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JAC Group

JAC Group, officially Jianghuai Automobile Group Corp., Ltd., is a Chinese multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in , Province, specializing in the research, development, production, and sale of commercial vehicles, passenger cars, and new energy vehicles. Founded in 1964 as Hefei Jianghuai Automobile Factory, the company has grown into a global enterprise with operations in over 130 countries and regions, delivering more than 12 million vehicles worldwide. The 's product lineup includes heavy, medium, and light trucks; buses; multi-purpose vehicles (MPVs); SUVs; sedans; and electric vehicles powered by both traditional and new energy technologies. JAC Group maintains 27 production facilities globally, including eight in and 19 overseas knock-down (KD) factories, supporting its international expansion that began in the with exports to markets like . In addition to , it provides core components, mobility solutions, and , aiming for annual of 1 million vehicles and of 100 billion RMB within the next decade. Notable for its strategic partnerships, JAC Group formed a with in 2017 to develop and produce electric vehicles and related mobility services, with holding a 75% stake as of 2020. The company is publicly listed on the (stock code: 600418) since 2001 and has been recognized for its brand value, ranking 28th in the 2025 KANTAR BrandZ Chinese Global Brand Builders report with an estimated value of $6 billion in 2023.

History

Founding and early development

The JAC Group traces its origins to May 20, 1964, when it was established as the Hefei Jianghuai Automobile Factory in , Province, . Founded as a under the oversight of the Anhui Provincial Government, the factory initially concentrated on manufacturing light trucks and agricultural vehicles to support local commercial and farming needs. This marked the inception of JAC's focus on production, building on the predecessor Chaohu Auto Parts Factory, the first automotive in Province. In its formative decades, the company steadily expanded its operations and product offerings. Key milestones included the of its first-generation light-duty , the HFC HF144A series, starting in 1985, and the rollout of China's first dedicated bus in June 1990, which facilitated the company's inaugural export of 36 light-duty and 24 bus to that same year. By 1993, JAC's bus sales had reached units annually, positioning it as a dominant player in the segment and achieving recognition for the HFC1061 light-duty as one of China's most influential automotive products by 1996. Throughout the and , production remained centered on and buses, with output growing to support domestic agricultural and logistics demands. A pivotal occurred in 1997, when the factory was transformed into a joint-stock and renamed Jianghuai Automobile Co., Ltd. (JAC). This reorganization enhanced its operational framework and paved the way for broader market engagement. In 2001, the company went public on the under the stock code 600418, marking a significant step in its evolution as a publicly traded entity while retaining its state-owned roots. By the late , JAC had established substantial annual production capacity for commercial vehicles, primarily light trucks and buses, underscoring its foundational role in China's .

Expansion into passenger vehicles

In the early 2000s, JAC began diversifying from its commercial vehicle roots by entering the passenger car market, starting with the launch of its first sedan, the Binyue, in January 2008. The Tongyue subcompact sedan followed later in 2008, aimed at providing affordable transportation options for China's growing urban population. To formalize this shift, JAC established a dedicated passenger vehicle division in 2007, separating it from commercial operations to streamline development and production. This restructuring enabled rapid expansion, with initial passenger car sales reaching around 40,000 units in 2008, driven by increasing domestic demand for budget-friendly vehicles. Key early models included the Rein SUV, launched in October 2006 as the Ruiying, which adapted a design inspired by the to offer a compact crossover at competitive prices. The Heyue series followed in 2009, featuring compact sedans like the Heyue A13 that emphasized and low-cost ownership, targeting entry-level buyers in the Chinese sedan and segments. Despite these advances, JAC encountered significant challenges, including quality concerns such as issues reported in early Tongyue models, which affected consumer trust. Intense from established domestic rivals like further pressured market share, as these brands offered more refined alternatives in the affordable passenger vehicle space.

Shift to electric and new energy vehicles

JAC Group's strategic pivot to electric and new energy vehicles () accelerated in the , aligning with China's national policies to foster domestic development and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. The introduced substantial subsidies and incentives for NEV production and purchase starting in , providing financial support that enabled manufacturers like JAC to invest in electric powertrains and systems. These measures included direct subsidies per vehicle, exemptions, and procurement preferences for government fleets, which significantly boosted the sector's growth. In 2010, JAC entered the market with initial models, marking its early commitment to amid the policy-driven boom. A key example was the iEV4, launched in as a pure-electric derived from the Tongyue platform, which benefited from these subsidies to achieve market entry and scale production. JAC's NEV sales reflected steady progress in building capabilities, including the integration of advanced technologies through strategic partnerships to improve and . The company further advanced its EV strategy by developing dedicated platforms for electric vehicles. In 2023, JAC launched the Yiwei brand specifically for entry-level electric cars, emphasizing affordable urban mobility with integrated powertrains and modern systems. This move built on earlier efforts to optimize EV architecture for cost and performance. Production milestones underscored the shift, with JAC achieving total output of 524,000 vehicles in 2021, including a significant share from that accounted for over 25% of passenger vehicle sales, driven by surging demand for battery electric models.

Key partnerships and collaborations

JAC Group's strategic partnerships have been instrumental in advancing its capabilities in electric vehicles and commercial engines, particularly through joint ventures with global automakers. In 2017, JAC Group formed a with to develop, produce, and market new energy vehicles in , initially as a 50:50 partnership named JAC Volkswagen. In 2020, increased its stake to 75%, renaming the entity Volkswagen Anhui, which has focused on manufacturing battery electric vehicles such as the ID.UNYX for the Chinese market. This collaboration has enabled JAC to leverage 's modular electric drive matrix platform for mass-market EVs. From 2018 to 2023, JAC served as the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) for NIO Inc., producing models including the ES8, ES6, and ET7 at its facilities in Hefei. The partnership concluded amicably in late 2023 when NIO acquired assets of JAC's F1 plant for approximately CNY 3.16 billion, allowing NIO to gain independent production qualifications. In December 2023, JAC announced a collaboration with Technologies under the Harmony Intelligent Mobility Alliance to develop luxury s under the Maextro brand, with the S800 sedan launching in 2025 and deliveries beginning in mid-2025. This partnership integrates 's advanced intelligent driving systems and has resulted in the Maextro S800, a high-end extended-range targeting premium segments. Earlier, in , JAC established a 50:50 with International to produce medium- and heavy-duty diesel engines, known as JAC-Navistar Diesel Engine Company, which supported JAC's lineup until Navistar's stake was acquired by in 2018. JAC has also pursued technology-sharing agreements with various international firms to enhance its in and autonomous driving.

Brands

Mainstream passenger brands

The JAC brand serves as the for JAC Group's mainstream passenger vehicles, offering affordable sedans, SUVs, and MPVs targeted at budget-conscious consumers in since its expansion into the passenger segment in 2003. Initially relying on licensed designs from partners like to enter the market, the brand evolved toward in-house development by the late , emphasizing cost-effective, practical vehicles suitable for urban and family use. This positioning has allowed JAC to capture a share of the entry-level market, with sales peaking around 350,000 units annually in the mid-2010s before adapting to trends through sub-brands like iEV starting in 2014. In 2018, JAC launched the brand as part of a with under the JAC- framework, positioning it for mid-range electric and hybrid passenger vehicles aimed at tech-savvy urban buyers. Originally intended to facilitate 's entry into with a focus on pure electric models, emphasized "smart electric" strategies, integrating advanced connectivity, autonomous driving features, and efficient powertrains to differentiate in the growing new energy vehicle sector. By 2021, transferred full control of to JAC, leading to a planned gradual phase-out announced in 2023, with some models transitioning to JAC or the new Yiwei badge; however, continued sales into 2025. This evolution reflects JAC's broader strategy to streamline its mainstream offerings, consolidating under core brands like JAC and emerging lines such as Yiwei—launched in 2023 for entry-level electric passengers—to enhance market competitiveness amid intensifying domestic rivalry. JAC Yiwei, introduced in 2023 as a sub-brand following the restructuring of JAC's new energy operations, targets entry-level electric vehicles with a focus on affordable urban mobility solutions. Primarily featuring compact passenger models like the Yiwei 3 , the brand emphasizes efficient, low-cost EVs. Yiwei's innovations, such as integration for cost-effective powertrains, have enabled exports of models to regions like Central and .

Commercial vehicle brands

JAC Refine, launched on March 18, 2002, with the debut of the Ruifeng , serves as the primary brand for JAC Group's commercial vehicles, specializing in vans, , and light trucks tailored for , , and applications. Initially inspired by designs like the , the brand evolved to offer practical, durable models suited for professional use, such as , shuttles, and , establishing a strong foothold in China's competitive commercial segment. Key models under the Refine banner include the Refine M3, a versatile light van known for its spacious capacity and reliability in daily operations, and the Refine M4, an economical variant for smaller fleet needs. Higher-end offerings like the M5 and M6 (including luxury iterations L5 and L6) provide enhanced comfort and features for extended commercial routes. These vehicles emphasize , robust , and adaptability, contributing to Refine's reputation for value in the light commercial market. Refine has achieved significant market dominance, becoming one of China's top-selling brands and helping JAC secure leading positions in sales; for instance, JAC s ranked as the best-selling LCV in during early . By 2014, JAC's annual of passenger cars reached 200,000 units, while total exceeded 450,000 units including models like those under Refine, underscoring the brand's impact on JAC's as the fourth-largest maker in by 2010.

Premium and joint-venture brands

JAC Group's premium and joint-venture brands represent its push into high-end electric vehicles, leveraging advanced technologies and international partnerships to target luxury segments. The Maextro brand, launched in 2024 through a collaboration with under the Harmony Intelligent Mobility Alliance (HIMA), focuses on ultra-luxury intelligent s equipped with Huawei's ADS 3.0 autonomous driving system. This partnership builds on JAC's earlier cooperation with in intelligent vehicle development, enabling features like advanced driver assistance and seamless connectivity. The brand's debut model, the Maextro S800 full-size , was unveiled on November 26, 2024, at a event and made its public showing at the 2025 Auto Show, with pricing starting at RMB 708,000 to position it against established luxury competitors. The S800 launched on May 30, 2025, achieving over 3,600 orders in its first week and 8,000 within 50 days as of July 2025, demonstrating strong market reception. Maextro plans to expand its lineup, including the smaller S600 model, emphasizing premium interiors, long-range batteries, and over-the-air updates to appeal to affluent consumers seeking cutting-edge mobility. With ambitions for global reach, Maextro targets export markets in and , aiming to establish JAC's presence in international premium EV segments through high-end design and technology integration. In parallel, JAC's with , known as , has evolved to produce EVs under the ID branding, marking a shift from the earlier marque. Established in 2017 as a 50:50 partnership for new energy vehicles, the JV saw acquire a 75% controlling stake in 2020, leading to the phase-out of the brand by 2023 and a focus on -branded models built on the MEB platform. This transition allows for upscale offerings like the ID.EVO concept unveiled at the April 2025 Shanghai Auto Show, which previewed the production ID. UNYX 08 full-size electric revealed in November 2025, featuring sophisticated , spacious cabins, and advanced to compete in the luxury market. Production is scheduled to begin in 2026 at the facility. The partnership emphasizes positioning through shared engineering expertise, with production at a dedicated facility in boasting an annual capacity of 350,000 units, supporting JAC's integration of global standards in intelligent and sustainable .

Products

Passenger cars and SUVs

JAC Group's passenger car and SUV offerings primarily target the affordable and mid-range segments in the market, emphasizing practicality, , and modern design features under its mainstream brands. The lineup includes compact sedans and crossovers designed for urban families, with a mix of (ICE) and powertrains to meet diverse consumer needs. The JAC Refine S7 is a compact launched in 2017 as a flagship model for the brand's passenger division. It features a 1.5-liter turbocharged inline-four producing 174 horsepower and 251 of , paired with a six-speed for responsive performance and improved fuel economy in city driving. The vehicle offers seating for five or seven passengers, with a spacious interior including 22 storage compartments and a volume of up to 1,358 liters when the rear seats are folded, making it suitable for use. Market reception has been positive for its , blending competitive pricing with features like LED and advanced driver-assistance systems in higher trims. The Heyue A30 , introduced in 2012, serves as an entry-level aimed at budget-conscious buyers. Powered by a 1.5-liter inline-four delivering 113 horsepower and 146 of , it comes with options for a five-speed manual or (CVT), achieving estimated of around 25 city and 34 highway. Its compact dimensions and simple, reliable design contributed to steady adoption in emerging markets, where it was praised for affordability and low maintenance costs. Production of the Heyue A30 continued through the mid-2010s, phasing out as JAC shifted toward newer platforms. Under the sub-brand, the E10X mini-EV represents a compact crossover , launched in following presales in March of that year. It utilizes a 25 kWh for an electric range of up to 301 (CLTC), targeting commuters with a starting of approximately $10,600. The model's timeline aligns with JAC's broader transition to new energy vehicles, achieving over 10,000 monthly orders by October , reflecting strong initial market reception for its affordability and quick charging. In recent developments, the E30X mini , launched in 2023, offers a range of up to 410 km (CLTC) with a 38.6 kWh , priced starting at around 50,000 RMB, further expanding JAC's affordable options for city driving as of 2024. Sales highlights for JAC's passenger vehicle series, including the Refine lineup, demonstrate cumulative growth exceeding 200,000 units by , underscoring the brand's expansion in the domestic and segments during its early development phase. This milestone highlighted the Refine series' role in building JAC's passenger market presence before the rise of electric models. The Refine S3, a (also known as Heyue S30), was introduced in 2014 for passenger use, featuring a 1.8L engine and compact design suitable for urban driving, though adaptable for light utility tasks.

Light commercial vehicles and vans

JAC's lineup under the Refine brand focuses on versatile vans and pickups tailored for urban , delivery, and operations. These models emphasize durability, , and adaptability to meet the demands of China's bustling commercial sector. In the electric segment, the JAC Sunray EV electric van offers a range of approximately 300 km on a single charge, powered by advanced technology for zero-emission deliveries as of 2023. This model supports fast charging and integrates connectivity features to optimize route planning and for commercial users. Key to the lineup's appeal are modular designs that enable , such as adjustable cargo configurations and optional shelving or partitioning, allowing fleet operators to tailor vehicles for specific delivery needs like or express services. A recent addition is the Refine RF8 electric van, debuted in , with a range exceeding and payload up to 1,200 , enhancing JAC's zero-emission offerings. Refine vans have achieved significant market dominance in , consistently ranking as top sellers in the light segment with annual sales exceeding 150,000 units as of , driven by their affordability and robust after-sales support. For instance, the Refine M1 model alone recorded over 50,000 units sold in peak years like 2018.

Trucks and buses

JAC Group's heavy truck offerings emphasize durability and versatility for industrial and logistics applications, with models like the 4x2 heavy tractor truck capable of handling gross vehicle weights up to 40 tons when configured with appropriate trailers. These trucks feature robust diesel engines, advanced suspension systems, and high-torque transmissions, enabling reliable performance in construction, mining, and long-haul freight transport across varied terrains. In the bus sector, JAC produces electric models under the Ankai brand, optimized for public transit with capacities for 14 to 30 passengers and a driving range surpassing 200 km on a single charge, depending on configuration and conditions. These zero-emission buses incorporate efficient battery management and lightweight materials to support frequent routes, shuttles, and community services while minimizing operational costs and environmental impact. Through its former joint venture with Navistar (later acquired by Cummins in 2018), JAC advanced diesel engine technologies for trucks and buses, integrating MaxxForce engines to meet Euro V emissions standards. This collaboration enabled efficient diesel variants suitable for commercial fleets. JAC's heavy vehicles have seen strong export performance, with thousands of buses delivered to South American countries like Chile and Uruguay for public transport upgrades, and to African nations such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and Nigeria for regional mobility solutions. In 2024, JAC introduced the T9 PHEV pickup truck, combining a 2.0L turbo engine with electric assist for up to 1,000 km total range, targeting commercial and export markets.

Operations

Research and development

JAC Group's research and development efforts are centered at its national-level R&D facility in Hefei, Anhui Province, China, which serves as the primary hub for innovation in vehicle design, engineering, and testing. This headquarters is supported by two overseas centers: one in Turin, Italy, established in 2005 as China's first such automotive R&D outpost for advanced design and validation; another in Tokyo, Japan, founded in 2006 to leverage expertise in engineering and technology integration. These global facilities enable JAC to incorporate international best practices in areas like electric vehicle architecture and intelligent systems. The company invests significantly in R&D, with expenditures of 2.235 billion in 2023, an increase of 21.92% year-on-year and comprising a substantial portion of its operating revenue. These funds are directed toward core technologies, including advancements in systems for enhanced and safety, as well as autonomous driving capabilities such as and AI-driven decision-making algorithms. Key innovations from JAC's R&D include the integration of Huawei's into its intelligent cockpit systems, enabling seamless connectivity, voice interaction, and over-the-air updates for models like the JAC Star series launched in 2024. Additionally, JAC has developed an 800V high-voltage fast-charging platform, supporting ultra-rapid charging rates up to 5C, which will debut in 2025 vehicles such as the Maextro S800, allowing 10-80% charge in under 15 minutes to address in electric mobility.

Joint ventures

The JAC-Navistar Diesel Engine Company (JND) was formed as a 50-50 joint venture between Anhui Jianghuai Automobile Group Corp., Ltd. (JAC) and Navistar International Corporation, with agreements signed in September 2010 and formal approval from China's National Development and Reform Commission in August 2012. The venture, located in Hefei, Anhui Province, focuses on the production of medium- and heavy-duty diesel engines for commercial trucks, including models in the 2.8-liter, 3.2-liter, and 4.8-liter displacements, offering power outputs up to 88 kW and torque up to 280 N·m. In 2014, JND expanded its production capacity to meet growing demand for high-performance engines, and by 2016, it introduced a 7.2-liter diesel engine to broaden its lineup for truck applications. In May 2018, Cummins Inc. acquired Navistar's 50% stake, transitioning the partnership to a 50-50 joint venture between JAC and Cummins while maintaining operations at the existing Hefei facility. Volkswagen (Anhui) Automotive Company Limited, originally established as JAC-Volkswagen in 2017, operates as a between JAC and , initially with equal 50-50 ownership that shifted to 75% control in December 2020 following an equity increase. Headquartered in , the venture specializes in the development, production, and marketing of pure-electric vehicles based on 's Modular Electric Drive Matrix (MEB) platform, supporting JAC's expansion into new energy vehicles through and shared R&D. The manufacturing plant, spanning 510,000 square meters with a 140,000-square-meter body shop equipped with 1,200 robots, began operations for MEB-based models, achieving start-of-production for its first vehicle by the end of 2023. Key outputs include electric SUVs such as the ID. UNYX and , with the facility geared toward both domestic sales and exports, including to European markets. In March 2024, the partners announced additional investments totaling 6.5 billion yuan to enhance the joint venture's capabilities in smart electric vehicle production. JAC's joint venture with NIO Inc., known as Jianghuai NIO (or Jianglai for operational management), was an equity partnership where NIO held a 49-50% stake, enabling contract manufacturing of NIO's electric vehicles at JAC facilities in Hefei since 2018. The arrangement supported NIO's production of models like the ES8, ES6, and ET7 on a per-vehicle basis until December 2023, when NIO obtained independent manufacturing qualifications and acquired select plant assets (F1 and F2 factories) from JAC for 3.16 billion yuan, effectively ending the joint venture through an amicable asset transfer. In parallel, JAC maintains an ongoing non-equity collaboration with Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd., focused on strategic technology partnerships rather than shared ownership, encompassing smart vehicle solutions, digital transformation, and intelligent manufacturing for luxury electric vehicles. This includes joint development of models like the Maextro S800 under Huawei's Harmony Intelligent Mobility Alliance, with deepened agreements signed in June 2025 to expand assisted driving, smart cockpits, and low-carbon initiatives without forming a new equity entity.

Manufacturing and production capacity

JAC Group's manufacturing operations are primarily based in Province, , with its and key production facilities located in . The plant serves as the main hub for passenger cars and s, featuring advanced assembly lines capable of producing over 500,000 units annually. This facility supports the production of models across JAC's mainstream passenger brands and integrates assembly to meet growing demand for new energy vehicles. Complementing Hefei, JAC operates additional production bases in China, including a dedicated facility in Chuzhou focused on commercial vehicles such as light trucks, vans, and heavy-duty trucks. The group maintains eight major production bases domestically, alongside 19 overseas knock-down assembly factories, enabling localized manufacturing in key export markets. These sites collectively contribute to JAC's robust output, with the company's overall annual production capacity reaching 1,000,000 units of completed vehicles. In recent years, JAC has pursued significant expansions to enhance its production capabilities, particularly in the segment. In , the company completed a new facility with an annual capacity of 200,000 units specifically for its Maextro high-end brand, developed in partnership with , allowing for increased output of premium electric sedans and SUVs. These developments, combined with ongoing investments in automation and efficiency, position JAC to exceed 1 million units in total group capacity by 2025. JAC emphasizes integration, achieving over 65% localization in core markets through in-house production of key components like engines and , which reduces costs and supports sustainable growth.

Sales and markets

Domestic performance

JAC Group's domestic sales in peaked in 2016, marking the highest volume in its history before a subsequent downturn influenced by market saturation and shifting consumer preferences. By 2023, the company reported a rebound with total sales reaching 592,499 units, an 18.4% increase year-over-year, driven by strengthened demand in both traditional and electrified segments. New energy vehicles accounted for 39.8% of this total, with 235,900 units sold, highlighting JAC's strategic pivot toward sustainable mobility amid 's aggressive push for . Within key market segments, JAC holds a dominant position in light trucks, ranking first among brands in terminal sales and solidifying its role as a leader in applications. This strength is complemented by growing traction in the sector through the Yiwei brand, a with focused on battery-electric and models, which contributed to a 93.6% surge in NEV sales in 2023. Entering 2025, JAC encountered headwinds from escalating price wars in China's hyper-competitive auto market, leading to a net loss of 772.8 million CNY for the first half of the year. These pressures stemmed from aggressive discounting and unmet sales targets in the NEV space, eroding margins across the industry, with H1 revenue declining 3.57% to approximately 23 billion CNY ($3.2 billion). For the nine months ended September 2025, revenue was 30.93 billion CNY. In response, JAC showcased recovery potential at the 2025 Shanghai International Auto Show by debuting innovative models such as the T9 plug-in hybrid pickup and DEFINE platform prototypes, aiming to revitalize domestic demand through enhanced product appeal and technological advancements.

International exports

JAC Group initiated its international exports in 1990 with its first shipment of 36 trucks to , marking the beginning of a steady global expansion that has since reached over 130 countries and regions across five continents. By 2023, the company had achieved a cumulative volume exceeding 1.4 million units, reflecting its growing footprint in overseas markets. That year, JAC exported 169,641 vehicles, accounting for approximately 29% of its total sales of 592,499 units and representing a 48% year-on-year increase driven by demand for commercial and electric models. The company's export strategy emphasizes region-specific adaptations, with key markets including , where pickup trucks like the T9 series dominate sales due to their rugged design suited for diverse terrains. In , JAC has established a strong presence through bus exports, supported by local assembly plants and service networks in countries such as and to meet public transportation needs. Europe represents an emerging focus for electric vehicles, bolstered by the , which enhances technology sharing for development; the N75EV electric truck received EU Whole Vehicle Type Approval (WVTA) in 2022, enabling sales and planned expansions in 2025 to capitalize on the shift toward zero-emission . Commercial vehicles, including light trucks and vans from JAC's lineup, form the backbone of these exports, comprising over 80% of overseas shipments in recent years. Looking to 2025, JAC is advancing its global reach with the Maextro S800 luxury electric sedan, a collaboration, entering the UAE market through dealerships in and offering competitive pricing starting at around 600,000. These initiatives underscore JAC's commitment to sustainable mobility in high-growth regions.

Financial overview

As of June 2025, JAC Group's stood at approximately $12.2 billion, with its shares trading at $5.59 on the under the ticker 600418. By November 2025, the market cap had risen to $15.03 billion, reflecting ongoing market fluctuations in the competitive automotive sector. In 2023, the company reported of 42.2 billion CNY, underscoring its scale in vehicle and . However, JAC faced significant financial pressures in 2025, particularly amid intensifying in the market. State-owned automakers like JAC forecasted record losses for the second quarter of 2025, with the company expecting a net loss of 457 million CNY—more than double its first-quarter loss and a stark contrast to prior profitability. This contributed to a half-year net loss of 772.8 million CNY for the first half of 2025, accompanied by a 3.57% decline to approximately 23 billion CNY ($3.2 billion). To support its transition toward electric vehicles, JAC received 3.158 billion CNY from the sale of manufacturing assets to in December , ending their contract manufacturing partnership and providing capital for development initiatives. These funds have been pivotal in addressing economic challenges, though persistent losses highlight the broader pressures on traditional automakers adapting to dominance.

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