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Menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is a recurring physiological process in human females of reproductive age, involving coordinated hormonal changes that regulate ovarian follicle development, ovulation, and preparation of the uterine endometrium for potential pregnancy, typically culminating in menstruation if implantation does not occur.^[1]^[2] This cycle, driven by interactions among the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, ovaries, and uterus, averages 28 days in length but exhibits substantial variability, with normal cycles ranging from 24 to 38 days based on empirical tracking data from large cohorts.^[3]^[4] It encompasses the ovarian cycle, consisting of the follicular phase (follicle maturation under follicle-stimulating hormone [FSH] influence), ovulation (egg release triggered by a luteinizing hormone [LH] surge), and luteal phase (corpus luteum formation producing progesterone), alongside corresponding uterine phases: menstrual (shedding of the endometrium), proliferative (endometrial growth stimulated by estrogen), and secretory (progesterone-induced glandular development).^[1]^[5] Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus initiates the cascade, prompting pituitary secretion of FSH and LH, which in turn stimulate ovarian production of estrogen and progesterone to modulate cycle progression and feedback regulation.^[1]^[6] Disruptions in this hormonally orchestrated sequence can lead to irregularities such as amenorrhea or dysmenorrhea, though the cycle's core function remains the periodic readiness for reproduction, with empirical evidence underscoring its sensitivity to factors like age, stress, and nutrition.^[5]^[4]

Definition and Characteristics

Biological Definition and Purpose

The menstrual cycle refers to the approximately monthly series of physiological changes in the female reproductive system, characterized by cyclic alterations in the ovaries and endometrium driven by hormonal interactions among the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, ovaries, and uterus.^[1] These changes culminate in ovulation, the release of a mature ovum from an ovarian follicle, typically midway through the cycle.^[2] In the absence of fertilization, the process concludes with menstruation, the shedding of the endometrial lining.^[7] This cycle begins at menarche, usually between ages 10 and 16, and continues until menopause, averaging around age 51.^[1] Biologically, the purpose of the menstrual cycle is to prepare the female body for potential reproduction by coordinating gamete maturation, ovum release, and uterine receptivity for embryo implantation.^[1] Follicle development and ovulation enable the production of a fertilizable egg, while estrogen-driven endometrial proliferation creates a nutrient-rich environment to support early embryonic growth if conception occurs.^[7] If implantation fails, progesterone withdrawal triggers endometrial breakdown and menstruation, resetting the cycle for subsequent attempts.^[2] This mechanism ensures periodic fertility windows, optimizing reproductive success in species with concealed ovulation, such as humans.^[8] Unlike continuous spermatogenesis in males, the cyclic nature reflects an energy-efficient strategy for oogenesis, limiting it to viable reproductive periods.^[9]

Typical Duration, Variability, and Markers

The typical menstrual cycle is measured from the first day of menstrual bleeding to the first day of the subsequent bleeding, with a median length of 28 days observed in large cohorts of reproductive-age women. Most cycles range from 25 to 30 days, though a broader normal range extends from 21 to 35 days, encompassing 95% of cycles in healthy individuals without underlying pathology.^[2]^[10] The duration of menstrual bleeding itself averages 5.8 days, with 95% of cycles featuring bleeding from 3 to 8 days, though clinical norms often specify 3 to 7 days as typical.^[11]^[2] Cycle length exhibits both between-woman and within-woman variability, with the latter typically not exceeding 7 to 9 days in ovulatory cycles for most women in their peak reproductive years. Variability is lowest between ages 35 and 39, increasing by approximately 45% to 46% in women aged 18 to 24 or over 40, reflecting physiological changes such as irregular ovulation in adolescence and perimenopause.^[12] Factors influencing variability include age, body mass index (BMI), stress, and exercise, while smoking and alcohol consumption show no consistent impact in population studies.^[4] For instance, cycles lengthen by an average of 1.6 days in Asian women and 0.7 days in Hispanic women compared to White women, independent of age and BMI.^[13] Key markers delineate cycle progression: Day 1 signifies the onset of menstrual bleeding, triggered by progesterone withdrawal; ovulation, confirmed by luteinizing hormone (LH) surge, typically occurs around day 14 in 28-day cycles but varies with follicular phase length (averaging 15 days), while the luteal phase remains more consistent at 12 to 14 days.^[14]^[10] The ovulatory window spans approximately 6 days, encompassing the 5 days prior to ovulation and the day of, as sperm viability allows fertilization post-insemination.^[3] These markers rely on empirical tracking via basal body temperature shifts, cervical mucus changes, or urinary LH detection, with cycle irregularity (e.g., lengths outside 21-36 days) signaling potential anovulation or health disruptions in fewer than 3% of tracked cycles among app users.^[15]

Hormonal Regulation

Key Hormones Involved

The menstrual cycle is primarily regulated by interactions within the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis, involving gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (the primary estrogen), and progesterone. GnRH is secreted in a pulsatile manner by neurons in the hypothalamus, with pulse frequency and amplitude varying across the cycle to modulate gonadotropin release.^[1] This pulsatile secretion ensures tonic stimulation of the anterior pituitary gland, preventing desensitization and maintaining reproductive function.^[16] FSH and LH, both glycoprotein gonadotropins produced by the anterior pituitary, drive ovarian folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis. FSH primarily stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles during the follicular phase, promoting granulosa cell proliferation and the expression of aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogens.^[2] LH complements FSH by inducing theca cell androgen production and, in a mid-cycle surge, triggers ovulation by causing follicular rupture and luteinization of granulosa cells into the corpus luteum.^[1] The LH/FSH ratio shifts dynamically, with higher FSH early in the cycle favoring follicle recruitment and increasing LH later to support ovulation.^[6] Estradiol, synthesized mainly in granulosa cells under FSH influence, exerts negative feedback on the HPO axis at low levels to suppress FSH and maintain follicular selection, but rises to induce positive feedback triggering the LH surge when thresholds are met.^[2] Progesterone, produced post-ovulation by the corpus luteum under LH stimulation, prepares the endometrium for implantation and exerts negative feedback to inhibit GnRH, FSH, and LH, preventing further ovulation.^[1] If pregnancy does not occur, declining progesterone levels signal luteolysis, restarting the cycle. Inhibin, secreted by granulosa cells, selectively suppresses FSH to refine follicle selection, while activin enhances FSH effects.^[6] These hormones collectively ensure synchronized ovarian and uterine changes, with disruptions in their balance underlying common reproductive disorders.^[1]

Feedback Mechanisms and Axis Dynamics

The hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis orchestrates the menstrual cycle through pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion from the hypothalamus, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), thereby driving ovarian follicle development and steroidogenesis.^[1] GnRH is released in pulses from the arcuate nucleus, with pulse frequency modulating the FSH-to-LH ratio: higher frequencies favor LH secretion, while slower frequencies promote FSH dominance, influencing phase-specific ovarian responses.^[17] Ovarian products, including estradiol (E₂), progesterone, and inhibins, exert feedback on the axis to maintain cyclicity.^[18] Negative feedback predominates to regulate gonadotropin levels and prevent overstimulation. In the follicular phase, rising E₂ and inhibin B from granulosa cells suppress FSH secretion at the pituitary, selectively allowing the dominant follicle (typically 18-29 mm in diameter) to persist while atresia occurs in others; low progesterone levels contribute minimally at this stage.^[1] ^[18] During the luteal phase, elevated E₂, progesterone, and inhibin A further inhibit both FSH and LH, reducing GnRH pulse frequency (to intervals exceeding 200 minutes) via opioid-mediated pathways, which sustains the corpus luteum until luteolysis.^[17] ^[18] This feedback ensures intercycle homeostasis, with declining luteal steroids permitting an FSH rise to initiate the next follicular phase.^[1] Positive feedback occurs transiently in the late follicular phase to trigger ovulation. Sustained high E₂ levels (for at least 34-48 hours) from the preovulatory follicle sensitize the pituitary to GnRH, inducing a surge in LH (10-fold increase) and, to a lesser extent, FSH, typically around day 14 of a 28-day cycle; ovulation follows 36-44 hours later.^[1] ^[17] This mechanism overrides negative feedback temporarily, modulated by non-steroidal factors like gonadotropin surge-attenuating factor (GnSAF), which limits surge amplitude to prevent hyperstimulation.^[18] Disruptions in these loops, such as altered GnRH pulsatility, can impair cyclicity, though normal dynamics rely on precise steroidal thresholds and ovarian-pituitary reciprocity.^[1]

Cycle Phases

Menstrual Phase

The menstrual phase constitutes the initial segment of the menstrual cycle, commencing on the first day of vaginal bleeding and involving the shedding of the endometrium's functional layer. This process is precipitated by the regression of the corpus luteum in the preceding luteal phase, resulting in a precipitous decline in progesterone and estrogen concentrations.^[1]^[2] The withdrawal of these steroid hormones destabilizes the endometrial vasculature, leading to ischemia, necrosis, and subsequent expulsion of the superficial endometrial tissue through menstrual bleeding.^[1]^[19] Typically, the menstrual phase endures for 3 to 7 days, with bleeding volume ranging from 20 to 90 milliliters across the period.^[20]^[21] The heaviest flow occurs in the initial 1 to 2 days, diminishing thereafter as hemostasis ensues and endometrial repair initiates.^[21] Prostaglandins, synthesized by the endometrium in response to hormonal withdrawal, mediate uterine contractions that facilitate expulsion of debris and contribute to associated dysmenorrhea in susceptible individuals.^[1] Physiologically, the process encompasses localized inflammation and enzymatic degradation of the extracellular matrix within the endometrium, enabling orderly shedding without deep tissue invasion under normal conditions.^[19] Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels begin to rise modestly toward the phase's conclusion, stimulating ovarian follicular recruitment for the ensuing follicular phase.^[1] Variability in duration and flow can occur due to factors such as age, with adolescents often experiencing longer or irregular bleeding patterns.^[22] Excessive or prolonged bleeding exceeding 80 milliliters or 7 days warrants clinical evaluation to exclude pathologies like coagulopathies or structural abnormalities.^[23]

Follicular Phase

The follicular phase commences on the first day of menstrual bleeding and extends until ovulation, typically spanning days 1 to 14 in a standard 28-day cycle, though its length varies between 10 and 16 days across individuals due to differences in ovulation timing.^[1] ^[2] This phase is characterized by the recruitment and maturation of ovarian follicles under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), with one dominant follicle ultimately selected for ovulation while others undergo atresia.^[24] Early in the phase, low levels of FSH from the anterior pituitary stimulate the growth of multiple primordial follicles in the ovaries, transitioning them to primary and secondary stages with proliferation of granulosa and theca cells.^[1] As follicles develop, they produce increasing amounts of estradiol, which rises gradually from low levels post-menses, peaking just before ovulation to exert negative feedback on FSH secretion, thereby suppressing further follicle recruitment and promoting selection of the dominant follicle.^[25] ^[2] Luteinizing hormone (LH) remains low during most of this period but, in response to rising estradiol levels providing positive feedback, surges mid-cycle to trigger ovulation.^[2] Concurrently, the proliferative phase occurs in the uterus, where rising estradiol stimulates endometrial regeneration and thickening, with glandular proliferation and increased vascularity preparing the lining for potential implantation.^[24] Inhibin B, secreted by granulosa cells, further modulates FSH levels to fine-tune follicular development.^[1] Empirical measurements indicate estradiol levels increase from approximately 30-50 pg/mL early in the phase to over 200 pg/mL pre-ovulation, correlating with follicle diameters exceeding 10 mm for the dominant structure.^[2]

Ovulation

Ovulation is the physiological event in which a mature oocyte is released from the dominant ovarian follicle into the peritoneal cavity and subsequently captured by the fimbriae of the fallopian tube.^[26] This process marks the midpoint of the menstrual cycle in fertile women, enabling potential fertilization.^[1] In a standard 28-day menstrual cycle, ovulation typically occurs around day 14, approximately 14 days prior to the onset of menstruation, though cycle length variability influences exact timing.^[1] The event is triggered by a preovulatory surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, stimulated by rising estradiol levels from the maturing follicle exerting positive feedback on the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.^[2] The LH surge duration averages 24 to 48 hours, with ovulation ensuing 24 to 36 hours after its onset or 10 to 12 hours following the LH peak.^[2] ^[27] The LH surge induces enzymatic degradation of the follicular wall, leading to rupture of the graafian follicle and expulsion of the oocyte surrounded by cumulus cells.^[26] The released oocyte remains viable for fertilization for about 12 to 24 hours, while spermatozoa can survive in the female reproductive tract for up to 5 days, defining the fertile window.^[26] Post-ovulation, the ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone to support potential implantation.^[1] Detection of ovulation relies on methods such as urinary LH kits, which identify the surge with high sensitivity; basal body temperature monitoring, showing a post-ovulatory rise of 0.5 to 1°F due to progesterone; and transvaginal ultrasound visualizing follicular collapse.^[28] Some women report symptoms like mittelschmerz, a mid-cycle lower abdominal pain from follicular rupture, occurring in up to 20% of cycles, alongside changes in cervical mucus to a clear, stretchy consistency favoring sperm transport.^[28] Empirical validation confirms these biomarkers correlate with ultrasound-confirmed ovulation, though individual variability necessitates combined methods for accuracy.^[28]

Luteal Phase

The luteal phase begins immediately after ovulation, when the ruptured graafian follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, a temporary endocrine gland in the ovary. This structure primarily secretes progesterone, with lesser amounts of estradiol and inhibin A, to support endometrial preparation for potential implantation. Progesterone production depends on luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulation and cholesterol availability, peaking in the mid-luteal period to induce secretory transformation of the endometrium, including glandular proliferation and vascular changes essential for nutrient provision to an embryo.^[1]^[29]^[30] The phase typically spans 12 to 14 days, from ovulation to the onset of menses, showing lower inter- and intra-woman variability compared to the follicular phase, with a mean duration of 14 days and a normal range of 11 to 17 days. This relative constancy arises from the corpus luteum's finite lifespan, regulated by LH pulses; in the absence of fertilization, LH secretion declines, leading to luteal regression around day 10 to 12 post-ovulation. Progesterone levels rise sharply post-ovulation, reaching maxima of 10-20 ng/mL mid-phase before declining if no pregnancy occurs, which destabilizes the endometrium and initiates menstruation via prostaglandin-mediated vasoconstriction. Basal body temperature elevates by 0.3-0.5°C due to progesterone's thermogenic effects, serving as a clinical marker.^[2]^[30]^[1] In the event of fertilization, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) from the developing embryo sustains the corpus luteum, prolonging progesterone secretion into early pregnancy until the placenta assumes production around weeks 8-10. Endometrial histology shifts to a decidualized state under progesterone influence, with stromal cells enlarging and spiral arteries coiling to facilitate implantation. Empirical data from cycle tracking confirm progesterone's causal role in suppressing uterine contractility and enhancing immune tolerance at the maternal-fetal interface. Short luteal phases under 10 days, observed in 5-10% of cycles, correlate with reduced fertility due to inadequate progesterone exposure, often linked to factors like stress or thyroid dysfunction disrupting LH support.^[1]^[30]^[2]

Irregularities and Disorders

Anovulatory Cycles

Anovulatory cycles occur when ovulation fails to take place during a menstrual cycle, resulting in the absence of egg release from the ovarian follicles despite potential endometrial shedding and bleeding.^[31] In such cycles, estrogen production continues from developing follicles, leading to endometrial proliferation without the subsequent progesterone surge from a corpus luteum, which can cause irregular or heavy withdrawal bleeding upon estrogen decline.^[1] This distinguishes anovulatory bleeding from ovulatory patterns, where progesterone stabilizes the endometrium before orderly shedding.^[31] Prevalence varies by age and population; nearly all reproductive-age women experience sporadic anovulatory cycles, with rates reaching approximately 37% in studies of women reporting normal-length cycles (21-35 days).^[32] In adolescents, anovulation is particularly common, affecting about 50% of cycles in the first two years post-menarche due to hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis immaturity, though many such cycles still fall within 21-45 days.^[33] Chronic anovulation underlies up to 30% of female infertility cases, often linked to underlying disorders like polycystic ovary syndrome.^[34] Frequency decreases with age until perimenopause, where anovulatory cycles again rise due to declining ovarian reserve.^[35] Common causes include disruptions in gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulsatility from stress, excessive exercise, or nutritional deficits; hyperandrogenic states such as PCOS; thyroid dysfunction; or hyperprolactinemia.^[36] In adolescents, transient immaturity of the reproductive axis predominates, while in adults, obesity or rapid weight loss can elevate estrogen via aromatization in adipose tissue, perpetuating unopposed stimulation.^[37] Premature ovarian insufficiency or perimenopausal follicular atresia also contributes by limiting mature oocyte development.^[35] Clinically, anovulatory cycles may present with oligomenorrhea, amenorrhea, or dysfunctional uterine bleeding characterized by prolonged or heavy flows, though some mimic eumenorrheic patterns without overt irregularity.^[38] Associated symptoms can include milder premenstrual complaints due to absent luteal progesterone, but chronic cases risk endometrial hyperplasia from sustained estrogen exposure, elevating hyperplasia and carcinoma odds by 2-4 fold if untreated beyond two years.^[31] Infertility arises directly from lack of gamete release, with no fertile window.^[34] Diagnosis relies on menstrual history revealing irregular patterns, confirmed by mid-luteal progesterone levels below 3-5 ng/mL (indicating no ovulation), serial ultrasounds showing absent dominant follicle collapse or corpus luteum, or basal body temperature lacking a sustained rise.^[36]^[39] Further evaluation excludes structural or endocrine pathologies via thyroid function tests, prolactin assays, and pelvic imaging.^[31] Management targets underlying etiologies; lifestyle modifications like weight normalization restore ovulatory function in 30-50% of obesity- or exercise-related cases.^[37] Pharmacologic induction employs clomiphene citrate or letrozole to stimulate follicle development, achieving ovulation in 60-80% of cycles for infertility treatment.^[40] For bleeding control or endometrial protection, progestins or combined oral contraceptives impose cyclic withdrawal, though these suppress natural ovulation.^[40] In resistant cases, gonadotropins or assisted reproduction may be required, with success rates varying by age and cause.^[41]

Short Luteal Phases

A short luteal phase is defined as a duration of 10 days or fewer from ovulation to the onset of menstruation, contrasting with the typical 12-14 days observed in most ovulatory cycles.^[42] This condition, often termed luteal phase deficiency (LPD) when accompanied by suboptimal progesterone levels or endometrial development, arises from inadequate corpus luteum function, resulting in insufficient progesterone secretion to sustain the uterine lining.^[43] Physiologically, the corpus luteum forms post-ovulation from the ruptured follicle and peaks progesterone output around days 6-8 of the luteal phase; premature regression leads to an early drop in progesterone, triggering endometrial breakdown and menses.^[44] Prevalence data indicate short luteal phases occur in approximately 8-13% of ovulatory cycles among regularly menstruating women, though recurrent episodes affect only about 3% of cycles in prospective fertility studies.^[42] ^[45] In one analysis of over 700 cycles, 55% of women experienced at least one short luteal phase (<10 days), often linked to subtle hormonal imbalances rather than overt pathology.^[15] Empirical evidence from cohort studies shows women with short luteal lengths in initial cycles exhibit reduced fecundity, with fertility rates dropping significantly after six months of attempting conception compared to those with normal phases.^[46] Causal factors include impaired folliculogenesis leading to a suboptimal luteinizing hormone (LH) surge, which compromises corpus luteum formation and progesterone output; additional contributors encompass hyperprolactinemia, thyroid dysfunction, and elevated stress-induced cortisol, all disrupting gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulsatility.^[47] Conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) exacerbate risk through irregular ovulation, while excessive exercise or low body weight can shorten phases via hypothalamic suppression.^[43] Unlike anovulatory cycles, short luteal phases involve confirmed ovulation but deficient post-ovulatory support, potentially causing early implantation failure or subclinical pregnancy loss due to inadequate secretory transformation of the endometrium.^[48] Diagnosis relies on prospective cycle tracking via basal body temperature (BBT) charting, urinary LH kits, or serial progesterone assays (e.g., mid-luteal levels <10 ng/mL indicating deficiency), though endometrial biopsy—once standard—lacks reliability and is discouraged.^[42] Symptoms may include intermenstrual spotting, abbreviated cycles (<25 days total), or a sluggish BBT rise, but these overlap with normal variation, complicating attribution.^[49] Regarding fertility impacts, while short phases correlate with delayed conception in observational data, randomized trials show no consistent benefit from progesterone supplementation in unselected infertile couples, prompting guidelines to reserve treatment for documented recurrent miscarriage or assisted reproduction cycles.^[42] ^[46] This reflects causal uncertainty, as short phases in isolation do not invariably impair outcomes and may represent a marker of underlying ovulatory inefficiency rather than a primary defect.^[45]

Associated Conditions like PCOS and Endometriosis

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a prevalent endocrine disorder characterized by ovulatory dysfunction, hyperandrogenism, and often polycystic ovarian morphology, leading to disrupted menstrual cyclicity in the majority of affected individuals.^[50] It impacts 6-13% of women of reproductive age globally, with up to 70% of cases remaining undiagnosed due to variable presentation and diagnostic challenges.^[51] In PCOS, elevated luteinizing hormone (LH) relative to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), combined with insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism, impairs follicular development and ovulation, resulting in anovulatory cycles manifested as oligomenorrhea (cycles >35 days) or amenorrhea (fewer than 8 periods per year).^[52] ^[53] Approximately 85-90% of women with PCOS experience oligo-ovulation, prolonging intervals between bleeds and increasing unopposed estrogen exposure, which elevates risks for endometrial hyperplasia.^[54] Causal factors include genetic predispositions and metabolic influences, though etiology remains multifactorial without a single definitive mechanism.^[55] Endometriosis involves the ectopic growth of endometrial-like tissue outside the uterus, affecting approximately 10% of women of reproductive age worldwide and contributing to chronic pelvic pain and infertility in up to 50% of cases.^[56] It is linked to menstrual irregularities such as heavy menstrual bleeding (menorrhagia) and dysmenorrhea, with evidence indicating that shorter cycle lengths (<27 days) and heavier flow increase disease risk, potentially via enhanced retrograde menstruation where menstrual effluent refluxes through fallopian tubes, seeding peritoneal implants.^[57] ^[58] These implants respond to ovarian hormones, exacerbating inflammation and adhesions that can distort pelvic anatomy, indirectly disrupting ovulatory timing and cycle regularity through altered feedback on the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis.^[59] While retrograde menstruation is a supported theory, immune dysregulation and genetic factors also contribute, with no consensus on primary causation.^[60] Both conditions intersect with menstrual cycle dynamics: PCOS primarily via anovulation and androgen excess halting follicular progression, and endometriosis through inflammatory interference with endometrial shedding and hormonal signaling.^[61] Co-occurrence is noted in clinical populations, with shared risks like nulliparity amplifying infertility burdens, though distinct pathogeneses underscore the need for targeted diagnostics such as transvaginal ultrasound for PCOS polycysts or laparoscopy for endometriosis confirmation.^[62] Empirical data from cohort studies emphasize early screening using cycle history as a vital sign, as prolonged irregularities predict metabolic comorbidities in PCOS and progression in endometriosis.^[63]

Physiological Impacts and Health

Symptoms, PMS, and Empirical Effects

The menstrual cycle is associated with a range of physical and psychological symptoms that vary in prevalence and intensity across phases, with somatic symptoms such as abdominal cramps and breast tenderness reported in over 80% of cycles in large cohorts. Mood changes and anxiety affect approximately 90.6% of women, while fatigue impacts 86.2%, often peaking in the luteal phase due to progesterone fluctuations. These symptoms are empirically linked to ovarian hormone dynamics, with prospective studies confirming their cyclical nature rather than random occurrence.^[64]^[65] Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) manifests as a cluster of symptoms in the late luteal phase, resolving shortly after menstruation onset, affecting 12% of women by strict diagnostic criteria and up to 4% severely. Core symptoms include irritability (85%), anxiety (83%), and mood lability (77%), alongside physical manifestations like fatigue (88.7%) and bloating. Empirical data from prospective tracking refute retrospective recall biases, showing symptom stability across cycles and higher reliability when confirmed daily rather than self-reported historically. Prevalence varies by population, with somatic symptoms predominating over affective ones in most studies, challenging narratives emphasizing emotional disruption as primary.^[66]^[67]^[68] Empirical investigations reveal cycle-phase-specific effects, with negative mood and psychiatric symptoms—including depression, anxiety, and suicidality—elevating in the perimenstrual window (late luteal to early follicular), corroborated by meta-analyses of clinical cohorts. Physical pain prevalence reaches 66.8%, with 13.3% reporting severe dysmenorrhea tied to prostaglandin-mediated uterine contractions. These effects are modulated by hormone levels, as estradiol-progesterone ratios influence serotonin and GABA pathways, yielding measurable impacts on daily functioning without universal impairment. Severe variants like premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) occur in 1.6% globally, distinct from PMS by marked functional decline, supported by blinded symptom charting over multiple cycles.^[65]^[69]^[70]

Neurological and Cognitive Influences

Fluctuations in estradiol and progesterone levels across the menstrual cycle modulate brain structure and function through mechanisms including synaptogenesis, myelination, and alterations in spine density.^[71] Neuroimaging research reveals phase-dependent changes in whole-brain dynamics, with increased functional connectivity in networks associated with executive control during the luteal phase, potentially driven by progesterone's influence on medial temporal lobe volume.^[72]^[73] These effects extend to neurotransmitter modulation, where estrogen enhances serotonin and dopamine signaling, while progesterone interacts with GABA receptors, contributing to neuroprotective processes and stress response regulation via hippocampal pathways.^[74]^[75] A 2025 meta-analysis synthesizing data from 134 studies involving over 7,000 participants found no reliable evidence of menstrual cycle phase influencing cognitive domains such as verbal fluency, spatial rotation, memory, attention, or executive function, with effect sizes near zero after correcting for publication bias and methodological confounders like small sample sizes.^[76] This challenges earlier hypotheses of ovulation-related enhancements in verbal tasks or luteal impairments in spatial cognition, which often failed replication due to variability in hormone assays and testing timing.^[77] Limited inconsistencies persist in specific contexts, such as marginally better pre-ovulatory performance on attention tasks in some cohorts, but these do not generalize across populations.^[78] Hormonal influences on emotion processing show more consistent phase effects, with enhanced recognition of emotional stimuli and fear extinction during high-estrogen follicular phases, linked to amygdala and prefrontal cortex activation patterns.^[74] Progesterone's role in these processes may underlie subtle connectivity shifts in limbic regions, though direct cognitive translation remains minimal.^[79] Overall, while neurological adaptations are evident, they yield negligible impacts on measurable cognitive performance in healthy individuals.^[76]

Cycle as a Vital Sign for Health Monitoring

The menstrual cycle functions as a vital sign reflecting the coordinated activity of the reproductive endocrine system and broader physiological health, akin to temperature or pulse in signaling disruptions. Regular cycles, defined as occurring every 21 to 35 days with predictable ovulation and menstruation, indicate balanced hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian function and adequate energy availability for reproduction.^[80] Deviations in length, frequency, or symptoms—such as cycles shorter than 21 days (polymenorrhea) or longer than 35 days (oligomenorrhea)—often arise from underlying factors including insulin resistance, adrenal disorders, or chronic inflammation, rather than isolated gynecological issues.^[81]^[82] Prospective cohort studies demonstrate that persistent irregularity correlates with elevated risks for systemic conditions; for example, women reporting irregular cycles in adolescence and adulthood face a 1.5- to 2-fold higher likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia, independent of body mass index.^[83] These associations stem from shared causal pathways, such as impaired ovarian steroidogenesis mirroring metabolic dysregulation, with evidence from the Nurses' Health Study II showing irregular cycles predicting a 20-30% increased hazard ratio for cardiovascular disease events over 20 years of follow-up.^[84] Amenorrhea, particularly functional hypothalamic amenorrhea from low energy states like excessive athletic training or undernutrition, signals risks for bone density loss and infertility, with recovery tied to restoring caloric balance.^[85] Tracking parameters like cycle length variability (standard deviation >5 days indicating irregularity), bleeding volume (assessed via pictorial blood loss charts), and mid-cycle symptoms enables early identification of endocrine disruptions.^[86] For instance, shortened luteal phases (<10 days) detected through basal body temperature or urinary metabolites may precede overt thyroid or prolactin elevations, prompting targeted screening.^[81] Longitudinal data from over 79,000 participants in the Apple Women's Health Study confirm that self-reported cycle data predict conditions like PCOS with high sensitivity, underscoring monitoring's role in preventive care without relying on invasive diagnostics.^[87] While apps and wearables facilitate this, validation against hormonal assays reveals their utility diminishes with high variability, emphasizing clinician integration for accuracy.^[88] In clinical practice, incorporating cycle history into routine assessments—starting at menarche—has been advocated to detect non-reproductive morbidities; a 2023 analysis linked early irregular patterns to a 15% higher all-cause mortality risk in midlife, attributable to compounded cardiometabolic and ovulatory deficits.^[82] This approach prioritizes empirical tracking over symptom dismissal, as causal evidence from intervention trials shows cycle normalization via lifestyle or medical correction reduces associated comorbidities.^[85]

Interventions and Management

Hormonal Contraception: Mechanisms and Consequences

Hormonal contraceptives, primarily combined oral contraceptives containing synthetic estrogens and progestins, exert their effects through multiple mechanisms that disrupt the natural menstrual cycle. The primary action involves negative feedback on the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, suppressing gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulsatility, which inhibits the luteinizing hormone (LH) surge necessary for ovulation.^[89] This follicular suppression prevents dominant follicle development and estrogen surges, effectively halting cyclic ovarian activity in most users.^[90] Progestins further contribute by thickening cervical mucus to impede sperm transport and by inducing endometrial atrophy, rendering the lining thin and unreceptive to implantation.^[91] Estrogens in combined formulations stabilize the endometrium during active pill phases but promote withdrawal bleeding upon hormone withdrawal, mimicking menses without true ovulatory cycling.^[92] These interventions profoundly alter menstrual patterns, often replacing spontaneous cycles with predictable but artificial withdrawal bleeds. Users typically experience reduced cycle variability and lighter bleeding volumes due to endometrial thinning, though breakthrough or unscheduled bleeding occurs in up to 20-30% during initial months from inconsistent suppression.^[93] Long-term use suppresses endogenous hormone fluctuations, including progesterone and estradiol peaks, leading to amenorrhea in continuous regimens or progestin-only methods.^[94] Upon discontinuation, ovulatory cycles generally resume within 1-3 months for most women, though delayed return can occur in 5-10% of cases, particularly with depot formulations.^[95] Health consequences extend beyond contraception, with empirical data revealing both protective and adverse effects tied to cycle suppression. Reduced ovulatory events correlate with lowered risks of ovarian cancer (by 30-50% after 5+ years of use) and endometrial cancer (by 50% or more), attributed to fewer lifetime exposures to unopposed estrogen.^[96] Conversely, a modest increase in breast cancer risk (relative risk 1.2-1.3 during use) has been observed in meta-analyses, potentially resolving post-discontinuation, though high-quality evidence for causality remains limited.^[97] Bone mineral density may decline in adolescents using low- or ultra-low-dose formulations, with reductions up to 1-2% annually due to suppressed estrogen peaks critical for peak bone accrual, raising concerns for long-term osteoporosis risk.^[98] Neurological and psychological impacts arise from altered steroid hormone profiles, with some longitudinal studies linking use to elevated depression symptoms (odds ratio 1.8 in adolescents) and anxiety, possibly via disrupted ovarian steroid signaling in brain regions like the amygdala.^[99] Systematic reviews indicate inconsistent associations with mood disorders overall, but subgroup analyses highlight higher risks in women with prior vulnerabilities or during initiation.^[100] Other cycle-related consequences include potential masking of underlying disorders like PCOS, as suppressed ovulation obscures diagnostic anovulation patterns, and increased inflammation markers that may compound cardiovascular risks over decades of use.^[101] While protective against certain gynecologic conditions, these interventions' net effects underscore trade-offs, with benefits most evident in short-term use and risks accruing cumulatively.^[97]

Natural Tracking Methods and Fertility Awareness

Fertility awareness methods (FAMs), also termed natural family planning, rely on daily observation of endogenous biomarkers to delineate the fertile window within the menstrual cycle, enabling informed decisions for contraception or conception without exogenous hormones or devices. These biomarkers include basal body temperature (BBT), cervical mucus characteristics, and menstrual cycle length patterns, which reflect underlying hormonal dynamics driven by estrogen and progesterone fluctuations.^[102] Proper application requires consistent charting and interpretation, often facilitated by trained instruction to minimize errors in identifying the approximately five-to-six-day fertile period encompassing ovulation.^[103] Basal body temperature tracking involves measuring oral temperature immediately upon waking using a thermometer sensitive to 0.01°C increments, revealing a biphasic pattern: temperatures average 36.1–36.4°C (97–97.5°F) pre-ovulation, rising 0.22–0.5°C (0.4–0.9°F) post-ovulation due to progesterone's thermogenic effect on the hypothalamus, with the shift sustained for 10–16 days until menses or pregnancy.^[104] This method confirms ovulation retrospectively but cannot predict it prospectively, as the rise occurs 12–36 hours after the luteinizing hormone surge, limiting its standalone use for avoiding intercourse during peak fertility.^[105] A sustained elevation beyond 18 days may indicate early pregnancy via progesterone maintenance.^[104] Cervical mucus monitoring assesses vaginal discharge daily, noting sensation (dry/sticky versus wet/slippery) and appearance (cloudy versus clear and stretchable like raw egg white), which correlates with estrogen peaks promoting sperm motility and survival up to five days pre-ovulation.^[106] Fertile mucus, peaking 1–2 days before ovulation, transitions from scant and opaque in the infertile pre-ovulatory phase to abundant, elastic, and lubricative, then diminishes post-ovulation under progesterone influence, signaling infertility.^[107] External factors like arousal fluid, semen, or infections can confound observations, necessitating hygiene protocols and experience for accurate discernment.^[103] The symptothermal method integrates BBT, cervical mucus, and optional cervical palpation (noting softening and opening near ovulation) for cross-verification, reducing false positives in fertile phase identification.^[108] Peer-reviewed evaluations of symptothermal protocols report perfect-use pregnancy avoidance rates of 95.9–99.6% (Pearl Index 0.4–4.1 per 100 woman-years), with typical-use rates of 76–88% influenced by adherence, cycle regularity, and user discipline.^[109] ^[110] These figures outperform calendar-based methods alone, which assume fixed cycle lengths and yield typical effectiveness of 76–91% but falter with variability exceeding five days.^[111] Effectiveness hinges on avoiding unprotected intercourse or using barriers during the identified fertile window, typically days 8–19 in a 28-day cycle, and requires 3–6 months of baseline charting for personalization.^[102] Beyond contraception, FAMs enhance fertility awareness for conception by timing intercourse to the fertile mucus peak or BBT rise onset, with studies showing reduced time-to-pregnancy in users versus non-trackers.^[112] They also serve as non-invasive tools for detecting anovulation or luteal defects through absent thermal shifts or shortened post-peak phases (<10 days), prompting medical evaluation without synthetic interventions.^[107] Limitations include unsuitability for irregular cycles (e.g., postpartum, perimenopausal, or stress-induced), higher discontinuation rates due to regimen demands (up to 47% in some cohorts), and suboptimal efficacy in adolescents or those with infrequent coitus.^[111] ^[108] Mobile applications purportedly automating FAMs via algorithms often lack rigorous validation, yielding variable accuracy compared to manual symptothermal charting.^[113] Structured training from certified instructors improves outcomes, as self-taught methods exhibit higher failure rates from misinterpretation.^[109]

Evolutionary and Comparative Biology

Evolutionary Theories and Reproductive Function

The menstrual cycle in humans, characterized by overt menstruation, represents an evolutionary divergence from the predominant mammalian pattern of endometrial reabsorption without shedding. This difference has prompted hypotheses centered on adaptive advantages in reproduction, particularly in the context of invasive placentation and embryo selection. Spontaneous decidualization—the preemptive transformation of the endometrium into a decidualized state prior to embryo implantation—underpins the cycle's reproductive function, enabling rigorous screening of embryos for genetic compatibility and reducing risks from defective implantations. In non-menstruating mammals, decidualization typically requires an embryonic signal, but in humans and other menstruating primates, it occurs independently, leading to menstrual shedding if no viable embryo implants; this mechanism likely evolved to accommodate hemochorial placentation, where the placenta deeply invades the uterine wall, necessitating a thickened, vascularized endometrium for nutrient exchange and immune modulation.^[114] One prominent theory posits menstruation as a byproduct of enhanced decidualization rather than a direct adaptation, with the cycle's phasing optimizing reproductive success by aligning follicular development, ovulation, and luteal support for implantation windows that favor high-quality embryos. Empirical data from comparative primatology indicate that menstruating species exhibit more advanced endometrial preparation, correlating with lower rates of ectopic pregnancies and early embryonic loss compared to reabsorbing species, though direct causation remains correlative. This framework emphasizes the cycle's role in maternal-fetal conflict resolution, where menstruation expels non-viable or paternally biased embryos, preserving maternal resources for future cycles; genetic assimilation models suggest this trait stabilized in hominid lineages around 30-40 million years ago, coinciding with primate diversification and increased maternal investment.^[114]^[115] Alternative hypotheses focus on menstruation's potential antipathogen function, proposing that cyclic shedding mechanically and chemically clears the uterus of sperm-transmitted microbes, thereby protecting oviducts and supporting reproductive tract integrity for subsequent fertilizations. Margie Profet's 1993 model argues that menstrual flow exerts pressure to dislodge infected tissues, with supporting evidence from elevated antimicrobial peptides in menstrual effluent and higher infection risks in amenorrheic states; however, critiques note that sexually transmitted diseases persist in menstruating women, and pathogen prevalence does not strictly predict menstrual intensity across species. Beverly Strassmann's energy economy perspective counters claims of high metabolic cost, estimating that shedding is energetically cheaper than prolonged maintenance of a non-pregnant decidua, based on longitudinal data from Dogon women showing lifetime blood loss equivalent to 7-10 liters despite frequent pregnancies and lactational suppression reducing cycle frequency to about 100 per lifetime.^[116]^[117] These theories converge on the cycle's ultimate reproductive function: maximizing fecundity in environments with variable mating opportunities and embryonic viability, as evidenced by cycle synchronization with peak fertility (days 10-14) enhancing conception probabilities to 20-30% per ovulatory window in natural fertility populations. Disruptions, such as short luteal phases, correlate with reduced implantation success, underscoring the cycle's evolved precision in hormone orchestration—estradiol surges for follicle maturation and progesterone for endometrial receptivity—selected for in ancestral humans with concealed ovulation to promote paternal investment via paternity uncertainty. While no single theory fully resolves the evolutionary puzzle, empirical metrics like interbirth intervals (3-4 years in hunter-gatherers) and lifetime fertility (4-6 offspring) affirm the cycle's net adaptive value over non-cyclic alternatives.^[118]^[119]

Menstruation in Non-Human Species

Menstruation, defined as the cyclic shedding of the endometrium with overt vaginal bleeding, is observed in fewer than 2% of mammalian species and is predominantly confined to primates. Among non-human primates, it occurs in catarrhines, including Old World monkeys such as macaques and baboons, as well as great apes like chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.^[120] ^[121] In these species, the process mirrors human menstruation in involving progesterone-driven endometrial decidualization followed by sloughing if implantation does not occur, though cycle lengths vary; for instance, chimpanzees exhibit cycles averaging 35 days.^[114] New World monkeys (platyrrhines) generally lack overt menstruation, instead reabsorbing endometrial tissue during non-pregnant cycles, though limited evidence suggests subtle shedding in species like Poeppig's woolly monkey.^[121] Beyond primates, menstruation is documented in select non-primate mammals, including certain bats, the elephant shrew, and one rodent species. At least three bat species exhibit menstruation, such as the short-tailed fruit bat (Carollia perspicillata), where bleeding is confined to a single day within a 33-day cycle observed in both wild and captive populations.^[120] ^[122] The spiny mouse (Acomys cahirinus), identified in 2016 as the first naturally menstruating rodent, displays endometrial shedding with bleeding every 9-11 days, accompanied by spiral artery formation and inflammatory responses akin to primates.^[123] ^[124] Elephant shrews (Elephantulus spp.) also show menstrual bleeding, though details on cycle physiology remain less studied compared to primates.^[125] In non-menstruating mammals, which comprise over 98% of species, the endometrium undergoes reabsorption or minimal, non-bleeding shedding during estrous cycles, minimizing energy loss from overt blood expulsion.^[125] This rarity underscores menstruation's evolutionary novelty, potentially linked to enhanced decidualization for embryo protection in species with invasive placentation, though causal mechanisms differ across taxa.^[114] Recent genetic engineering has induced menstruation in laboratory mice for research purposes, but this does not reflect natural occurrence.^[126]

Myths, Misconceptions, and Debates

Prevalent Myths and Empirical Debunking

A persistent misconception holds that women living in close proximity, such as roommates or dormitory residents, experience menstrual cycle synchronization, a phenomenon popularized by a 1971 study suggesting pheromonal influence. Subsequent rigorous analyses, including longitudinal tracking of over 800 cycles in college women, revealed no statistically significant convergence of onset dates beyond what random variation predicts, attributing apparent synchrony to methodological artifacts like retrospective recall bias and small sample sizes.^[127]^[128] A 2023 roommate study similarly found mean onset differences unchanged over time, confirming the effect as illusory.^[129] Another widespread belief is that the human menstrual cycle universally adheres to a 28-day length, often presented in educational materials as the standard. Empirical data from a dataset exceeding 600,000 cycles across diverse populations indicate an average length of 29.3 days, with only 13% precisely at 28 days and a normal range spanning 21 to 35 days without pathology.^[130] Cycle variability increases with age extremes, stress, and body mass index, underscoring that deviation from 28 days reflects biological norm rather than irregularity.^[131] The notion that menstrual cycle phases induce cognitive deficits or irrationality in women, particularly premenstrually, persists in cultural narratives despite lacking empirical foundation. A 2025 meta-analysis synthesizing 106 studies and over 4,000 participants detected no reliable phase-related alterations in domains including verbal fluency, spatial reasoning, memory, attention, or executive function, with effect sizes near zero after correcting for publication bias.^[132]^[133] While self-reported mood fluctuations occur in 20-30% of cycles for some women, these do not translate to measurable impairments in decision-making or performance, challenging stereotypes of diminished capacity.^[134]^[135] Claims that premenstrual syndrome (PMS) represents mere psychological exaggeration or fabrication ignore physiological evidence, yet the inverse myth—that PMS invariably causes profound behavioral disruption—overstates its scope. Population surveys report somatic symptoms like bloating and breast tenderness as most prevalent, affecting 75-85% of menstruating women mildly, while severe dysphoric variants (PMDD) occur in 3-8%, linked to serotonin dysregulation rather than blanket irrationality.^[134] Double-blind trials confirm symptom cyclicity tied to luteal-phase progesterone withdrawal, not fabrication, though sociocultural amplification can inflate perceived mood impacts beyond hormonal causality alone.^[136]^[137]

Controversies in Modern Interpretations

Modern interpretations of the menstrual cycle have sparked debates over its influence on cognitive and emotional function, with meta-analyses indicating no substantial phase-related differences in cognitive performance such as memory, attention, or executive function across cycles in healthy women.^[76] ^[133] Reviews of neuroimaging and behavioral data further suggest that while emotional processing and fear responses may fluctuate due to estrogen and progesterone variations, these effects are modest compared to inter-individual variability and do not support stereotypes of cycle-driven irrationality.^[138] ^[74] Such findings challenge earlier anecdotal claims and cultural narratives exaggerating cognitive impairments, attributing persistent myths to confirmation bias rather than empirical replication.^[139] Cycle syncing, a contemporary practice advocating tailored exercise, diet, and productivity based on cycle phases—such as high-intensity workouts during the follicular phase and rest during menstruation—lacks robust scientific backing. Umbrella reviews of performance studies report inconsistent or negligible differences in strength, endurance, or aerobic capacity between phases, with hormonal fluctuations exerting minimal impact on athletic output in trained women.^[140] Experts critique the trend as an oversimplification that risks promoting unsubstantiated wellness marketing over evidence-based training, noting that individual variability in symptoms like fatigue far outweighs predictable phase effects.^[141] ^[142] Despite anecdotal reports of mood benefits from 43% of adherents, controlled trials do not substantiate broad recommendations, highlighting how social media amplification outpaces peer-reviewed validation.^[143] Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), affecting 3-8% of menstruating women with severe mood disruptions tied to luteal phase hormone shifts, has faced contention between biological and sociocultural explanations. Critics in the 1980s-1990s argued PMDD pathologized normal emotional variability or reflected societal pressures, but genetic studies reveal altered serotonin transporter regulation and hormone sensitivity in affected individuals, confirming a neurobiological basis independent of behavioral choice.^[144] ^[145] Diagnostic criteria require prospective symptom tracking to distinguish from comorbidities like major depression, countering earlier dismissals as psychosomatic; treatments targeting progesterone metabolites, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, yield response rates up to 70% in randomized trials.^[146] This shift underscores how ideological resistance delayed recognition, despite evidence from twin studies estimating 50-60% heritability.^[147] Debates on menstrual suppression via continuous hormonal contraception question its long-term safety against claims of evolutionary mismatch. In pre-modern eras, women experienced 50-100 fewer cycles due to pregnancies and lactational amenorrhea, reducing endometrial exposure; modern repetitive shedding correlates with elevated risks of endometriosis and gynecological disorders in observational data.^[148] While suppression achieves amenorrhea in 60-80% of users with combined pills, breakthrough bleeding occurs in up to 20%, and uncertainties persist regarding bone density loss, cardiovascular events, and fertility recovery post-use, particularly in adolescents.^[149] Proponents cite reduced dysmenorrhea and quality-of-life gains, yet cohort studies link prolonged anovulation to potential oncogenic shifts, though causal links remain unproven in RCTs; this tension reflects trade-offs between convenience and untested deviations from natural cyclicity.^[150] ^[151]

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New data shows prevalence of Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
Jan 30, 2024 · Around 1.6% of women and girls have symptomatic Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD), according to a new review of global studies ...<|separator|>
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Hormonal milieu influences whole-brain structural dynamics across ...
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Whole-brain dynamics across the menstrual cycle - Nature
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Progesterone mediates brain functional connectivity changes during ...
Our results suggest that the menstrual cycle substantially impacts intrinsic functional connectivity, particularly in brain areas associated with contextual ...
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Menstrual cycle influence on cognitive function and emotion ...
For many researchers the menstrual cycle is an excellent model of ovarian steroid influence on emotion, behavior, and cognition. Over the past years ...
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The Close Link Between the Brain and the Menstrual Cycle
Jun 9, 2024 · The hippocampus, which is rich in estradiol and progesterone receptors also plays a key role in modulating the brain's stress response, and is ...
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Menstrual cycle effects on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis
We conclude that the body of research in this meta-analysis does not support myths that women's cognitive abilities change across the menstrual cycle.
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The Menstrual Cycle Influences Emotion but Has Limited Effect on ...
The overall conclusion is that that menstrual cycle differences in sexually dimorphic cognitive tasks are small and difficult to replicate.Abstract · Introduction · Sex Hormone Effects In The...
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Menstrual Cycle Phase Influences Cognitive Performance in Women ...
Hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle can impact a woman's performance on tasks that require memory, attention, and cognitive processing speed.
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The influence of estradiol and progesterone on neurocognition ...
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Menstrual Cycles as a Fifth Vital Sign | NICHD
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The Menstrual Cycle as a Vital Sign: a comprehensive review
The menstrual cycle is a vital sign from menarche through menopause, an underutilized but powerful tool for understanding gynecological and general health.
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Menstrual cycle regularity and length across the reproductive ...
Sep 30, 2020 · Irregular and long menstrual cycles have been associated with a greater risk of coronary heart disease, cancer, mental health problems, and ...
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Associations of Menstrual Cycle Regularity and Length With ...
May 24, 2023 · ... vital sign of women's general health. Irregular and long ... Comments are not peer-reviewed. Acceptable comments are posted to ...
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Irregular periods linked with increased risk for cardiometabolic ...
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The menstrual cycle as a vital sign: a comprehensive review
The menstrual cycle is a vital sign from menarche through menopause, an underused but powerful tool for understanding gynecological and general health.
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Menstruation as the Next Vital Sign | Pediatrics | JAMA Network Open
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Menstrual Cycle Tracking Applications and the Potential for ... - NIH
Publisher's Disclaimer: This Author Accepted Manuscript is a PDF file of a an unedited peer-reviewed ... Menstrual Cycle as a Vital Sign. https://www.acog ...
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Oral Contraceptive Pills - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The primary mechanism of action is the prevention of ovulation; they inhibit follicular development and prevent ovulation.[1] Progestogen-negative feedback ...
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Mechanistic model of hormonal contraception - PMC - NIH
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The mechanism of action of hormonal contraceptives and ... - PubMed
For combined oral contraceptives and progestin-only methods, the main mechanisms are ovulation inhibition and changes in the cervical mucus that inhibit sperm ...Missing: menstrual cycle
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Menstrual cycle hormones and oral contraceptives - PubMed Central
The MC is characterized by regular fluctuations in sex steroid hormones, namely, 17β-estradiol (E2), progesterone (P4), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and ...<|separator|>
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Hormonal contraceptives may have 2 effects on the menstrual cycle: continued cyclic bleeding or partial or complete suppression of the normal cycle.
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Continuous use of oral contraceptives: an overview of effects and ...
Oct 20, 2012 · Contraceptive effect OCs prevent pregnancy in three ways: by inhibition of ovulation, by suppression of endometrial development, which is then ...
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Abnormal Uterine Bleeding Associated with Hormonal Contraception
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Oral Contraceptives (Birth Control Pills) and Cancer Risk - NCI
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Association of Hormonal Contraceptive Use With Adverse Health ...
Jan 14, 2022 · The associations between hormonal contraceptive use and adverse health outcomes are not supported by high-quality evidence.
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EFFECT OF ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES ON BONE MINERAL ...
Combined Oral Contraceptives (COCs) may be detrimental to the BMD of adolescents. However, low-dose are more protective than ultra-low-dose COCs.
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Study shows how birth control pills affect women's psychological ...
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Effects of hormonal contraception on mood and sexuality
In a longitudinal study among sexually active women the authors found an association of hormonal contraceptive use with reduced levels of depressive symptoms, ...<|separator|>
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Association of Hormonal Contraceptive Use With Adverse Health ...
Jan 4, 2022 · Overall, the associations between hormonal contraceptive use and cardiovascular risk, cancer risk, and other major adverse health outcomes were ...
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Fertility Awareness-Based Methods for Women's Health and Family ...
May 24, 2022 · Fertility awareness-based methods (FABMs) educate about reproductive health and enable tracking and interpretation of physical signs.
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Natural Family Planning - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
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Basal body temperature for natural family planning - Mayo Clinic
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Basal Body Temperature: Family Planning Method - Cleveland Clinic
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Cervical Mucus: Chart, Stages, Tracking & Fertility - Cleveland Clinic
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Current ovulation and luteal phase tracking methods and ... - NIH
We present currently available ovulation tracking methods that detect both ovulation and the luteal phase, including cervical mucus, urinary hormone testing, ...
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Nov 13, 2023 · The effectiveness rate of using the symptothermal method as a means of preventing unplanned pregnancy is controversial and highly debated.
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The effectiveness of a fertility awareness based method to avoid ...
The STM is a highly effective family planning method, provided the appropriate guidelines are consistently adhered to.Abstract · Introduction · Materials and methods · DiscussionMissing: peer- | Show results with:peer-
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Fertility Awareness-Based Methods for Family Planning
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Time to Pregnancy for Women Using a Fertility Awareness Based ...
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The Performance of Fertility Awareness-based Method Apps ...
Nearly 100 apps allow women to track their fertility and menstrual cycles and can be used to avoid or achieve pregnancy.
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The evolution of menstruation: A new model for genetic assimilation
Many hypotheses have been put forth, including one arguing that menstruation evolved to protect against sperm-born pathogens and one claiming that menstruation ...
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What Is the Point of a Period? | Scientific American
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Menstruation as a Defense Against Pathogens Transported by Sperm
I propose that menstruation functions to protect the uterus and oviducts from colonization by pathogens. Menstrual blood exerts mechanical pressure on uterine ...
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The evolution of endometrial cycles and menstruation - PubMed
According to a recent hypothesis, menstruation evolved to protect the uterus and oviducts from sperm-borne pathogens by dislodging infected endometrial tissue.
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The Biology of Menstruation in Homo Sapiens: Total Lifetime ...
The Biology of Menstruation in Homo Sapiens: Total Lifetime Menses, Fecundity, and Nonsynchrony in a Natural-Fertility Population. Beverly I. Strassmann.
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Evolution, the Menstrual Cycle, and Theoretical Overreach - PMC
Research linking menstrual cycle changes to evolution has methodological and conceptual issues, failing to consider the complexity of the cycle and individual ...
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Characteristics of the endometrium in menstruating species
Mar 4, 2020 · Here we have summarized what is currently known about menstruating animal species with special emphasis on non-primate species.
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Variation in menstrual cycle length and cessation of menstruation in ...
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First rodent found with a human-like menstrual cycle - Nature
Jun 10, 2016 · Only 1.5% of mammals menstruate naturally, and most of them are primates. The spiny mouse could also help to shed light on healthy menstrual ...
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The Spiny Mouse—A Menstruating Rodent to Build a Bridge From ...
This review summarises current knowledge of spiny mouse menstruation, with an emphasis on spiral artery formation, inflammation and endocrinology.
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Monkeys, mice and menses: the bloody anomaly of the spiny mouse
Jan 5, 2019 · In fact, approximately 98% of all mammalian species do not menstruate [1]. Menses is almost exclusively restricted to higher order primates, ...
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A critical review of menstrual synchrony research - PubMed - NIH
Two experiments and three studies reported a significant level of menstrual synchrony after subjects had been treated with applications of axillary extract.Missing: myth peer
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(PDF) Menstrual synchrony: Fact or artifact? - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · In 18 pairs and 21 triples of college-age women, menstrual synchrony was not found. Social interactions, considered the most important factor ...Missing: peer | Show results with:peer
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Study of menstrual cycle synchrony in female medical students ... - NIH
Nov 21, 2023 · The study hypothesizes that if menstrual cycle synchronization takes place, then the mean difference of menstrual onsets of the roommates ...Missing: myth | Show results with:myth
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The average menstrual cycle is not 28 days - Quartz
The belief that most women have 28-day cycle is but a myth. The researchers found that average cycle length was 29.3 days. Only 13% of the cycles were 28 days.
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how menstrual cycles vary by age, weight, race, and ethnicity
We found that people's menstrual cycle lengths varied by on average 4 to 11 days depending on age. For instance, for people under 20 years old, menstrual cycle ...
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Menstrual Cycles Don't Affect Women's Cognitive Abilities, Study Finds
Mar 21, 2025 · There's no evidence that a woman's cognitive abilities change during her menstrual cycle, a meta-analysis of over 100 studies on the topic has found.
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The Menstrual Cycle and Cognition: What the Science Really Says
Mar 27, 2025 · A new meta-analysis finds no measurable cognitive differences between menstrual phases, challenging the belief that menstruation impacts ...
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Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) and the Myth of the Irrational Female
Jul 25, 2020 · King argues that population studies suggest that mood-based symptoms are not the most common nor most disruptive of menstrual changes.
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Periods Don't Affect Your Cognitive Skills – New Study Busts ...
Feb 5, 2024 · The research finds hormonal changes across the menstrual cycle have no effect on verbal or spatial skills.
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Premenstrual Dysphorias: Myths and Realities - Psychiatry Online
and Lisa Monagle suggest that the controversies oven PMS are not just scientific debates but “a strug- gle to integrate traditional scientific ways of thinking.
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PMS: Fact versus fiction | Jean Hailes
Jul 11, 2023 · Dr Davison says many women mistakenly believe their PMS is due to a 'hormonal imbalance'. While no one knows the exact cause of PMS, we do know ...Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
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The cycling brain: menstrual cycle related fluctuations in ... - Nature
Jun 13, 2019 · Thus, recent reviews conclude that menstrual cycle dependent changes in cognitive functions are small compared to more pronounced emotional ...
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How hormones and the menstrual cycle affect mental health
Despite the sexist jokes, the menstrual cycle doesn't cause significant changes in mood or behavior for most people. But a small percentage do suffer severe ...
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Current evidence shows no influence of women's menstrual cycle ...
The current umbrella review found scant low-quality and largely inconsistent evidence of marked differences between menstrual cycle phases in strength, exercise ...Missing: critique | Show results with:critique
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Cycle Syncing Won't Fix Women's Fitness - Time Magazine
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Top experts debunk the cycle syncing trend — 'The evidence just isn ...
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Controversial studies suggest cycle syncing is a scam
Aug 26, 2025 · Research on cycle syncing workouts with your menstrual cycle show it has no impact on performance – here's how, and what you should do ...Missing: critique | Show results with:critique
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Premenstrual dysphoric disorder: A controversial new diagnosis - NIH
The biological explanation is backed up by newer studies showing that sex‐hormone fluctuations may provoke depressive episodes. Opponents argue that little is ...
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Premenstrual dysphoria disorder: It's biology, not a behavior choice
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Oct 1, 2002 · In other words, PMDD is like supercharged PMS. "It's a real biological condition for which women seek treatment--and for which effective ...
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The complexity of premenstrual dysphoric disorder - risk factors in ...
Nov 14, 2010 · PMDD, most likely, has multiple determinants in the biological, psychological and socio-cultural domains.
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Repetitive modern menstruation is no longer a sign of good general and reproductive health but a harbinger of possible future health problems.
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Menstrual suppression: current perspectives - PMC - NIH
The most common factor limiting the use of therapeutic measures to effect menstrual suppression is breakthrough bleeding and imperfect rates of amenorrhea, ...
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Menstrual Suppression - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 7, 2024 · [2] Manipulating the menstrual cycle is widely known to be safe, and withdrawal bleeding periods that classically occur hormonal contraceptive ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
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Dec 13, 2006 · ... debate about whether it raises the risk of breast cancer. On the flip side, it is linked to lower risks of ovarian and endometrial cancer.