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In His Steps

In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do? is a Christian didactic novel written by Charles Monroe Sheldon, an American Congregationalist minister, and first published serially in 1896.^[1]
The story is set in the fictional town of Raymond and follows pastor Henry Maxwell, who, inspired by an unemployed tramp's critique of Christian hypocrisy, urges his congregation to pledge for one year to base every decision on the question "What would Jesus do?", prompting professionals such as a newspaper editor, a businessman, a singer, and a society woman to enact radical ethical changes in their lives and community.^[2]^[3]
Originally written as sermons for Sheldon's youth group, the book gained traction when serialized in the church magazine The Advance, leading to widespread demand and book form publication amid initial publisher reluctance due to its unconventional theme.^[4]
It achieved massive commercial success, with reported sales exceeding 30 million copies worldwide, ranking among the top-selling fiction works ever and remaining a perennial influence on evangelical thought.^[5]^[6]
The novel popularized the "What would Jesus do?" ethic, foreshadowing 20th-century social gospel initiatives and the 1990s WWJD merchandise craze, though some theological critiques later questioned its scriptural depth for emphasizing situational imitation over doctrinal fidelity.^[7]^[8]

Authorship and Historical Context

Charles Sheldon's Background and Influences

Charles Monroe Sheldon was born on February 26, 1857, in Wellsville, New York, to Stewart Sheldon, a Congregational minister of modest means who frequently relocated the family due to pastoral assignments.^[9] Growing up in such an environment instilled in him an early commitment to evangelical Christianity emphasizing personal conversion and moral living, characteristic of post-Civil War Protestantism in the United States.^[10] Sheldon pursued higher education at Phillips Academy, graduating in 1879, followed by Brown University, where he earned a B.A. in 1883, and Andover Theological Seminary, completing a B.D. in 1886.^[11] Ordained as a Congregational minister on June 23, 1886, Sheldon briefly traveled in Europe before assuming his first pastoral role at the Second Congregational Church in Waterbury, Vermont, from 1886 to 1888, where he gained initial experience in preaching and community engagement.^[12] In January 1889, he accepted the position of founding pastor at the newly established Central Congregational Church in Topeka, Kansas, a role he held until 1919 (with intermittent leaves), during a period of rapid urban expansion driven by railroads and agriculture, alongside social tensions from labor disputes and economic inequality in the late 19th-century American Midwest.^[13] Topeka's growth as a rail hub exposed Sheldon to the stark contrasts between industrial progress and urban poverty, influencing his emphasis on applying Christian ethics to everyday societal challenges.^[14] Intellectually, Sheldon operated within an evangelical framework rooted in personal piety and scriptural application, yet he encountered the era's debates over higher biblical criticism and scientific naturalism without undergoing the faith crises that afflicted some contemporaries.^[10] His "pious liberal" outlook, as described in biographical analyses, integrated reformist impulses from the Social Gospel movement—advocating ethical action amid industrialization—with a focus on individual moral transformation rather than doctrinal rigidity.^[10] This milieu, combining his ministerial observations of labor unrest and his seminary training's practical bent, shaped his literary approach to ethical dilemmas, prioritizing undogmatic Christianity over theological polemics.^[15]

Composition and Serialization

Charles Sheldon composed In His Steps in 1896 through a series of weekly readings to his congregation at Central Congregational Church in Topeka, Kansas, presenting each chapter as part of vesper services to test its impact and engage attendees directly with the unfolding narrative.^[16] This method drew from Sheldon's practice since 1891 of sharing serialized stories during fall vespers, aiming to apply Christian principles to everyday decisions amid observed social disparities in the community.^[17] The work's structure as 24 chapters reflected this incremental delivery, fostering immediate feedback and attendance, with the congregation remaining packed throughout the readings.^[18] Following the local presentations, Sheldon submitted the completed manuscript for serialization in The Advance, a Chicago-based Congregational religious periodical, where it appeared in weekly installments starting late 1896.^[19] He received $75 for the serialization rights, indicating modest initial commercial expectations.^[19] The format as fiction-infused sermons allowed Sheldon to model practical Christianity, drawing on real urban challenges like vagrancy observed in Topeka to illustrate ethical dilemmas.^[20] Publisher reluctance emerged post-serialization, with three firms rejecting a book version due to perceived lack of broad appeal, prompting Sheldon to secure advance subscriptions primarily from church members to fund a limited initial print run of approximately 1,000 copies through a small press.^[19] This grassroots approach underscored the work's origins in congregational engagement rather than mainstream literary markets.

Publication Challenges and Early Distribution

Following its serialization in the Congregational newspaper The Advance during 1896, In His Steps faced initial publication hurdles when issued as a book in 1897 by the Chicago-based Advance Publishing Company.^[21] The publisher's legal oversight resulted in a defective copyright filing, rendering the work effectively public domain and ineligible for royalty protections under U.S. law at the time.^[22] This error precluded Sheldon from benefiting financially from widespread unauthorized reproductions, as the book entered the public domain prematurely. The copyright lapse spurred a proliferation of pirate editions, with unauthorized printings circulating in the millions and competing directly with official versions.^[23] By the early 1900s, dozens of such editions had emerged from various printers, diluting potential revenue streams and complicating controlled distribution efforts.^[24] Despite these barriers, the novel's dissemination accelerated through non-commercial channels, particularly word-of-mouth endorsements within evangelical and Congregationalist communities, where it was often distributed via church networks and Bible study groups rather than mainstream literary outlets.^[25] Official U.S. sales figures are imprecise due to the uncontrolled reprints, but estimates indicate over 30 million copies sold by the mid-20th century through authorized publishers.^[26] Later data from multiple U.S. publishers report average annual sales of nearly 100,000 copies since the 1960s, underscoring sustained demand independent of initial marketing.^[21] Internationally, the book achieved broad reach with translations into at least 21 languages, including Russian, facilitating its propagation in missionary and religious contexts worldwide.^[3] This grassroots momentum, rooted in its appeal to applied Christian ethics, propelled In His Steps to bestseller status despite the logistical impediments of its early publication phase.

Narrative Structure and Content

Plot Overview

The novel is set in the fictional prosperous town of Raymond, a Midwest community outside Chicago, centered on the First Church of Raymond led by Reverend Henry Maxwell. The story begins when a destitute unemployed man named Jack Manning, seeking work and aid, is initially rebuffed by Maxwell but attends the Sunday service uninvited, publicly questioning the congregation's Christianity before collapsing and dying shortly thereafter in Maxwell's home. Deeply affected, Maxwell proposes to his congregants a pledge to live the next year by asking "What would Jesus do?" before every decision or action, without revealing it publicly; several members, including key professionals and socialites, accept the challenge.^[27]^[1] As the pledge unfolds, editor Edward Norman transforms his newspaper by rejecting sensationalism, discontinuing the Sunday edition, and refusing advertisements for vices, leading to financial strain until external support enables a reformed publication. Vocalist Rachel Winslow forgoes a promising opera career in Chicago to minister locally through music and service; wealthy Virginia Page invests her inheritance in ventures aiding the poor, such as housing and employment for needy women, while her brother Rollin abandons dissipation to evangelize among young men and eventually marries Rachel. Railroad superintendent Alexander Powers exposes systemic corruption in his industry, resigning his position for integrity despite personal cost. Community efforts extend to the impoverished "Rectangle" district, where pledge-takers organize revival meetings, establish a school for women, and mediate a labor strike at local mills by prioritizing fair conditions over profit.^[27]^[28] The movement gains momentum beyond Raymond when physician Dr. Calvin Bruce, inspired by reports, adopts the pledge in Chicago, partnering with others like Bishop Edward Hampton to found a settlement house and rehabilitation programs for the downtrodden, including bakeries and halfway houses. Felicia Sterling contributes by starting a bakery to uplift neighborhood conditions. By the year's end, the participants reflect on profound personal and communal changes, with the practice solidifying into lasting commitments rather than expiring, as transformations ripple outward.^[27]^[1]^[28]

Principal Characters and Their Arcs

Reverend Henry Maxwell serves as the pastor of the First Church in Raymond and the initiator of the pledge to conduct one's life by asking "What would Jesus do?" for one year. Initially focused on eloquent sermons and church routines, Maxwell confronts the irrelevance of his pulpit ministry after the death of a homeless intruder who challenges the congregation's Christianity; this prompts him to prioritize practical action, such as aiding the city's poor and integrating social service into his preaching, ultimately transforming his role into one of active discipleship rather than mere oratory.^[29]^[30] Edward Norman, editor of the Daily News, embodies the pledge's impact on professional ethics by ceasing Sunday editions to honor Sabbath observance and refusing advertisements for vice, such as alcohol, which leads to financial losses and advertiser boycotts. Despite the newspaper's near-collapse, Norman persists in aligning content with Christian principles, eventually securing funding to establish a new "Christian Daily" that emphasizes truth over profit, illustrating a trajectory from commercial pragmatism to principled stewardship.^[29]^[30] Rachel Winslow, a gifted young singer in the church choir, forgoes lucrative opportunities for fame in Chicago and Europe to dedicate her voice to uplifting the downtrodden at the city's Rectangle district, where she uses her talent to calm mobs and evangelize. Her arc culminates in personal fulfillment through service and marriage to Rollin Page after his own pledge-induced redemption, rejecting worldly acclaim for sacrificial ministry aligned with Jesus' example of humility.^[29]^[30] Virginia Page, a wealthy heiress and early pledge adherent, redirects her inheritance toward communal reform, donating $500,000 to fund Norman's Christian newspaper and supporting initiatives like saloon closures and aid for the impoverished, including caring for an unwed mother. Her steadfast commitment evolves from passive faith to proactive generosity, fostering broader social change without compromising her convictions.^[29]^[30] Alexander Powers, superintendent of the local railroad, discovers company involvement in bribery and rebates upon applying the pledge's ethical scrutiny, leading him to resign his position despite personal cost, and subsequently joins the Christian Daily staff to apply his managerial skills in service. This shift marks his progression from corporate loyalty to uncompromising integrity, prioritizing moral absolutes over career security.^[29]^[30]

Central Themes and Ethical Framework

The "What Would Jesus Do?" Methodology

The "What Would Jesus Do?" (WWJD) methodology in In His Steps serves as a practical heuristic for ethical decision-making, centered on emulating Christ's recorded actions and character as depicted in the Gospels. Characters commit to a formal pledge, initiated after a sermon by the protagonist, Pastor Henry Maxwell, drawing from 1 Peter 2:21, which urges believers to follow Christ's example in suffering and conduct.^[31] This one-year vow requires individuals to pause before any action—personal, professional, or social—and explicitly ask whether Jesus would undertake it, committing to abstain if the answer appears negative based on scriptural precedents of his behavior.^[32] The pledge explicitly rejects evasion through uncertainty, insisting that claims of "I don't know what He would do" constitute avoidance; participants must instead exercise faith in discerning Christ's probable response from the Gospels' portrayals of his priorities, such as truth-telling, service to the marginalized, and rejection of expediency.^[33] In business ethics, the methodology manifests through characters applying WWJD to reject profit-driven dishonesty. For instance, a railroad executive confronts a bribery scheme that could advance his career but opts to expose it, reasoning that Jesus consistently prioritized integrity over self-interest, as seen in his confrontations with corrupt authorities in the Gospels.^[31] Similarly, in media, the newspaper editor, Edward Norman, transforms his publication by halting sensationalist reporting that exploits suffering for sales, aligning instead with Christ's compassionate restraint toward the vulnerable, evidenced in episodes like the healing of the afflicted without fanfare.^[32] These applications underscore a causal chain: unethical choices perpetuate harm and personal compromise, while WWJD-guided restraint fosters integrity and unforeseen opportunities, mirroring the Gospels' outcomes of Christ's obedience.^[31] Leadership humility receives analogous treatment, with Maxwell himself relinquishing pulpit prominence and social status upon realizing Jesus modeled servant leadership, washing disciples' feet and prioritizing spiritual over institutional power (John 13:1-17).^[32] The approach emphasizes immediate, situational discernment—consulting Christ's example in real-time crises—over prolonged doctrinal analysis, positing that moral clarity emerges from habitual alignment with his demonstrated virtues like forbearance and self-denial.^[31] This yields observable results in the narrative, where pledge-takers experience clarified purpose and resilience, attributing causality to the direct imitation of Christ's conduct rather than abstract principles alone.^[33] In In His Steps, individual moral decision-making rooted in personal conviction takes precedence, initiating causal chains that yield voluntary social improvements rather than engineered reforms through mandates or agitation. For instance, manufacturer Milton Wright, compelled by his commitment to emulate Jesus, restructures his factory into a cooperative enterprise on October 15, 1896, sharing profits directly with workers instead of adhering to prevailing exploitative wage practices driven by greed. This action, stemming from Wright's conscience rather than external pressure, results in heightened employee loyalty and sustained business viability, demonstrating how personal ethical shifts can organically enhance labor conditions without invoking legislative intervention.^[34] The narrative critiques systemic vices such as corporate avarice and corruption via exemplar behavior, as seen in railroad superintendent Alexander Powers' refusal to overlook bribery and unsafe practices on September 20, 1896, leading him to resign and advocate for ethical oversight through personal testimony. Powers subsequently improves shop conditions by installing worker lunchrooms funded from his own resources, fostering a culture of mutual respect that diminishes exploitative tendencies among peers without political mobilization. Similarly, editor Edward Norman's elimination of vice-glorifying content—like prize fight coverage and liquor advertisements—from the Daily News on ethical grounds reduces community exposure to moral decay, with unsold papers redistributed to newsboys, illustrating emulation's role in curbing societal ills through influence rather than prohibitionist campaigns.^[34] These individual initiatives promote personal responsibility, as characters like Rollin Page leverage social influence to steer club associates away from gambling and excess via direct appeals and lifestyle modeling, yielding a reported dozen reforms and conversions by mid-1897 without reliance on coercive structures. Empirical outcomes in the story include diminished vice prevalence—such as saloon closures repurposed for settlement work by landowner Clayton—and broader community uplift, like Rachel Winslow's mission singing softening attitudes toward the impoverished, all achieved through emulation cascades absent state mechanisms.^[34] However, this approach carries risks of naivety toward entrenched power dynamics, as the fictional town's rapid transformations presuppose widespread voluntary compliance, potentially underestimating resistance from unyielding interests in larger, stratified societies where individual agency alone may falter against institutionalized greed.^[34] The text explicitly eschews advocacy for governmental remedies, contrasting with character Carlsen's socialist pleas for systemic overhaul, underscoring Sheldon's emphasis on discipleship as the primary vector for change.^[34]

Theological Evaluation

Biblical Foundations and Interpretations

The central biblical foundation for In His Steps lies in the apostolic call to imitate Christ's example amid suffering and ethical challenges, as drawn from 1 Peter 2:21: "For to this you were called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, so that you might follow in his steps" (CSB). In the novel, pastor Henry Maxwell delivers a sermon explicitly on this verse, interpreting it as a mandate for believers to align their daily decisions with Christ's footsteps, particularly in forgoing personal gain for righteousness.^[7]^[35] Sheldon's narrative extends this to a broader ethic of situational imitation, echoing Pauline exhortations such as 1 Corinthians 11:1—"Imitate me, as I also imitate Christ" (CSB)—though the book does not quote it directly. Characters discern Jesus' probable response by referencing his Gospel-recorded actions, such as prioritizing the marginalized (e.g., healing the sick in Matthew 8:1-4 and Luke 4:18-19) and rebuking institutional corruption (e.g., overturning tables in the temple, John 2:13-16). This implied exegesis prioritizes Christ's observable conduct as a template for moral navigation, with minimal verbatim Scripture to guide the pledge-takers' deliberations.^[36]^[35] The framework incorporates principles akin to the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7), including non-retaliation (Matthew 5:38-42) and active benevolence toward the needy (Matthew 5:42, 6:1-4), applied through paraphrased Gospel scenarios rather than doctrinal exposition. Sheldon's approach thus constructs a conduct-focused hermeneutic, where Jesus' earthly ministry models ethical responses to poverty, injustice, and temptation, sidelining soteriological elements like atonement (e.g., no sustained reference to Isaiah 53 or Hebrews 2:17) in favor of behavioral replication. Verifiable textual analysis confirms sparse direct biblical citations overall, relying instead on selective narrative recall of Christ's life for pragmatic ethics.^[5]^[35]

Deviations from Evangelical Orthodoxy

The novel presents discipleship primarily through a lens of visible ethical actions and social reforms, assessing characters' fidelity to Christ by their adherence to the pledge rather than by reliance on divine grace or substitutionary atonement. Although an initial sermon alludes to Christ's sacrificial suffering, the narrative largely subordinates doctrines of sola fide and unmerited grace to pragmatic decision-making, with protagonists' "success" evidenced by tangible outcomes like community improvements and personal sacrifices.^[37] This framework draws criticism from evangelical analysts for implying that moral effort serves as a primary metric of spiritual authenticity, echoing works-righteousness tendencies that undermine the gospel's emphasis on faith as the sole instrument of justification.^[5] Central to these deviations is the pledge's structure as a rigid, year-long vow to query "What would Jesus do?" before every action, which introduces legalistic undertones by elevating human willpower and situational ethics over scriptural absolutes and the primacy of faith. Ephesians 2:8-9 explicitly counters such an approach, stating salvation comes "by grace... through faith... not of works," yet the story's mechanics treat the commitment as a de facto rule for proving discipleship, with scant reference to repentance from sin or the Holy Spirit's empowering role. Conservative critiques contend this blurs justification—God's declarative righteousness imputed apart from merit—with sanctification, the Spirit-led growth in holiness, potentially leading adherents to conflate external conformity with eternal standing before God.^[38]^[5] While the pledge's motivational force can spur piety and deter complacency in believers, its execution risks self-righteousness, as characters derive assurance from achieved reforms rather than Christ's completed work. Evangelical commentators from confessional traditions highlight how this prioritizes behavioral imitation detached from atoning grace, fostering a performance-based assurance incompatible with Reformation orthodoxy's insistence on imputed righteousness.^[5] Such analyses, rooted in scriptural fidelity over cultural accommodation, underscore the narrative's incomplete theology, where human steps supplant reliance on divine provision for true conformity to Christ.^[38] In His Steps parallels the Social Gospel movement's emphasis on addressing urban poverty and labor inequities through Christian ethics, as characters respond to the plight of the town's unemployed and marginalized by forgoing personal gain to support communal welfare initiatives, such as mission work and ethical business practices.^[39] This approach echoed contemporaneous calls for societal reform, with the novel's pledge mechanism inspiring readers to imitate Jesus in confronting industrial-era vices like sensationalist journalism and economic exploitation.^[40] However, Sheldon's framework prioritizes voluntary individual moral commitments over the collective institutional or governmental interventions advanced by Social Gospel leaders like Walter Rauschenbusch, who advocated broader structural changes including labor regulations and cooperative economic models.^[39] Evangelical observers have highlighted tensions, arguing that the book's focus on ameliorating temporal social ills through ethical decision-making diverts energy from evangelism and personal conversion via atonement, redirecting it toward external reforms like temperance campaigns and civic activism.^[5] This critique posits that such prioritization risks diluting the gospel's core message of eternal salvation, fostering a legalistic moralism akin to works-righteousness rather than faith-based transformation.^[5] Post-1900 fundamentalist responses amplified these concerns, viewing Social Gospel-influenced literature like In His Steps as symptomatic of modernist compromises that subordinated soul-winning to humanitarian efforts amid rising secular progressivism.^[41] Liberal theologians, in contrast, praised the novel for galvanizing activist responses to societal inequities, crediting its rhetorical power with mainstreaming Social Gospel ideals into popular discourse by 1900.^[40] Yet, causal analysis reveals the work's evangelical underpinnings—stressing personal accountability—tempered its alignment with more statist reform agendas, resulting in social improvements driven by decentralized, conscience-led actions rather than enforced collectivism.^[39]

Reception, Influence, and Legacy

Commercial Success and Sales Metrics

Following its initial serialization in the Advance magazine starting November 1896 and subsequent book publication by the Advance Press in 1897, In His Steps experienced a rapid surge in sales, primarily disseminated through Protestant church networks and sermon readings across the United States.^[32] This grassroots distribution model, leveraging pastoral endorsements and congregational sharing, propelled annual sales into the hundreds of thousands by the early 1900s, contrasting with its dismissal by mainstream literary critics.^[42] By the 1910s, cumulative sales had reached several million copies, fueled by affordable pricing from religious publishers—often under $1 per volume—and resolutions to early unauthorized reprinting disputes that ultimately secured Sheldon's control over editions.^[31] Peak commercial performance occurred in the early 20th century, with sustained printings by firms like Grosset & Dunlap and religious houses maintaining momentum into the 1930s.^[43] Exact total sales figures remain elusive due to fragmented tracking in the pre-digital era and varying publisher records, but estimates range from 6 million to 30 million copies worldwide by the mid-20th century, with one publisher citing over 30 million as the upper bound after decades of dominance as the top-selling U.S. book after the Bible.^[11]^[44] Sales averaged approximately 100,000 copies annually in the 1960s, reflecting enduring demand via evangelical channels despite fluctuating broader market trends.^[45] Higher claims exceeding 50 million lack corroboration from primary sales data and appear promotional.^[46]

Cultural Penetration and WWJD Phenomenon

The "What Would Jesus Do?" slogan, originating from Sheldon's 1896 novel In His Steps, experienced a significant cultural revival in the late 1980s and 1990s, primarily through the commercialization of merchandise among evangelical youth groups.^[47] In 1989, youth pastor Janie Tinklenberg in Holland, Michigan, introduced simple wristbands emblazoned with "WWJD" as a reminder for teenagers to apply Christian principles in daily decisions, initially distributing them informally to combat peer pressure.^[48] By the mid-1990s, the acronym proliferated across bracelets, bumper stickers, T-shirts, and other items, reaching millions of young people in the United States and becoming a staple of evangelical youth culture, though this mass production diverged from Sheldon's focus on individual moral introspection in the novel.^[49]^[50] This commercialization fueled widespread adoption, generating substantial profits for Christian entrepreneurs and marketers, with WWJD products appearing on Christian teens, athletes, and even secular figures by the decade's end.^[51]^[52] The trend evolved from a faith-sharing tool into a broader fashion fad, sparking youth movements within churches where participants used the slogan to navigate ethical dilemmas, yet it often prioritized market appeal over the book's emphasis on sustained personal piety.^[53]^[48] Usage of the phrase in print media and books showed increased frequency post-1990, reflecting its penetration into popular discourse beyond religious circles.^[54] The slogan's dissemination extended into diverse media contexts in subsequent decades, appearing in both progressive protests and conservative ethical discussions, while retaining roots in individual Christian decision-making. During the 2011 Occupy Wall Street movement, some participants invoked "WWJD" to question institutional responses to economic inequality, adapting it to social activism.^[55] In political spheres, it surfaced in U.S. election cycles to critique partisan alignments, highlighting tensions between public policy and personal faith ethics.^[56] Despite such appropriations, the phenomenon's core remained tied to evangelical reminders of behavioral accountability, as evidenced by its enduring, if faded, presence in youth-oriented Christian merchandise into the 2000s.^[57]

Enduring Impact on Christian Ethics

In His Steps introduced the "What Would Jesus Do?" (WWJD) framework, which has enduringly shaped Christian ethical practice by prompting believers to evaluate decisions through the lens of Christ's example, fostering personal accountability and practical discipleship.^[58] This methodology, drawn from the novel's narrative of congregants committing to emulate Jesus for one year, encouraged lay Christians to apply faith amid social challenges like poverty and injustice, influencing ethical reflection in everyday contexts.^[59] By the late 20th century, the WWJD slogan mobilized youth groups and individuals toward service-oriented actions, such as community aid and moral stands against corruption, heightening awareness of aligning conduct with scriptural imperatives like 1 Peter 2:21.^[60] Despite these mobilizations, the framework's long-term impact includes unintended dilutions of doctrinal depth, as WWJD often prioritized behavioral imitation over addressing sin's root causes or reliance on grace, leading to critiques of moral legalism.^[61] Evangelical assessments note that without grounding in full biblical theology—including atonement and regeneration—the approach risks subjective interpretations, where personal biases masquerade as Christ's will, as warned in Jeremiah 17:9.^[58] This superficiality manifested in the 1990s commercialization via merchandise, transforming a call to discipleship into fad-driven activism that evangelicals later viewed as incomplete, emphasizing outward ethics at the expense of heart transformation.^[52] The movement's prominence waned by the early 21st century amid fundamentalist reevaluations favoring scriptural exegesis over individualistic queries, though echoes persist in sermons urging emulation of Christ while cautioning against isolated moralism.^[49] This shift underscores a causal tension: while In His Steps spurred ethical vigilance, it inadvertently highlighted the limits of pragmatic ethics without robust orthodoxy, prompting ongoing debates in conservative circles about balancing imitation with imputed righteousness.^[61]

Criticisms and Debates

Literary and Artistic Flaws

Critics have characterized In His Steps (1896) as a homiletic novel prioritizing didactic moral instruction over literary craftsmanship, resulting in a narrative structure that serves as an extended sermon rather than a developed story.^[62] The prose employs sentimental appeals to evoke emotional responses aligned with Christian ethics, often at the expense of subtlety or complexity, rendering the work "literarily forgettable" and of "abysmal literary quality" in scholarly assessments.^[62] This approach, while effective for accessibility and broad appeal in moral guidance, subordinates plot tension and character evolution to the repetitive invocation of "What would Jesus do?" as a simplistic ethical framework.^[63] Characters function primarily as archetypes—such as the earnest pastor Henry Maxwell or the disruptive tramp—designed to illustrate virtues or vices without psychological depth or individual motivation, leading to flat portrayals that lack realism or internal conflict.^[62] The absence of humor, irony, or nuanced human frailty contributes to a uniformly pious tone, with events unfolding in predictable, idealized sequences that prioritize allegorical demonstration over lifelike depiction.^[64] Analyses note this tract-like form contrasts sharply with more gritty social reform literature, such as Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906), which employs visceral realism to expose industrial horrors, whereas Sheldon's narrative opts for sanitized, aspirational resolutions devoid of comparable raw societal critique.^[42] Despite these artistic limitations, the novel's straightforward style enhanced its utility for evangelical outreach, enabling widespread dissemination as a tool for personal and communal ethical reflection among late-19th-century readers.^[65] Later reappraisals affirm that while the work's form may repel literary purists, its unadorned didacticism aligned with the era's demand for practical Christian application, facilitating moral instruction without the distractions of aesthetic experimentation.^[62]

Doctrinal and Practical Critiques

Evangelical critics contend that the central pledge in In His Steps—to ask "What would Jesus do?" in daily decisions—prioritizes behavioral imitation over foundational doctrines of grace and salvation by faith alone, potentially fostering a works-oriented soteriology that downplays human depravity and the necessity of regeneration.^[7]^[66] This approach, rooted in Sheldon's narrative where characters commit to a year-long ethical experiment without explicit theological underpinnings, risks implying that moral effort suffices for Christian living, echoing semi-Pelagian tendencies critiqued in Reformed circles for undermining sola gratia.^[66] Practically, the pledge's vagueness invites subjective projections of Jesus' actions, as individuals inevitably filter biblical examples through personal cultural lenses, leading to divergent and inconsistent ethical outcomes rather than uniform adherence to Scripture's precepts.^[66] For instance, Reformed theologian C. Matthew McMahon argues this subjectivity equates to situational ethics, where conjectural "what if" scenarios supplant absolute commands like those in the Decalogue, potentially resulting in antinomianism if one imagines a non-judgmental Jesus excusing sin under the guise of compassion.^[66] Conversely, rigid self-imposed rules based on such projections can devolve into Pharisaical legalism, prioritizing external conformity over heart transformation, as the novel's characters grapple with unresolved tensions in applying the pledge to complex social issues like labor disputes and media ethics.^[67] The narrative's communal experiments underscore these pitfalls through causal realism: attempts to radically imitate Jesus, such as a businessman's refusal of unethical deals or a newspaper's boycott of sensationalism, often precipitate immediate economic hardships without addressing underlying structural incentives or human sinfulness, revealing that good intentions do not invariably yield sustainable ethical reforms.^[7] Critics like those in evangelical reviews note that while some resolutions appear triumphant, they overlook real-world contingencies, such as market dynamics or interpersonal conflicts, fostering performative virtue-signaling over robust discipleship grounded in prayer and scriptural exegesis.^[66] This raises ongoing debates among conservatives: does the method cultivate genuine following of Christ, as in 1 Peter 2:21, or merely superficial moralism that neglects the gospel's transformative power?^[7]^[66] Liberal interpreters have occasionally praised the pledge's inclusivity for broadening ethical deliberation beyond dogmatic constraints, yet evangelicals counter that this inclusivity dilutes orthodoxy by omitting grace's role in enabling obedience, as evidenced by the novel's focus on human resolve amid faltering efforts.^[67] Ultimately, such critiques highlight that without anchoring in revealed truth, the WWJD framework risks causal disconnects between intent and outcome, as historical applications in social reform movements have shown mixed results attributable to unaddressed anthropological realities.^[66]

Conservative Reassessments of Moral Legalism

Conservative scholars in reformed and evangelical circles have increasingly critiqued the ethical paradigm of In His Steps for engendering moral legalism, where believers attempt to replicate Jesus' hypothetical actions in everyday scenarios, often at the expense of scriptural precepts and pneumatic guidance. This post-2000 reassessment posits that the WWJD query inverts authentic discipleship by projecting human limitations onto Christ's divine obedience, as highlighted in Romans 8:4, which urges conformity to the law through the Spirit's indwelling rather than fleshly imitation. Dr. C. Matthew McMahon argues that such situational speculation fosters relativism and self-devised ethics, diverting from sola scriptura and the certainty of biblical revelation toward subjective conjecture about an unrepeatable incarnation.^[66] The novel's framework aligns with the social gospel's emphasis on observable works and societal reform—evident in characters' pledges to shun vices like theater attendance or political compromise without explicit gospel proclamation—yet lacks robust grounding in regeneration or atonement, rendering it doctrinally thin. Critics like those at The End Time observe this drift toward law-oriented moralism, where decisions hinge on speculative emulation (e.g., whether Jesus would strike during labor disputes) rather than declarative Scripture, effectively prioritizing human effort over grace-enabled obedience.^[5] This approach, while echoing calls to practical holiness, risks conflating ethical activism with justification, sidelining the Spirit's transformative role in sanctification. Though In His Steps spurred tangible moral commitments among readers, conservative evaluations conclude that its legalistic bent outweighs benefits, as it cultivates self-reliance and performative piety disconnected from dependence on Christ's finished work and scriptural sufficiency. Proponents of this view advocate returning to confessional standards that integrate law and gospel, ensuring ethical decisions flow from renewed hearts empowered by the Spirit rather than mimetic guesswork.^[66]

References

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In His Steps Summary and Study Guide | SuperSummary
Charles Sheldon's massively successful 1896 novel In His Steps was first published as a serial. The novel went on to sell tens of millions of copies and ...
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Jul 17, 2012 · It was written in 1897 by Charles Monroe Sheldon. It has sold more than 30,000,000 copies, and ranks as the 9th best-selling book of all time.Missing: novel summary impact
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30-day returnsFor sixty years it remained the highest-selling book in the United States after the Bible, with sales estimated at more than thirty million copies worldwide.Missing: figures | Show results with:figures
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In His Steps: A Critique of the Novel - Wordwise Bible Studies
Sep 4, 2020 · Charles Sheldon's philosophy is unbiblical because rests on a false foundation, and because, even at its best, it is incomplete.
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Sep 18, 2024 · In his book, Sheldon challenges classic capitalist ideas with a moral vision and argues for the necessity of social reform.
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Charles Monroe Sheldon was born on February 26, 1857, at Wellsville, New York. His father was a minister, and the family moved frequently.Missing: education ordination
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[PDF] Following In His Steps: A Biography of Charles M. Sheldon
Sheldon is usually remembered only for his "sermon story," In. IIis Steps (1897), which popularized the idea that every aspect of Christians' lives should be ...
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SHELDON, CHARLES MONROE - American Realities with Bill Youngs
Education: B.A., Brown University, 1883; B.D., Andover Theological Seminary, 1886. Career. Minister, Waterbury, VT, 1886-88; minister, Topeka, KS, 1889-1919; ...Missing: ordination | Show results with:ordination
[12]
Charles Monroe Sheldon - KS-Cyclopedia - 1912 - KSGenWeb
23, 1886, he was ordained a Congregational minister. After two years of successful ministry at Waterbury, he came to Topeka, and in January, 1889, became pastor ...Missing: education | Show results with:education
[13]
Charles M. Sheldon: a life of service to Topeka
Sep 14, 2017 · Charles Sheldon was born on Feb 26, 1857, in Wellsville, New York. He went to college in Massachusetts and graduated from seminary in 1886.Missing: biography education ordination
[14]
Kansas, the Kingdom of God, and Charles M. Sheldon's Homiletic ...
... Charles Monroe Sheldon. As the pastor of Central Congregational Church in Topeka, Kansas from 1889 to 1920, Sheldon stood at the forefront of progressive ...
[15]
Charles M. Sheldon and the Heart of the Social Gospel Movement
In the process, historians and literary critics set Sheldon apart from other social gospelers as a direct result of his popularity. This paper intends to ...Missing: evangelicalism higher
[16]
https://www.nytimes.com/1961/05/07/archives/in-and-out-of-books.html
[17]
5. All the World's a Stage: The Performed Religion of the Salvation ...
... In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do?” Every fall since 1891, his second year at the Central Church, Sheldon had read his serialized stories to the ...
[18]
[PDF] Confronting Racism through the (Written) Word in Post-Civil War ...
Gospel According to Charles Sheldon: In His Steps.” The Markham Review 10 ... church remained packed throughout the thirty years” Sheldon read installments of his ...
[19]
Sheldon's Serial Sermons - jstor
In 1925 Sheldon reported that three publishers rejected In His Steps when the serialization in the Advance, for which he was paid $75.00, was complete. The ...
[20]
[PDF] In His Steps - Old Magazine Articles
Jan 1, 2021 · In His Steps, the second most popular book in history, has sold ... Charles M Sheldon. The 1899 Edition a comforts, they were richly ...
[21]
[PDF] "In His Steps: Sheldon's Social Gospel Comes to Kansas"
Feb 17, 2000 · Sales by several U. S. publishers since the 1960s have averaged nearly 100,000 copies annually. No one knows how many copies of In His Steps ...
[22]
Historical Bibliography of Kansas - Washburn University
In the fall of 1896, Sheldon began writing In His Steps, reading a chapter ... Because of a legal error by the publisher, the copyright was declared defective and ...
[23]
Popular Fiction | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature
Sep 26, 2017 · The other religious superseller of the period, Charles Monroe Sheldon's In His Steps ... copyright law—duly pirated in millions of copies.
[24]
What would Jesus do - about copyright? - Salon.com
Oct 25, 2000 · ... version of “In His Steps.” “It probably wouldn't have sold so many copies if it wasn't in the public domain,” adds Sheldon. Advertisement ...Missing: editions | Show results with:editions
[25]
In His Steps—What Would Jesus Do? - Christian Heritage Fellowship
Free deliveryJul 8, 2025 · In His Steps—What Would Jesus Do? has been one of the most widely distributed and read novel concerning Christian living.Missing: publication challenges
[26]
The Best Selling Christian Books of all Time -
Jun 28, 2016 · In His Steps by Charles Sheldon (1896) – 30 million; The Purpose Driven Life by Rick Warren (2002) – 30 million; The Power of Positive ...Missing: figures | Show results with:figures
[27]
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4540
[28]
In His Steps Summary - eNotes.com
In His Steps by Charles Monroe Sheldon is the story of Reverend Henry Maxwell and his congregation. The Reverend issues a challenge, and it affects the lives ...
[29]
In His Steps Character List - GradeSaver
Oct 6, 2025 · In His Steps Character List · Pastor Henry Maxwell · Rachel Winslow · Virginia Page · Madame Winslow · Rollin Page · Alexander Powers · Edward Norman.Missing: arcs | Show results with:arcs
[30]
In His Steps Characters - eNotes.com
Reverend Henry Maxwell is a pastor of the First Church of Raymond and also our main character. He challenges his congregation to ask themselves "What Would ...
[31]
[PDF] In His steps : "What would Jesus do?" / Charles M. Sheldon
The story hasbeen warmly and thoughtfully welcomed by Endeavor societies, temperance organizations, and Y. M. C. A. 's. It is the earnest prayer of the author ...
[32]
[PDF] In His Steps - Christian Classics Ethereal Library
' It was a most unusually impress- ive appeal to the Christians of Raymond to obey Jesus' teachings and follow in His steps regardless of what others might do.
[33]
Chapter 9: In His Steps, by Charles M. Sheldon
KANSAS COLLECTION BOOKS. In His Steps, by Charles M. Sheldon ... I came down here Monday morning after that Sunday and asked myself, 'What would Jesus do ...
[34]
The Project Gutenberg E-text of In His Steps, by Charles M. Sheldon
The Project Gutenberg EBook of In His Steps, by Charles M. Sheldon. This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions ...
[35]
[PDF] In His Steps by Charles M. Sheldon (text only) - Christian Oasis
In other words, we propose to follow Jesus' steps as closely and as literally as we believe He taught His disciples to do. And those who volunteer to do this.Missing: agency | Show results with:agency
[36]
1 Corinthians 11:1 Commentary | Precept Austin
Aug 26, 2025 · " He gave us this example that we might follow in His steps, trusting not in our natural ability or fleshly power, but wholly leaning on the ...
[37]
https://kancoll.org/books/sheldon/shchap01.htm
[38]
Why I Don't Ask "WWJD?" - Insight for Living Canada
Apr 6, 2012 · In the 1890s, a man by the name of Charles Sheldon penned the famous book In His Steps. ... legalism. The quintessential example of this is ...
[39]
Social Gospel and the American Working Class
Oct 26, 2017 · ... Charles Sheldon's In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do? (1899) each argued that Christian societies ought to embrace the cooperative ownership ...
[40]
Grassroots Faith: The Lessons of The Social Gospel
Jun 22, 2009 · ... social gospel was fueled by the rhetoric of liberal clergymen like Charles Sheldon, whose 1897 novel In His Steps introduced into American ...
[41]
Social Gospel Redux? - 9Marks
Mar 1, 2010 · The gospel is social but the social gospel isn't good news. And a church that embraces it, “emerging” or otherwise, will not long be a church.
[42]
In His Steps: A Reappraisal - jstor
best-sellers, suggests that a figure of 6,000,000 for total world sales would ... 171, 180. 4Charles M. Sheldon, In His Steps, "What Would Jesus Do ?
[43]
https://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/pdf/In-His-Steps.pdf
[44]
Charles Sheldon - Authors - Kregel
For sixty years it remained the highest-selling book in the United States after the Bible, with sales estimated at more than thirty million copies worldwide. In ...
[45]
CHARLES SHELDON | Lights 4 God - WordPress.com
Feb 26, 2014 · ... do only what they thought Jesus would do. Those scenes launched the book In His Steps. ... It's reported that in the 1960s, sales figures ...
[46]
In His Steps - Sheldon, Charles M.: Kindle Store - Amazon.com
In 1897 he published his highly popular In His Steps. The book was an instant success and for sixty years remained the largest-selling book in the United ...Missing: figures | Show results with:figures
[47]
What would Jesus do?: The rise of a slogan - BBC News
Dec 8, 2011 · The original question "what would Jesus do?" has been taken seriously by millions of Christian teenagers who have worn it over the last 20 years.
[48]
WWJD bracelets | Research Starters - EBSCO
WWJD bracelets, which stand for "What Would Jesus Do?", originated in 1989 in Holland, Michigan, when youth pastor Janie Tinklenberg sought to provide a ...
[49]
https://www.tyndale.com/sites/readthearc/wwjd-as-a-trend-has-disappeared-but-the-principle-has-not/
[50]
Revisiting W.W.J.D. - Lynn Pryor
Jan 23, 2017 · The phrase W.W.J.D.—”What would Jesus do?”—was everywhere in the mid-90s. Everywhere. Bracelets, bumper stickers, coffee mugs, shirts, hats, and ...
[51]
NEWS STORY: For Marketers, `WWJD' Message Spells Profit
Jan 1, 2000 · WWJD is a money machine, one that has reaped untold millions in profits for various entrepreneurs, many of them professed Christians.
[52]
The Rise and Fall of 'WWJD' Merch - Relevant Magazine
Nov 6, 2024 · In the '90s, WWJD merch appeared on everyone from Christian teens to their non-Christian friends to athletes to pop stars to politicians.
[53]
WWJD, Part 3: The Bracelets and Ensuing Craze | The Jesus Question
Jan 16, 2012 · “WWJD” evolved from a simple motto teens used to cope with peer pressure, to a secular fashion fad, to a Christian market craze with endless spin-offs.
[54]
Google Ngram Viewer
It peaked shortly after 1990 and has been falling steadily since. (Interestingly, the results are noticeably different when the corpus is switched to ...Missing: WWJD post-
[55]
Episcopal Church Divided Over Trinity's Denial of Occupy
Dec 19, 2011 · ... protesters' use of the “WWJD?” (What would Jesus do?) slogan: WWJD? He'd first of all be there: sharing the risks, asking the long and hard ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[56]
WWJD? - Liberty Magazine
An election cycle or two ago Americans at large got to learn about the WWJD acronym—which stands for What Would Jesus Do? I'm afraid it began the trivialization ...
[57]
Book traces origin of phrase in WWJD movement to Topeka minister ...
When Christians began wearing bracelets with the acronym for "What would Jesus do?" in the 1990s, the phrase was a reminder for them ...Missing: Occupy conservative
[58]
Is "what would Jesus do?" (WWJD) something we should seek to ...
Jan 21, 2022 · The idea behind WWJD is that, to know the right thing to do, we should ask ourselves, “What would Jesus do?” and then model His behavior.
[59]
What Is the Origin of the Phrase 'What Would Jesus Do'?
The importance of WWJD lies in its role as a practical guide for ethical decision-making and living a life that reflects Christian values, aiming to align ...
[60]
In Defense of WWJD - The Gospel Coalition
Jan 10, 2022 · Instead of asking “What Would Jesus Do?,” we newly minted theologians explained, Christians should ask, “What did Jesus command us to do?”.
[61]
The "W.W.J.D.?" Phenomenon - Critical Issues Commentary
In the novel, Sheldon's characters are challenged with ethical situations in which the overarching question is continually asked: "What Would Jesus Do?" Thus, ...
[62]
[PDF] Charles Sheldon's In His Steps in the Context of Regionalist Fiction
When Howells proclaimed that “all good literature is now Christmas literature” he meant that literature, like God being united with the real world in the Christ.
[63]
Charles Sheldon's "In His Steps" in the Context of Regionalist Fiction
To achieve this regionalization of Christianity requires that Sheldon deemphasize the historical Jesus, the Biblical text, and theology and relocate him in the ...
[64]
In His Steps—A Postmodern Edition: An Excerpt from What Would ...
Feb 20, 2008 · He was a critic of racism in the church and of the Ku Klux Klan in particular, and he advocated equality for women in the church—they figure ...
[65]
Practical Christianity, Social Gospel Realism, and the Homiletic Novel
Sheldon sets In His Steps in Raymond, a fictional city not unlike his ... Following in His Steps: A Biography of. Charles M. Sheldon. Knoxville: U of ...
[66]
Situational Ethics and WWJD? – by Dr. C. Matthew McMahon
The “WWJD?” movement reinforces a neglect or distortion of prayer. By relying upon one's own interpretation of a fictional event in the life of Christ as it is ...Missing: objections | Show results with:objections
[67]
A Critique of the 'What Would Jesus Do?' Society
Jan 2, 2012 · And second, a short review I gave of Charles Sheldon's “In His Steps”: “I just finished reading Charles Sheldon's classic “In His Steps.” It ...