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Hysterosalpingography

Hysterosalpingography (HSG) is a radiographic diagnostic procedure that involves injecting a radiopaque contrast dye into the uterine cavity to visualize the uterus and fallopian tubes using fluoroscopy and X-ray imaging, primarily to evaluate tubal patency and uterine abnormalities in the context of infertility assessment.^[1]^[2]^[3] This minimally invasive test is commonly performed as part of a fertility workup, where abnormalities in the fallopian tubes or uterine cavity contribute to up to 60% of infertility cases, often identifying blockages, adhesions, or structural anomalies such as polyps or fibroids.^[1]^[3] It is typically scheduled in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, after menstruation but before ovulation, to avoid potential pregnancy and ensure accurate results.^[2]^[3] While ultrasound-based alternatives like hysterosalpingo-contrast sonography (HyCoSy) are gaining prominence for their lower radiation and allergy risks, HSG remains a standard radiographic method.^[4] The procedure involves injecting contrast dye into the uterus under fluoroscopy to observe its flow and spillage, indicating tubal patency. Modern nonionic, low-osmolar contrast agents have improved safety and patient tolerance compared to earlier water-soluble dyes, reducing risks like vasovagal reactions.^[1] HSG also serves additional purposes, such as confirming the success of tubal ligation or reversal surgeries and aiding in the diagnosis of recurrent miscarriages due to uterine malformations, which occur in approximately 15% of women with recurrent pregnancy loss.^[1]^[5]^[3] It is generally safe with low radiation exposure but carries potential risks such as cramping, allergic reactions, and infection. Some studies suggest that the procedure itself may enhance fertility by flushing the tubes, particularly with oil-based contrasts, potentially increasing conception rates in the following months.^[3] HSG complements other diagnostics like ultrasonography, hysteroscopy, or laparoscopy for a comprehensive evaluation.^[1]

Clinical Applications

Indications

Hysterosalpingography (HSG) is primarily indicated for the evaluation of female infertility, where it plays a key role in assessing tubal patency and identifying abnormalities within the uterine cavity that may contribute to conception difficulties.^[1] Tubal factors account for 25-35% of infertility cases, and HSG helps detect obstructions or blockages that could prevent sperm-egg interaction or embryo transport.^[6] Additionally, it evaluates structural issues such as polyps, fibroids, or adhesions that distort the endometrial lining, potentially impairing implantation.^[1] In cases of recurrent miscarriages, HSG is recommended to investigate underlying structural uterine anomalies that may predispose to pregnancy loss, including intrauterine synechiae or submucosal fibroids that alter the cavity's contour.^[7] These abnormalities can disrupt normal embryonic development, and HSG provides visualization to guide further management.^[6] HSG is also utilized as a preoperative assessment tool in gynecological surgeries, particularly for tubal ligation reversals, where it determines residual tubal length and patency to predict surgical success.^[8] Furthermore, it detects congenital uterine anomalies, such as septate or bicornuate uteri, which may require corrective surgery to improve reproductive outcomes.^[1] Following pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), HSG is indicated to evaluate for sequelae like tubal adhesions or hydrosalpinx, which can lead to chronic infertility if untreated.^[6] History of PID, often linked to infections like chlamydia or gonorrhea, increases the likelihood of such blockages, making HSG essential for post-infection assessment.^[1] This procedure is most appropriate for women aged 18-45 undergoing fertility workups, as infertility evaluations are typically focused on this reproductive age group.^[2] To minimize risks and optimize visualization, HSG is scheduled in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, ideally between days 7 and 10 after the onset of menstruation, when the endometrial lining is thin and pregnancy is unlikely.^[2]

Contraindications

Hysterosalpingography (HSG) is contraindicated in certain clinical scenarios to prevent harm, with absolute contraindications including conditions that pose immediate risks such as ongoing pregnancy, active pelvic infection, and uncontrolled heavy vaginal bleeding.^[1]^[6]^[9] Pregnancy, whether confirmed or suspected, is an absolute contraindication due to the risk of radiation exposure and potential disruption to the fetus.^[1]^[6] Active pelvic infections, such as untreated gonorrhea or chlamydia, are prohibited to avoid disseminating bacteria into the peritoneal cavity during contrast injection.^[1]^[10] Uncontrolled heavy vaginal bleeding increases the risk of intravasation or further complications like infection.^[9] Relative contraindications encompass situations where the procedure may proceed with caution or after risk-benefit assessment, including recent uterine or cervical surgery within 6 weeks, active genital tract malignancy, severe contrast allergy, and renal impairment.^[9]^[11] Recent surgery requires a healing period to minimize perforation risks.^[9] Active genital tract malignancy is relatively contraindicated due to the potential for contrast to spread malignant cells.^[11] Severe allergy to iodinated contrast necessitates premedication or alternative agents, while renal impairment heightens the risk of contrast-induced nephropathy.^[9]^[12] Patients with comorbidities such as asthma, cardiac disease, or thyroid dysfunction require special precautions owing to heightened susceptibility to contrast reactions.^[1] For those with contrast allergies or at risk of anaphylaxis (e.g., asthma or cardiac conditions), premedication protocols typically involve oral prednisone (50 mg at 13, 7, and 1 hours prior) and diphenhydramine (50 mg 1 hour prior), alongside using low-osmolar contrast.^[9] Thyroid dysfunction warrants endocrinologist consultation to mitigate risks like the Wolff-Chaikoff effect from iodine exposure.^[1] Prior to HSG, screening is essential, including a mandatory urine or serum pregnancy test to exclude pregnancy and infection screening via cervical swabs for sexually transmitted infections like gonorrhea and chlamydia.^[1]^[10] These measures ensure safety by identifying absolute contraindications early. In cases where HSG is contraindicated, alternatives such as saline sonohysterography (also known as saline infusion sonography) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provide non-invasive evaluation of the uterine cavity and fallopian tubes without radiation or contrast risks.^[1]^[13]

Procedure

Preparation

Hysterosalpingography (HSG) is typically scheduled during the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, specifically between days 5 and 10 following the onset of menses, to minimize the risk of pregnancy and ensure a thinner endometrial lining for clearer visualization.^[14] This timing aligns with the first half of the cycle (days 1 to 14), further reducing pregnancy risk while avoiding interference from ovulation or endometrial thickening.^[2] Patients receive specific instructions to prepare, including abstaining from sexual intercourse, douching, and vaginal medications or creams for at least 48 hours prior to the procedure to reduce infection risk and maintain vaginal flora balance.^[15] Prophylactic antibiotics, such as doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 5 days starting before the procedure, are recommended for patients at elevated risk of pelvic infection, such as those with a history of sexually transmitted infections.^[16]^[1] Informed consent is obtained after a thorough discussion of the procedure, including its diagnostic purpose, potential risks like infection or allergic reaction, benefits in evaluating tubal patency, and alternatives such as ultrasound-based hysterosalpingo-contrast sonography.^[1] Pain management options are addressed, with oral ibuprofen at 600 mg taken 1 hour prior often recommended to alleviate cramping during cervical instrumentation and contrast injection.^[17] Clinicians prepare by reviewing the patient's medical history for contraindications like active infection or iodine allergy and performing a bimanual pelvic examination to assess cervical position and uterine anatomy.^[18] An appropriate iodinated contrast medium is selected; water-soluble nonionic agents like iohexol (Omnipaque) are common for their low viscosity, while oil-based contrasts may be used for potential fertility-enhancing effects despite slightly higher risks such as intravasation.^[19]^[20] Equipment setup involves confirming availability of a fluoroscopy suite equipped with a radiographic table, x-ray tube, and video monitor for real-time imaging.^[21] HSG primarily relies on fluoroscopic visualization, with hysterosalpingo-contrast sonography (HyCoSy) available as a radiation-free alternative if needed.^[22] Dietary guidelines depend on whether sedation is anticipated; patients may have a light meal but should remain nil per os (NPO) for 2-4 hours prior if moderate sedation is planned to prevent aspiration.^[23] For standard unsedated HSG, normal eating and drinking are permitted up to the procedure time.^[24]

Technique

The patient is positioned supine in the lithotomy position on a fluoroscopy table, with the feet supported in stirrups to facilitate access to the pelvic region. A bivalve speculum is inserted into the vagina to visualize and clean the cervix with an antiseptic solution.^[1] The cervix is grasped gently with a single-toothed tenaculum for stabilization, particularly if cervical stenosis or anteversion is present. A specialized hysterosalpingography (HSG) catheter, such as a balloon-tipped or acorn-tipped cannula, is then advanced through the cervical os into the endometrial cavity. The balloon is inflated with 1-2 mL of sterile saline to create a seal and prevent reflux of contrast material. The speculum is removed to improve patient comfort and imaging quality. Local anesthesia, including a paracervical block with 1-2% lidocaine, may be administered to mitigate cramping during instrumentation.^[18] Under continuous fluoroscopic monitoring, 10-20 mL of water-soluble, nonionic iodinated contrast medium (e.g., iodixanol) is injected slowly to avoid tubal spasm. Real-time observation captures the sequential filling of the uterine cavity, passage of contrast through the fallopian tubes, and, if patent, free spillage into the peritoneal cavity. Serial spot radiographs are acquired at key stages: a preliminary scout view prior to injection, during uterine and tubal opacification, and post-injection to document peritoneal spill. Digital subtraction techniques can be employed to subtract overlapping bony structures and enhance visualization of soft tissue details. The procedure typically lasts 15-30 minutes, including setup and imaging.^[1]^[18] A variation known as hysterosalpingo-contrast sonography (HyCoSy) serves as a radiation-free alternative, utilizing transvaginal ultrasound for guidance. In HyCoSy, after similar cervical catheterization and balloon inflation, a contrast agent such as agitated saline mixed with air or a foam gel (e.g., ExEm Foam) is injected, allowing real-time sonographic assessment of uterine and tubal filling without fluoroscopy.^[25]^[26]

Results and Interpretation

Normal Findings

In a normal hysterosalpingogram, the uterine cavity appears as a smooth, triangular structure with regular endometrial margins and no filling defects or irregularities, confirming the absence of intracavitary abnormalities.^[1]^[27] The cavity is typically visualized under fluoroscopy during the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle, when the endometrium is thinnest, allowing clear delineation of its contours.^[27] The fallopian tubes in a normal study present as symmetrical, serpiginous (winding) structures that fill completely with contrast medium from the interstitial portion through the isthmus, ampulla, and infundibulum to the fimbrial ends, without evidence of dilation, beading, or obstruction.^[1] This complete filling indicates tubal patency and normal architecture. Free spillage of contrast into the peritoneal cavity at the fimbrial ends bilaterally, with symmetric flow, is a hallmark of normal tubal patency, as the dye disperses around the pelvic structures.^[1]^[27] Typical volumes include 5-10 mL of water-soluble contrast to opacify the uterine cavity, with an additional 2-5 mL per tube to achieve full filling without significant reflux into the vagina.^[9]^[28] Observations occur in real time: the uterine cavity opacifies immediately upon injection, tubal filling follows within seconds, and peritoneal spillage is evident within 1-2 minutes.^[18]^[29] Non-pathologic artifacts, such as air bubbles or small amounts of mucus within the cavity or tubes, may appear as transient filling defects but can be distinguished from true pathology by their mobility, rounded shape, or resolution with additional contrast injection.^[30]^[31]^[27]

Pathological Findings

Pathological findings in hysterosalpingography (HSG) reveal structural abnormalities of the uterus and fallopian tubes that may contribute to infertility or other gynecological issues. These include tubal occlusions, uterine cavity distortions, peritubal adhesions, and congenital anomalies, each presenting distinct radiographic patterns. Interpretation requires correlation with clinical history, as some findings may mimic normal variants or require confirmatory imaging. Tubal occlusion is a common pathological finding, classified as proximal (cornual) or distal (fimbrial). Proximal occlusion appears as failure of contrast medium to enter the tubal lumen at the cornual region, often due to fibrosis, endometriosis, or salpingitis isthmica nodosa (SIN), a condition characterized by diverticular outpouchings in the isthmus from prior pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Distal occlusion, conversely, shows contrast filling the tube but no spillage into the peritoneal cavity, frequently associated with hydrosalpinx—a dilated, fluid-filled fallopian tube resembling a sac-like structure on imaging. SIN, in particular, is associated with bilateral tubal blockage in more than 50% of cases and is a leading cause of infertility in affected patients.^[32] Uterine abnormalities manifest as filling defects or cavity irregularities. Submucosal fibroids (leiomyomas) and endometrial polyps produce smooth, rounded filling defects within the opacified endometrial cavity, potentially causing distortion or partial obstruction if large. In Asherman's syndrome, intrauterine adhesions (synechiae) result in an irregular, fragmented, or partially obliterated uterine cavity, often following curettage or infection, leading to amenorrhea or recurrent miscarriage. These defects are best visualized during the early filling phase of HSG to distinguish from transient air bubbles.^[6] Peritubal adhesions, indicative of prior PID or endometriosis, present as delayed contrast spillage from the fimbrial ends or loculated (compartmentalized) peritoneal spill patterns, rather than the normal free-flowing dispersion. This restricted spillover signals potential infertility risks due to impaired ovum transport, even without complete tubal occlusion, and may require laparoscopy for confirmation. Such findings are common in infertile patients undergoing HSG.^[33] Congenital anomalies are identified by aberrant uterine or tubal shapes. Exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) in utero produces a characteristic T-shaped uterine cavity with narrowed upper segments and irregular fundal contour, increasing risks of ectopic pregnancy and miscarriage. A unicornuate uterus appears as a single, elongated horn with an absent contralateral structure, often with a rudimentary horn that may communicate or not. These müllerian duct anomalies are detected in approximately 5-8% of women evaluated for infertility.^[6]^[34] Diagnostic correlations emphasize HSG's role in infertility assessment, with proximal occlusion frequently attributable to SIN or PID sequelae. The procedure demonstrates tubal patency with a sensitivity of 72-85% and specificity of 68-89% when compared to laparoscopy as the gold standard, though false positives from tubal spasm can occur. Reporting standards for uterine anomalies incorporate the FIGO classification system, which categorizes müllerian defects into classes (e.g., class U4 for bicornuate uterus) to standardize communication and guide management.^[32]^[1]

Complications

Minor Complications

Post-procedure cramping is one of the most frequent minor complications of hysterosalpingography, resembling menstrual pain and resulting from uterine distension by the contrast medium; it affects 20-94% of patients and typically resolves within hours to 1-2 days.^[35] Mild to moderate cramping often occurs immediately after contrast injection, lasting 5-10 minutes in many cases, though some individuals experience discomfort for several hours, which can be managed with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like ibuprofen.^[36] Vaginal spotting, characterized by light bleeding due to cervical manipulation or contrast leakage, is another common self-limiting side effect, occurring in a substantial proportion of patients and usually resolving within 24-48 hours.^[3] This spotting is generally minimal and does not require intervention unless it becomes heavy, in which case medical evaluation is advised.^[36] Mild allergic reactions to the iodinated contrast agent, such as nausea, hives, or itching, are uncommon, with an incidence of less than 1-5%; these symptoms are typically transient and can be alleviated with antihistamines.^[36]^[37] Patients with a history of iodine or contrast allergies should be premedicated, but severe reactions are exceedingly rare in hysterosalpingography compared to intravenous administration.^[18] The risk of infection following the procedure is low, ranging from 1-3.4%, particularly if no antibiotic prophylaxis is used; it may present as transient fever or vaginal discharge and is more likely in patients with preexisting tubal pathology.^[24]^[36] Radiation exposure during hysterosalpingography is minimal, with an average gonadal dose of approximately 2.7 mGy, posing negligible long-term risk to reproductive-age women and comparable to background radiation levels.^[38] Vasovagal syncope, manifesting as brief dizziness or fainting due to cervical manipulation or pain, occurs in about 4% of cases as a mild reaction and can be prevented or mitigated through hydration and supportive positioning during the procedure.^[18]^[39]

Major Complications

Major complications from hysterosalpingography (HSG) are rare, occurring in less than 1% of cases.^[40] These events, though infrequent, can be life-threatening and necessitate prompt recognition and intervention to prevent long-term morbidity. Complication rates may vary by contrast type, with oil-based agents associated with higher overall rates (up to 5.1%) compared to water-based (1.8%).^[41] Pelvic infection represents one of the primary major risks, occurring in approximately 1.4-3.4% of cases, with a substantially elevated incidence in patients with a history of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID).^[1] Symptoms typically manifest as severe pelvic pain and fever exceeding 38.5°C within hours to days post-procedure, potentially progressing to peritonitis if untreated.^[36] Management involves immediate administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as ceftriaxone combined with doxycycline, often requiring hospitalization for intravenous therapy and close monitoring.^[1] Uterine perforation, a form of contrast extravasation, is a very rare complication, occurring in less than 0.1% of HSG procedures and can lead to peritonitis due to leakage into the peritoneal cavity.^[42] This is detected radiographically by free spill of contrast outside the normal uterine and tubal tracts, prompting surgical evaluation if hemodynamic instability arises.^[43] Severe allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, are exceedingly rare, with an incidence below 0.1%, but they present with hypotension, bronchospasm, and urticaria shortly after contrast administration.^[1] Immediate resuscitation with epinephrine, antihistamines, and supportive measures is essential to avert cardiovascular collapse.^[44] Ectopic contrast injection via venous or lymphatic intravasation occurs in up to 5% of cases but carries a low risk (<0.5%) of pulmonary embolism, particularly with oil-based agents, though most instances remain asymptomatic.^[41] Monitoring for respiratory distress is advised, with rare cases potentially requiring anticoagulation or further imaging.^[45] Long-term effects of HSG are minimal, with no significant impact on future infertility from the procedure itself and no established increase in cancer risk attributable to the low-dose ionizing radiation involved, estimated at 1.2 mSv per examination.^[38]

History and Development

Early History

Hysterosalpingography emerged in the early 20th century as a pioneering radiographic method to address the diagnostic limitations in evaluating female infertility, particularly tubal patency, at a time when surgical exploration was the primary option. American gynecologist Isidor C. Rubin played a foundational role, publishing in 1915 on the use of intrauterine injections of collargol—a colloidal silver protein contrast agent—combined with X-rays to visualize the uterine cavity and detect abnormalities such as tumors or adhesions. This work built on earlier attempts, including the first reported hysterosalpingogram in 1914 by W.H. Cary, who also employed collargol to outline the uterus and fallopian tubes. These innovations responded to the recognition that tubal occlusion contributed significantly to infertility, estimated at 30-40% of cases, necessitating non-invasive assessment tools.^[46]^[47]^[48] The technique advanced with the introduction of oil-based contrasts, notably Lipiodol in 1924 by French neurologists Jean-Athanasius Sicard and Jacques Forestier, which provided superior radiopacity and persistence for imaging tubal spillage into the peritoneal cavity. Rubin integrated such agents into his practice, expanding beyond gas insufflation—detailed in his landmark 1920 JAMA paper on uterotubal insufflation with oxygen to confirm patency—to radiographic evaluation, establishing criteria for interpreting uterine filling defects and tubal morphology. By the 1930s, hysterosalpingography achieved widespread adoption across Europe and the United States, becoming a standard outpatient procedure for infertility workups, often performed without anesthesia using manual syringe injection.^[47]^[49]^[1] Early implementations faced notable challenges, including infection risks associated with oil-based contrasts, attributed to bacterial introduction without routine antibiotic prophylaxis and the procedure's manipulation of the endocervical canal. Some clinicians pursued a therapeutic intent based on the "flushing hypothesis," positing that contrast instillation could dislodge debris or minor adhesions to improve fertility, though evidence was anecdotal and risks outweighed unproven benefits. In the pre-fluoroscopy era, imaging relied solely on static post-injection radiographs, which hindered real-time observation of contrast dynamics, tubal peristalsis, or immediate spill, often requiring multiple exposures and limiting diagnostic precision.^[1]^[1]^[50]

Modern Advancements

In the mid-20th century, hysterosalpingography transitioned from oil-based to water-soluble contrast media, marking a significant safety improvement. Introduced in the 1950s, agents like Sinografin, a diatrizoate meglumine and diatrizoate sodium solution, minimized risks associated with oil contrasts, such as granulomatous reactions and fibrosis in the peritoneum and fallopian tubes.^[51]^[52] This shift reduced procedure-related complications, including oil emboli and chronic inflammation, enabling broader clinical adoption for infertility evaluation.^[11] By the 1960s, integration of fluoroscopy enhanced procedural precision through real-time imaging, allowing dynamic observation of contrast flow in the uterine cavity and fallopian tubes.^[1] This advancement facilitated immediate adjustments during injection and improved diagnostic accuracy for tubal patency. Subsequent refinements, including pulsed fluoroscopy techniques in later decades, further decreased radiation exposure by up to 80% compared to continuous modes, prioritizing patient safety without compromising image quality.^[53] The 1990s introduced hysterosalpingo-contrast sonography (HyCoSy) as a radiation-free ultrasound-based alternative to traditional HSG, utilizing echogenic microbubbles for contrast enhancement in outpatient settings. Developed as a less invasive option, HyCoSy achieves comparable tubal patency assessment with 85-95% concordance to HSG, while eliminating ionizing radiation entirely. Further developments include hysterosalpingo-foam sonography (HyFoSy) in the 2010s, using foam contrast for enhanced visualization, achieving similar tubal patency assessment with reduced discomfort.^[54]^[55]^[56] In the 2000s, digital imaging innovations like subtraction radiography eliminated overlapping densities for clearer visualization, and 3D reconstruction via MR hysterosalpingography improved detection of uterine anomalies, such as septa or polyps, with enhanced spatial resolution.^[57]^[58] Standardization of antibiotic prophylaxis in the 2010s, guided by organizations like the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), recommended doxycycline (100 mg orally twice daily for 5 days) for patients with risk factors, such as prior pelvic inflammatory disease or dilated tubes on imaging. This protocol reduced post-procedure infection rates to below 1%, with studies reporting pelvic inflammatory disease incidence as low as 0.46% in prophylaxed cohorts versus 1.42% without.^[59]^[60] Recent integrations include combining HSG with laparoscopy for confirmatory diagnostics in ambiguous cases, where laparoscopy verifies tubal patency or adhesions with over 90% accuracy relative to HSG findings. Subsequent randomized controlled trials, such as the 2017 HSG-PROSPER study, have validated the flushing hypothesis, demonstrating that oil-based contrasts improve live birth rates by approximately 10% compared to water-based agents in women undergoing infertility evaluation.^[20] Emerging in the 2020s, AI-assisted image analysis employs deep learning algorithms to recognize patterns in HSG radiographs, aiding anomaly detection with preliminary accuracies exceeding 90% in pilot frameworks.^[61]^[62]

Follow-Up

Post-Procedure Instructions

Following hysterosalpingography (HSG), patients are typically observed for 30 to 60 minutes in the recovery area to monitor for immediate adverse effects such as excessive cramping or vasovagal reactions.^[63] Discharge is permitted once stable, and if no sedation was administered during the procedure, patients may drive themselves home.^[3]^[36] Mild to moderate cramping is common for several hours post-procedure and can be managed with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen at a dose of 400 to 600 mg every 6 hours as needed.^[3]^[24] Aspirin should be avoided to reduce the risk of bleeding.^[3] Acetaminophen may be used as an alternative if NSAIDs are contraindicated.^[36] Patients should resume normal daily activities the following day, but pelvic rest is recommended for 48 hours, including avoidance of sexual intercourse, tampon use, and douching to minimize infection risk.^[36]^[64] A sticky vaginal discharge, potentially tinged with blood, is expected for 1 to 2 days as the contrast material drains; sanitary pads should be used instead of tampons.^[2]^[3] Showers are permitted, but patients should monitor for unusual discharge or foul odor, which could indicate infection.^[3] Contact the healthcare provider immediately if fever exceeds 38°C (100.4°F), severe or worsening pain develops, or heavy vaginal bleeding occurs (soaking more than one pad per hour).^[3]^[24]^[36] Minor discomforts such as light spotting or brief cramping are expected and typically resolve without intervention.^[3] If no signs of infection are present, it is generally safe to attempt conception within a few days after the procedure, once any vaginal bleeding has resolved, and according to provider guidance.^[3]^[36]

Monitoring for Complications

Following hysterosalpingography (HSG), patients should contact their healthcare provider if any concerning symptoms emerge within 24 to 48 hours post-procedure.^[36] This is particularly emphasized for high-risk patients, such as those with a history of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) or suspected tubal pathology, where closer monitoring may be advised, including potential follow-up evaluation if symptoms develop.^[1] Prophylactic antibiotics, such as doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 5 days, are often administered in these cases if dilated fallopian tubes are identified during the procedure, to mitigate infection risk.^[59] Patients should actively surveil for signs of infection, including fever above 38°C (100.4°F), chills, purulent or foul-smelling vaginal discharge, or increasing pelvic pain, as well as indicators of uterine perforation such as severe abdominal pain, vomiting, or shoulder pain from diaphragmatic irritation.^[3]^[1] If severe symptoms occur, immediate escalation to the emergency department is recommended for prompt evaluation and potential imaging or intervention.^[36] For suspected infection, diagnostic tests may include vaginal or cervical culture swabs to identify pathogens, while a repeat pregnancy test (urine or serum beta-hCG) is advised if menses are delayed beyond the expected cycle, given the procedure's timing in the follicular phase to minimize pregnancy risk.^[1]^[65] Long-term monitoring does not require routine imaging or follow-up unless new infertility symptoms emerge, such as persistent amenorrhea or worsening pain; instead, fertility outcomes are typically correlated with HSG results during infertility evaluation at 3 to 6 months post-procedure.^[36] In special populations, such as those receiving oil-based contrast media, thyroid function (TSH and free T4 levels) should be tested pre-procedure and monitored for 6 months afterward due to the risk of transient hypothyroidism from iodine excess.^[37] For patients with known iodine allergies or at risk for delayed contrast reactions, vigilance for symptoms like rash or swelling is advised, though reactions are usually immediate; beta-hCG follow-up may be prioritized in those with irregular cycles or unintended periprocedural conception risk.^[1]^[3] To support broader quality improvement, complications encountered post-HSG should be reported to institutional or national registries to track incidence rates, such as pelvic infection (0.5% to 1.4% depending on prophylaxis use).^[65] Patient education is integral, emphasizing recognition of delayed effects like persistent spotting or rare allergic responses, with instructions to seek care promptly to prevent escalation.^[36]

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Tubal blockage can be either congenital malformation or acquired abnormalities that include spasms, polyp, mucus plugs, infection, scarring, endometriosis, or ...
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Hysterosalpingography in the workup of female infertility: indications ...
Jul 17, 2012 · The primary role of HSG is to evaluate the morphology and the patency of the fallopian tubes. The fallopian tubes should appear as thin, smooth ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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What are the risks associated with lipiodol hysterosalpingography ...
Pain was the most frequently reported adverse effect during HSG, with rates ranging from 20.6 to 93.9% of patients.,,15, 16 ...
[32]
Hysterosalpingogram (HSG) patient education fact sheet
A hysterosalpingogram (HSG) is an x-ray procedure used to see whether the fallopian tubes are patent (open) and if the inside of the uterus (uterine cavity) is ...
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Contrast media for hysterosalpingography: systematic search ... - NIH
Apr 4, 2024 · Clinical relevance statement. Oil-based CM is associated with an approximately 10% higher chance of pregnancy compared to water-based CM after ...Missing: preparation | Show results with:preparation
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Radiogenic risks from hysterosalpingography - PubMed
The dose to female gonads from an average HSG procedure was 2.7 mGy and the patient effective dose was 1.2 mSv.
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Tolerability, side effects, and complications of ... - ScienceDirect.com
Mild vasovagal reactions were experienced in 20 cases (4.1%), and four patients (0.8%) had a severe vasovagal reaction. No late complications were reported.Missing: minor | Show results with:minor
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ASRM Practice Committee Documents
This guidance has been developed by the ASRM Practice Committee to assist healthcare providers with clinical decisions regarding the care of their patients.Premature Ovarian Insufficiency · Gamete and embryo donation... · Septate uterusMissing: major complications
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life threatening Group A sepsis secondary to HyCoSy - PMC
The largest study, by Marshak in 1950 in which there was an incidence rate of peritonitis of 0.28% in 2,500 women undergoing HSG, all seven cases occurred in ...
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Complications of Hysterosalpingography - News-Medical
Vasovagal reactions. Vasovagal reactions are fainting attacks caused by the sudden manipulation of the cervix or by the insertion of the catheter. In some ...
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Late anaphylactic shock after hysterosalpingography - PubMed
We observed a patient who had a severe anaphylactic reaction 1 hour after HSG. Allergic symptoms recurred several hours after antiallergic therapy was stopped.
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Complications after hysterosalpingography with oil- or water-based ...
Jan 15, 2020 · The most frequently reported complication after HSG with oil- and water-based contrast was intravasation of contrast medium (4.8% versus 1.3%, respectively).Missing: ASRM guidelines
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Complications after hysterosalpingography with oil- or water-based ...
Jan 15, 2020 · Two clinics (2/41) did not specify the indication for antibiotic prophylaxis, and in these clinics, the risk of infection was 1.8% (3/171).Abstract · Introduction · Materials and Methods · Results
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The Rubin Test - JAMA Network
4. Rubin IC: X-ray diagnosis in gynecology with the aid of intrauterine Collargol injection . Surg Gynecol Obstet 1915;20:435.
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Hysterosalpingographic findings in infertility — what has changed ...
Prior studies on Hysterosalpingography (HSG) have shown that pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) related tubal adhesions accounted for 30 – 50% of female ...Missing: minor | Show results with:minor
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A Review of Tubal Factors Affecting Fertility and its Management - NIH
Nov 1, 2022 · Tubal blockage accounts for 30%-40% of a woman's fertility. Congenital abnormalities, acute and persistent inflammatory diseases, endometriosis, and different ...
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TUBAL PATENCY: CLINICAL STUDY IN SIX HUNDRED AND FIFTY ...
Uterotubal insufflation (peruterine tubal insufflation) was devised in November, 1919, and was reported before this section in April, 1920, as a method of.
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Diagnostic Use of Intra-uterine Iodized Oil Injection Combined with ...
This dealt with the diagnosis of intra-uterine tumors by the aid of collargol injection and the X-rays. It was a preliminary report and concerned itself ...
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New water-soluble medium (sinografin) for hysterosalpingography
New water-soluble medium (sinografin) for hysterosalpingography. Fertil Steril. 1959 May-Jun;10(3):227-39. doi: 10.1016/s0015-0282(16)33422-7.Missing: history | Show results with:history
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Review Article Hysterosalpingography in the 1990s
The first hysterosalpingogram was obtained. 80 years ago by using bismuth ... history of pelvic infection and exhibit a high rate of primary infertility.Missing: inventor | Show results with:inventor
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Hysterosalpingography: a step up for dose reduction
Oct 14, 2023 · For example, the mean fluoroscopic time during HSG is estimated at 0.3 ± 0.2 minutes and the exposure dose is 9.7 ± 4.2 mGy, compared to the ...
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A comparison of patient tolerance of hysterosalpingo-contrast ...
The radiological and ultrasound findings are shown in. Table 1. Uterine pathology was detected with both Hy-. Cosy and HSG, but ovarian pathology was ...
[51]
Current methods of tubal patency assessment - Fertility and Sterility
The introduction of hysterosalpingo-contrast sonography (HyCoSy) has become an increasingly popular alternative, combining the principles of SIS with those of ...
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MR Hysterosalpingography with an Angiographic Time-Resolved ...
OBJECTIVE. The purpose of our study was to determine if tubal patency can be assessed by MR hysterosalpingography (HSG) using a clinically available MR ...
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Three-dimensional dynamic MR hysterosalpingography - PubMed
The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of three-dimensional dynamic MR hysterosalpingography (3D MR HSG) for visualization of the cavum uteri ...Missing: 2000s subtraction reconstruction
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Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Gynecologic Procedures prior to and ... - NIH
In patients with a history of PID, doxycycline can be administered before the procedure and continued if dilated fallopian tubes are found during HSG [2]. 5.2.
[55]
The effect of antibiotic prophylaxis for acute pelvic inflammatory ...
Antibiotic prophylaxis is associated with a decreased estimated relative risk of acute PID in HSG patients. Doxycycline and 1st-generation cephalosporins may ...
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Comparison of Hysterosalpingography With Laparoscopy in ... - NIH
Oct 29, 2021 · Conclusion: The current study concluded that HSG is a good diagnostic modality to detect tube abnormalities in infertile patients. HSG and ...
[57]
AI-Driven Framework for Enhanced Hysterosalpingography Analysis
May 15, 2025 · HSG-Assistant is an AI-driven diagnostic framework designed to address the significant limitations of traditional Hysterosalpingography (HSG) imaging in ...Missing: assisted 2020s
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HSG Test: What to Expect Before, During, and After
Sep 24, 2025 · Contact your doctor if you experience: Fever or chills; Heavy bleeding; Severe or worsening abdominal pain. FAQs: HSG Test. What is an HSG test?Missing: aftercare | Show results with:aftercare
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4800103/
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Complications after hysterosalpingography with oil- or water-based ...
Jan 15, 2020 · An HSG with oil-based contrast increases pregnancy rates in women with unexplained infertility. However, there have been some concerns regarding ...Missing: replacement | Show results with:replacement