of both upper motor neuron (UMN) and lower motor neuron (LMN) involvement across multiple body regions. These criteria categorized cases as definite ALS (evidence of UMN and LMN signs in three or more regions), probable ALS (in two regions), possible ALS (in one region with UMN and LMN signs, or two regions with only UMN signs), or clinically suspected ALS (LMN signs in two or more regions without UMN involvement). The region-based approach aimed to ensure diagnostic specificity by requiring progressive motor impairment without alternative explanations, as detailed in the 1994 publication by the subcommittee.^[190] Subsequent revisions sought to refine sensitivity while maintaining specificity, incorporating advances in electrodiagnostic testing. The 1998 Airlie House workshop in Virginia, USA, led to updated criteria published in 2000, which clarified the diagnostic categories by specifying that EMG evidence of active and chronic denervation could support LMN involvement but required correlation with clinical findings. These revisions emphasized the exclusion of other diseases and introduced more precise definitions for UMN signs, such as hyperreflexia and spasticity, to reduce misclassification in early-stage cases. The updated framework retained the multi-regional confirmation but improved inter-rater reliability for probable and possible categories, facilitating earlier enrollment in therapeutic studies.^[191] Building on this, the 2009 Awaji-shima consensus conference in Japan addressed limitations in recognizing LMN degeneration through electromyography (EMG), proposing criteria that elevated EMG findings to equivalent status with clinical signs for LMN assessment. Fasciculation potentials detected on EMG were deemed indicative of active denervation, comparable to clinical weakness or atrophy, thereby increasing diagnostic sensitivity—particularly in bulbar-onset cases—without compromising specificity. This shift allowed for probable ALS diagnosis with EMG evidence in two regions alongside UMN signs elsewhere, reportedly boosting sensitivity from 53% under revised El Escorial to 95% in validated cohorts. The Awaji algorithm integrated these changes into the existing framework, prioritizing electrophysiological support for earlier and more accurate diagnosis.^[192] Efforts to further enhance early detection culminated in the 2019 Gold Coast criteria, proposed during an international consensus meeting in Australia and published in 2020, which streamlined the diagnostic process by consolidating categories into a single "ALS" diagnosis. Requiring only progressive motor impairment with UMN and LMN signs in at least one region (or LMN signs in two regions), these criteria emphasized clinical utility by reducing rigidity and incorporating supportive tests like EMG or neuroimaging without mandating multi-regional involvement for initial diagnosis. Validation studies demonstrated improved sensitivity (up to 92%) compared to prior standards, enabling faster confirmation in atypical or early presentations while excluding mimics through comprehensive evaluation. By 2025, ongoing refinements to these criteria have shifted focus toward practical implementation in diverse clinical settings, prioritizing adaptability over strict categorical thresholds to balance speed and accuracy. Recent consensus reviews highlight the Gold Coast framework's role in emphasizing clinician judgment and multimodal evidence, such as neurophysiological and imaging data, to enhance utility in resource-limited environments and accelerate access to emerging therapies. This evolution reflects a broader trend toward criteria that support timely diagnosis without increasing false positives, as evidenced in meta-analyses of diagnostic performance across global populations.^[193]

Naming and evolving terminology

The term amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) originates from the clinical and pathological observations made by French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot in the late 19th century. Charcot first described the disease in 1869, initially referring to it as a progressive muscular atrophy with involvement of the pyramidal tracts, and later formalized the name in 1874 to reflect the characteristic muscle wasting (amyotrophy) and hardening (sclerosis) of the lateral columns of the spinal cord. In France, it has historically been known as "maladie de Charcot" in recognition of his foundational work.^[194] The etymology of "amyotrophic lateral sclerosis" derives from Greek roots: "a-" meaning without, "myo" referring to muscle, and "trophic" indicating nourishment, thus describing the denervation and atrophy of muscles; "lateral sclerosis" denotes the gliotic scarring and hardening observed in the corticospinal tracts of the spinal cord. This precise nomenclature emerged from Charcot's correlation of clinical symptoms—such as progressive weakness and spasticity—with postmortem findings of motor neuron degeneration. Earlier terms like "progressive muscular atrophy," used by contemporaries such as François-Amilcar Aran in 1850, were gradually refined as understanding distinguished ALS from other motor neuron disorders.^[22] In the United States, ALS gained widespread recognition as "Lou Gehrig's disease" following the 1939 diagnosis of the renowned New York Yankees baseball player Lou Gehrig, whose public struggle and retirement speech heightened awareness of the condition. This eponymous term persists colloquially, particularly in North America, though it is less common in medical literature today. Over time, terminology has evolved to situate ALS within the broader category of motor neuron diseases (MND), a term introduced by British neurologist Walter Russell Brain in 1933 to encompass related conditions like primary lateral sclerosis and progressive muscular atrophy; however, ALS remains the specific designation for the most common form involving both upper and lower motor neuron degeneration.^[185]^[195] Internationally, variations reflect linguistic and regional preferences: in the United Kingdom and Australia, "motor neurone disease" (MND) is the predominant term, often used interchangeably with ALS since it accounts for about 90% of cases. In French-speaking regions, it is known as "sclérose latérale amyotrophique" (SLA) or still "maladie de Charcot," while in Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries, the equivalent is "esclerosis lateral amiotrófica" (ELA). These differences underscore the global effort to standardize terminology while honoring historical contributions.^[196]^[197]^[198]

Society and culture

Public awareness and advocacy

Public awareness of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) has been significantly advanced through targeted campaigns and the efforts of dedicated organizations. The ALS Association (ALSA), the largest nonprofit organization funding ALS research and care in the United States, leads nationwide initiatives to educate the public and policymakers about the disease's impact, including events like Walk to Defeat ALS that draw thousands of participants annually to raise funds and visibility.^[199] ALSA's advocacy arm mobilizes affected individuals and families to influence legislation, emphasizing the urgency of ALS as a priority health issue.^[200] A landmark moment in ALS awareness came with the 2014 ALS Ice Bucket Challenge, a viral social media campaign where participants poured ice water over themselves to symbolize the disease's chilling effects, raising $115 million for the ALSA and inspiring over 17 million videos worldwide, which dramatically increased public knowledge and accelerated research funding.^[201] This effort not only boosted donations but also highlighted personal stories, including those of notable figures, to humanize the struggle faced by people with ALS. Complementing such campaigns, the ALS Therapy Development Institute (ALS TDI), a nonprofit biotech focused on drug discovery, hosted its 2025 Summit to share insights on innovative therapies and launched the Champion Insights initiative to investigate higher ALS risks in athletes and military members, fostering broader community engagement in research advocacy.^[202]^[203] Global efforts include Global ALS/MND Awareness Day on June 21, organized by the International Alliance of ALS/MND Associations, which unites worldwide communities for events, webinars, and social media drives to promote understanding and support for those affected.^[204] Policy advocacy remains central, with ALSA pushing for increased federal funding, such as annual appropriations for ALS research through the Department of Defense's ALS Research Program, to secure resources for clinical trials and care services.^[205] In 2025, following the 2023 FDA approval of tofersen (Qalsody) as the first targeted therapy for SOD1-mutated ALS, advocacy groups like ALSA have intensified calls for precision medicine approaches, emphasizing genetic testing and expanded access to personalized treatments to address the disease's diverse forms and improve outcomes for all patients.^[206]^[128]

Societal impact and support systems

Caregivers of individuals with ALS often face substantial emotional and psychological strain, with studies indicating that approximately one-third experience depression, particularly among female caregivers and those supporting patients with advanced disease stages.^[207] This burden is compounded by financial pressures, as the average annual cost of ALS care in the United States exceeds $70,000 per patient, encompassing hospitalizations, in-home support, and medical equipment, with first-year Medicare expenditures alone surpassing $47,000—more than three times the average for other beneficiaries.^[208]^[209] Disability rights for people with ALS emphasize proactive planning through advance directives, which allow patients to specify preferences for medical treatments and end-of-life care, including living wills, medical powers of attorney, and do-not-resuscitate orders.^[210] Hospice access is also a critical support, available to ALS patients with a physician-certified life expectancy of six months or less, focusing on symptom relief and quality-of-life enhancement without curative intent.^[211] Notable cases highlight the variable progression of ALS and its societal resonance. Physicist Stephen Hawking, diagnosed at age 21 in 1963 with a rare slow-progressing form of the disease, defied typical prognoses by living until 76, relying on assistive technologies for communication and mobility while advancing cosmology.^[212] In contrast, baseball legend Lou Gehrig, diagnosed at 36 in 1939, experienced rapid decline and died two years later, his case instrumental in raising early public awareness of the condition, formerly termed "Lou Gehrig's disease."^[185] In 2025, expansions in telehealth under Medicare have improved access for rural ALS patients by removing geographic restrictions for non-behavioral services through September, enabling remote multidisciplinary consultations that address mobility barriers.^[213] Efforts toward equity in clinical trials have also advanced, with advocacy emphasizing inclusive access to therapies regardless of socioeconomic or geographic factors, as outlined by organizations like the Motor Neurone Disease Association.^[214]

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The care of the patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Drug ...
Topics covered in this section include slowing disease progression, nutrition, and respiratory management for patients with ALS.
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Curing ALS? Sixteen companies developing new treatments in 2025
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Entering the era of precision medicine to treat amyotrophic lateral ...
Oct 23, 2025 · Qalsody is the first ALS therapy that is targeted to a genetically defined sub-population of patients (1–2% of patients with SOD1 variants) that ...
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Tofersen: A Review in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Associated ...
Jul 10, 2025 · Tofersen (QALSODY®) is the first therapy approved for the treatment of ALS associated with SOD1 mutations. In a 28-week, phase III clinical ...
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Ionis partner Biogen announces that results from Phase 3 VALOR ...
Ionis partner Biogen announces that results from Phase 3 VALOR study and open-label extension of tofersen showed clinical benefit in SOD1-ALS patients. June ...<|separator|>
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Biogen, Ionis to stop development of BIIB105 as treatment for ALS
May 20, 2024 · A Phase 1/2 clinical trial of BIIB105 showed a lack of benefit, leading Biogen and Ionis to terminate development of the treatment for ALS.
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AP-101 Meets Primary End Point in Phase 2 Study of SOD1 ALS
Sep 6, 2025 · AL-S Pharma's AP-101 shows promising safety and efficacy in ALS patients, paving the way for future treatments targeting misfolded SOD1 ...
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Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of ... - NIH
A randomized placebo-controlled phase 3 study of mesenchymal stem cells induced to secrete high levels of neurotrophic factors in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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Neuromuscular Notes: New and Emerging Therapies in ALS
Discover cutting-edge ALS therapies like antisense oligonucleotides and stem cells. Learn about FDA-approved drugs and emerging treatment challenges.
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Stem Cell Research: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis - Alt Treatment
Oct 7, 2025 · This is an Open-Label Phase 2 study sponsored by New England Cell Therapeutics. in the United States. The trial is evaluating the safety and ...
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Breakthrough Stem Cell Therapy for ALS
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Neuronata-R Phase 3 Results Confirm Subgroup Benefit at ...
Sep 18, 2025 · Neuronata-R Phase 3 Results Confirm Subgroup Benefit at PACTALS 2025, Strengthening Biomarker-Driven Pathway · Subgroup Analysis Demonstrates ...<|separator|>
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Study Drugs in the HEALEY ALS Platform Trial
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Clene Reports First Quarter 2025 Financial Results and Recent ...
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QurAlis' ANQUR Clinical Trial of QRL-201 in ALS Advances to Dose ...
Nov 19, 2024 · The Phase 1 ANQUR clinical trial evaluating QRL-201 for the treatment of ALS has successfully completed the dose-escalation phase, based on pharmacokinetic (PK ...
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Mar 12, 2025 · Results demonstrated statistically significant effects on biomarkers that predict ALS disease progression and severity.
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AL001 – Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with a C9orf72 mutation
We are conducting a randomized, controlled Phase 2 clinical study of AL001 in people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) who carry a C9orf72 mutation.
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Changes to Average Survival of Patients With Amyotrophic Lateral ...
Mar 24, 2025 · The average survival of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) ranges from 2 to 5 years from symptom onset.
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At time of diagnosis, 32% were found to have signs of bulbar disease, with average age of 64.8 years, vs 60 years for those with spinal symptoms at onset (p < ...
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Changes to Average Survival of Patients With Amyotrophic Lateral ...
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A Controlled Trial of Riluzole in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
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May 23, 2017 · The use of NIV and PEG prolongs survival in ALS. This study supports current AAN and EFNS guidelines which recommend NIV and PEG as a treatment option in ALS.
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The median survival time from onset to death ranges from 20 to 48 months, but 10–20% of ALS patients have a survival longer than 10 years.
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The ALS-MITOS system can reliably predict the course of ALS up to 18 months and can be considered a novel and valid outcome measure in RCTs.
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Jun 30, 2025 · This study investigated deep learning methods for ALS progression prediction using the publicly available PRO-ACT dataset.
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Daniel Pastula Tracks Disease
... amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) including clusters of the disease discovered in Guam, the Kii Peninsula of Japan, and among Italian soccer players.
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Exposure to mining fossil fuel linked to ALS, new research finds
A major pollutant from fossil fuels has been linked to an increased risk of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), according to new research.
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Living near toxic algal blooms tied to shorter survival in ALS patients
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What is ALS/MND?
ALS/MND is characterised by progressive degeneration of the motor nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord.
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Make ALS History | The ALS Association
We have events across the country to help raise awareness and critical funds for ALS research and care. Help make ALS history by fundraising in a way that best ...
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ALS Advocacy | The ALS Association
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Key Insights from the 2025 ALS TDI Summit
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Leading ALS Organizations Announce 'Champion Insights' to ...
ALS TDI takes a multifaceted approach to ending ALS—inventing and advancing targeted treatments, identifying causes and risk factors, and cultivating a research ...
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Global Day - International Alliance of ALS/MND Associations
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Federal Public Policy Priorities | The ALS Association
Every year Congress must pass appropriations to fund the government and every year we will continue to advocate for an increase in funding for ALS research.
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What Type of Doctor Treats ALS? Understanding ALS Medical Care
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ALS Care Costs Over $47,000 in the First Year, ALS Association ...
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Advance Directives | The ALS Association
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Hospice Care for ALS Patients
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Stephen Hawking's ALS and how he outlived his prognosis by half a ...
Mar 14, 2018 · Professor Hawking had just turned 21 when he was diagnosed with a very rare slow-progressing form of ALS, a form of motor neurone disease (MND).
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Telehealth policy updates
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Equitable Access to Therapies
Access to treatments is a fundamental right of all people living with ALS/MND yet there is an urgent need for Equitable Access.