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Jim Flaherty

James Michael Flaherty PC MSC (December 30, 1949 – April 10, 2014) was a Canadian and who served as the federal Minister of Finance from 2006 until his death. Born in , Flaherty was elected to the in 1995 as a Progressive Conservative, holding positions including Minister of Finance from 2001 to 2002 under Premiers and . In 2006, he entered federal politics as the Conservative for —Oshawa and was appointed finance minister by . As federal finance minister, Flaherty implemented tax reductions, including lowering the Goods and Services Tax from 7% to 5% in two steps, and managed during the 2008 global financial crisis through targeted stimulus measures such as purchasing up to $25 billion in insured mortgages to support liquidity. These actions contributed to Canada's relatively shallow recession compared to other nations, earning him recognition as Finance Minister of the Year by Euromoney magazine in 2009 for maintaining fiscal prudence amid international turmoil. Flaherty also oversaw the introduction of measures like the and adjustments to housing finance rules to mitigate risks, though he later expressed reservations about certain policies such as income splitting. His tenure, one of the longest in Canadian history, ended in March 2014 due to health concerns, and he died suddenly of a heart attack weeks later.

Early life and education

Family background and childhood

James Michael Flaherty was born on December 30, 1949, in , to Edwin Benedict Flaherty and Mary Harquail Flaherty. Both parents were natives of who had settled in the area, with the family maintaining strong Irish Catholic roots. As the sixth of eight children in a large household, Flaherty experienced a working-class upbringing in Montreal's west end, where his mother enforced strict discipline and prioritized education for all siblings. Flaherty attended Bishop Whelan High School and later Loyola High School in , developing an early passion for that shaped his youth. His siblings, including a younger sister named Norah, affectionately referred to him as "Jimmy" or "Jimbo" during childhood. The family's emphasis on self-reliance and academic achievement, instilled by his mother's firm rule over the household, influenced Flaherty's formative years amid the modest circumstances of post-war .

Academic pursuits and early influences

Flaherty attended in on an athletic scholarship for , where he pursued a degree in . He graduated cum laude in 1970, maintaining strong academic performance alongside his athletic commitments, which required part-time work to supplement expenses. During his time at Princeton, Flaherty participated in the Whig-Clio debating society, building skills in argumentation that later informed his political career, with interests in debate and hockey tracing back to his high school years at Loyola College in . Key early influences emerged from political encounters at Princeton. Flaherty heard U.S. Senator deliver a speech, an event that sparked his interest in . At age 18, he campaigned for Liberal leader during the 1968 federal election, reflecting initial enthusiasm for progressive politics, though he later expressed disillusionment with the party's fiscal policies, marking a shift toward conservative principles. Following Princeton, Flaherty enrolled at at in , earning a degree in 1973. To finance his studies, he worked part-time as a taxi driver and took summer jobs, forgoing further scholarships. He was called to the Bar in 1975, completing his legal training and transitioning toward professional practice. These academic experiences, combining sociological analysis with legal rigor, provided foundational tools for his subsequent policy-oriented roles, though Flaherty later reflected that practical lessons from —emphasizing teamwork, resilience, and strategy—rivaled formal education in shaping his approach.

Pre-political career

Legal training and practice

Flaherty earned a degree cum laude from in 1970 before pursuing legal studies at of , from which he graduated with a degree. To support his education, he worked part-time driving a taxi during evenings and summers. Following graduation, Flaherty was called to the bar with honours in 1975 and commenced a legal career focused on civil litigation. He specialized in defence, particularly litigating automobile claims, representing insurers and individuals in and related disputes. Over approximately two decades, he built a practice in the area, emphasizing defence work in matters. In the early , Flaherty became a founding partner of the firm Flaherty Dow Elliott, which handled defence cases. In 1994, he and Grant R. Dow departed from their prior defence firm to establish Flaherty McCarthy LLP (now Flaherty McCarthy), a practice dedicated to litigation across and into the , serving insurers in class proceedings, bodily injury defence, and coverage disputes. This firm positioned Flaherty as a prominent figure in the niche of defending against high-stakes and accident claims until his entry into provincial in 1995.

Community involvement and initial public roles

Prior to his election to the Ontario legislature in 1995, Flaherty established a legal practice in , where he resided and served local clients in civil litigation, with a focus on automobile cases. This work involved representing individuals in claims, contributing to community-level in the Region. Flaherty's earliest documented public engagement came during his youth, when he volunteered at age 18 for Pierre Trudeau's 1968 federal Liberal election , performing door-to-door in support of the candidate's successful bid for . This activity marked his initial involvement in electoral , though he later aligned with conservative principles, citing disillusionment with Trudeau's fiscal policies. In the years leading to his political entry, Flaherty co-established a in the early 1990s, expanding operations to amid growing local demand for legal services, which further embedded him in the area's professional and civic networks.

Provincial political career in Ontario (1995–2005)

Entry into legislature and cabinet appointments

Flaherty was first elected to the on June 8, 1995, as a Progressive Conservative candidate in the Durham Centre riding, securing 25,107 votes against incumbent New Democrat Drummond White's 8,120 and Liberal Allan Furlong's 9,808. This win contributed to the Progressive Conservatives' under Premier , formed after the party's campaign on fiscal restraint and reduced government spending. In a on October 10, 1997, Flaherty entered the Harris ministry as Minister of Labour, overseeing employment standards, workplace safety, and labour relations amid ongoing implementation of the government's cost-cutting agenda. He retained the portfolio until the June 3, 1999, provincial election, in which he was re-elected in the redistributed —Ajax riding with 22,423 votes. Post-1999, Flaherty advanced to additional cabinet roles, serving as from June 17, 1999, to February 8, 2001, managing policing, corrections, and public safety. He then became from February 8, 2001, to October 22, 2001, handling legal affairs, courts, and justice policy. On October 22, 2001, Harris appointed him Minister of Finance and , positions he held until resigning on March 18, 2002, to pursue the party leadership. Flaherty was re-elected in Whitby—Ajax in the , 2003, election under , continuing as a after his leadership bid.

Key ministerial responsibilities and policy implementations

Flaherty served as Ontario's Minister of Labour from October 10, 1997, to June 17, 1999, overseeing employment standards, labour relations, workplace health and safety, and pay equity policies. In this role, he advanced the Progressive Conservative government's agenda of reducing regulatory burdens on businesses, including amendments to labour legislation that promoted flexibility in hiring and firing practices while maintaining core worker protections, consistent with the 's emphasis on economic competitiveness. From June 17, 1999, to February 8, 2001, Flaherty held the positions of and , with responsibilities for the province's justice system, criminal prosecutions, policing, corrections, and native affairs. As , he managed correctional services and priorities, contributing to initiatives that prioritized public safety and tougher sentencing amid rising concerns over crime rates in urban areas. Appointed Minister of Finance and Deputy Premier on February 8, 2001, Flaherty directed , budgeting, taxation, and until April 2002. On May 9, 2001, he tabled the provincial budget, marking the third consecutive with a projected surplus of $496 million for the . Key implementations included accelerating personal income tax reductions to fulfill the 20% cut pledged in the 1999 election platform, lowering rates effective January 1, 2002, and providing $150 million in targeted relief for low-income families through enhanced credits. The budget also introduced a $500 per child tax credit for independent schools, aiming to support parental choice in without increasing overall spending. These measures prioritized elimination and tax relief over new expenditures, reflecting empirical evidence from prior budgets showing revenue growth from economic expansion rather than rate hikes.

Progressive Conservative leadership campaigns

Flaherty launched his first bid for the leadership of the Ontario Progressive Conservative Party in late 2001, seeking to succeed following Harris's announcement of his resignation earlier that year. Positioned as a staunch fiscal conservative aligned with the party's agenda, Flaherty emphasized continued tax cuts, spending restraint, and economic growth policies during his campaign. He faced competition primarily from , Harris's deputy premier and a perceived continuity candidate, as well as initial entrants like Chris Hodgson who later withdrew to endorse Eves. The 2002 leadership vote occurred on March 23, with Eves securing victory on the second ballot, while Flaherty placed second but was unable to overcome Eves's strong support from party establishment figures. Despite the loss, Flaherty's performance garnered attention for his articulate defense of hardline conservative principles, including criticism of perceived fiscal profligacy. Eves subsequently appointed Flaherty as Minister of Enterprise, Opportunity and Innovation in his cabinet. Following the PCs' defeat in the October 2003 provincial election under Eves, which ended their eight-year government, Flaherty mounted a second bid in 2004 after Eves's resignation in . Campaigning again on themes of fiscal discipline and party renewal, Flaherty competed against , Frank Klees, Jim Wilson, and in a held September 18, 2004, where votes were weighted by riding to reflect support. Tory emerged victorious with 5,390.86 points, pulling ahead of Flaherty as his closest rival on the final ballot after Klees was eliminated earlier. Flaherty's campaign highlighted his experience as a senior cabinet minister but struggled against Tory's appeal to moderate voters and business leaders seeking a less ideological tone post-defeat. The loss prompted Flaherty to shift focus to federal , resigning his provincial seat in November 2005.

Federal role as Minister of Finance (2006–2014)

Appointment and early fiscal decisions

Following the Conservative Party's victory in the federal election on January 23, 2006, which resulted in a , appointed Jim Flaherty as Minister of Finance on February 6, 2006. Flaherty, who had been elected as the for —Oshawa, brought prior experience as Ontario's Minister of Finance from 2001 to 2002 under Premier , where he had implemented tax reductions and spending restraint. His selection reflected Harper's emphasis on , positioning Flaherty to prioritize debt reduction and tax relief amid a projected surplus inherited from the previous administration. Flaherty presented his first federal budget on May 2, 2006, titled "Advantage Canada," which outlined a strategy for long-term through five pillars: tax relief, investing in physical , reducing regulatory barriers, strengthening federal support for communities, and fostering a skilled workforce. Key measures included an immediate reduction of the (GST) from 7% to 6%, with a commitment to further cut it to 5% in 2007, delivering approximately $13 billion in annual tax savings to once fully implemented. The budget also increased the basic tax exemption to $10,000 by 2007, eliminated the GST on new homes up to $350,000, and allocated $2 billion toward debt repayment, aiming to lower interest costs and free up future fiscal room. Additional early actions reinforced a pro-growth agenda, such as doubling the annual Registered Education Savings Plan (RESP) contribution limit from $1,000 to $2,000 effective for the 2006 tax year to encourage post-secondary savings. Flaherty's fiscal updates in late 2006 confirmed a surplus of $13.2 billion for the fiscal year, attributing it to prudent spending controls and economic expansion rather than one-time revenues, while directing further resources to core priorities like national defense and border security. These decisions marked a departure from prior Liberal spending patterns, emphasizing structural tax cuts over temporary rebates to stimulate private-sector investment.

Navigation of the 2008 global financial crisis

In the fall of 2008, as global credit markets seized following the collapse of on September 15, Flaherty acted to bolster Canada's financial system by announcing the Insured Mortgage Purchase Program through the (CMHC). This initiative involved the government purchasing up to $25 billion in insured residential mortgage-backed securities from financial institutions to restore liquidity and sustain mortgage lending without direct bank recapitalizations. On November 12, Flaherty expanded the program by an additional $50 billion, bringing the total commitment to $75 billion, which helped prevent a domestic and supported ongoing borrowing amid frozen interbank markets. Flaherty also engaged in international coordination, participating in and IMF meetings where he advocated for a unified global response, including fiscal stimulus and regulatory reforms to address systemic risks from excessive leverage in U.S. . Domestically, Canada's banking sector, fortified by prior conservative regulations under Flaherty's oversight—such as maintaining higher capital requirements and limiting non-prime mortgage exposure—avoided the failures seen in the U.S. and , with no major institutions requiring bailouts. On January 27, 2009, Flaherty tabled Budget 2009, titled Canada's Economic Action Plan, which delivered approximately $40 billion in stimulus over two years to counter contracting global demand and rising . Key elements included $12 billion for projects to create or maintain jobs, $7.5 billion in loans to the automotive sector (including support for and restructurings), and $20 billion in tax relief spread across 2008–09 and subsequent years, alongside accelerated corporate reductions from 22% to 15%. The plan projected a shift to deficits—$34 billion in 2009–10—but emphasized temporary measures with a commitment to fiscal repair, leveraging Canada's pre-crisis surplus position from earlier GST cuts and spending restraint. These actions contributed to Canada's relatively mild , with GDP contracting 2.9% peak-to-trough—the shallowest among nations—and recovery underway by July 2009, marked by net job gains. Post-crisis, Flaherty unwound much of the stimulus by 2012–14, achieving deficit elimination ahead of projections while avoiding the sovereign debt crises plaguing . Some analysts, however, attributed the swift rebound more to commodity exports and resilience than to fiscal interventions, arguing the stimulus had limited multiplier effects.

Tax reforms and innovative savings vehicles

As Minister of Finance, Flaherty implemented several tax reductions aimed at lowering the overall burden on individuals and businesses. In the 2006 federal budget, he reduced the Tax () from 7% to 6% effective July 1, 2006, fulfilling a key election promise. This was followed by a further cut to 5% effective January 1, 2008, which Flaherty described as providing direct relief to Canadian families and consumers. Additionally, Flaherty oversaw reductions in personal income taxes, including increases to the basic personal amount, and lowered the lowest marginal tax rate from 16% to 15%. On the corporate side, Flaherty pursued base-broadening reforms alongside rate cuts, reducing the federal general corporate tax rate from 22% in 2006 to 15% by 2012 through phased annual decreases starting in 2008. These changes eliminated numerous loopholes and accelerated deductions to enhance competitiveness, with the integrated federal-provincial rate dropping below that of the United States by 2010. Flaherty introduced innovative savings vehicles to promote personal financial security without taxing investment growth. The flagship initiative was the , announced in the February 2008 budget and available starting January 1, 2009, allowing aged 18 and older to contribute up to $5,000 annually (later increased) in eligible investments, with all withdrawals and income tax-free. Flaherty positioned the TFSA as the most significant personal savings tool since the , emphasizing its flexibility for any purpose unlike RRSPs' retirement focus. Complementing this, Flaherty launched the Registered Disability Savings Plan (RDSP) in 2008, a long-term savings option for individuals with disabilities eligible for the , featuring government grants and bonds matching contributions up to specified limits to build tax-deferred assets. These vehicles were designed to encourage saving amid rising longevity and fiscal pressures, with TFSAs accumulating over $200 billion in assets by 2014.

Budgets, deficit control, and infrastructure initiatives

As Minister of Finance, Flaherty tabled nine federal budgets between 2006 and 2014, emphasizing fiscal responsibility amid shifting economic conditions. Initial budgets maintained surpluses inherited from the prior government, with a $13.8 billion surplus recorded for 2006–07. However, the 2008 global financial crisis prompted a shift to financing through stimulus measures, with the federal peaking at $55.6 billion in 2009–10 to support economic recovery. Deficit control efforts intensified post-recession, focusing on expenditure restraint and efficiency gains rather than broad increases. Flaherty implemented strategic spending reviews, targeting $5.2 billion in annual savings by 2014–15 through program efficiencies and operational cuts across government departments. By fiscal 2013–14, the had narrowed to $18.9 billion, with projections for in 2014–15 and a $6.4 billion surplus in 2015–16, incorporating a $3 billion contingency reserve for risks. These measures contributed to Canada's relatively lower compared to peers, though cumulative from 2009 to 2014 increased net federal by approximately $162 billion, from $464 billion in 2008–09 to $626 billion projected for 2014–15. Infrastructure initiatives formed a core component of Flaherty's response to the downturn via Canada's Economic (EAP), launched in with $12 billion in new stimulus funding for roads, bridges, , and other projects to generate short-term jobs. The EAP's second phase in 2011 extended investments to sustain construction activity, while the introduced the largest long-term federal program in Canadian history, committing $53 billion over ten years—including $47 billion in fresh funding—for community, trade corridor, and enhancements. This included $1.25 billion for the P3 Canada Fund to leverage public-private partnerships for innovative project delivery. By 2013, over 26,000 EAP-related projects were underway or completed, credited with supporting economic stabilization without derailing long-term fiscal targets.

Major controversies and policy reversals

One of Flaherty's most prominent policy reversals occurred shortly after his appointment, when on October 31, 2006, he announced plans to impose a 31.5% tax on distributions from income trusts starting in 2011, effectively reversing the Conservative Party's 2006 election pledge to maintain their tax-advantaged status. The measure aimed to curb widespread corporate conversions to income trusts, which Flaherty argued were eroding the federal tax base by an estimated $500 million annually and discouraging genuine business investment. The announcement, timed after markets closed on Halloween, triggered immediate backlash, with trust unit prices plummeting by up to 15% and an estimated $20-30 billion in market value erased, particularly affecting retirees and income-dependent investors who viewed trusts as stable, tax-efficient alternatives to bonds amid low interest rates. Critics, including opposition parties and investor groups, accused Flaherty of betraying a core campaign promise and destabilizing savings vehicles without adequate consultation, though supporters contended the policy preserved fiscal integrity by preventing further tax avoidance. In early 2013, Flaherty faced an controversy after writing a letter in support of Radio Inc.'s application for a broadcasting license from the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), a company operating in his Whitby-Oshawa riding. The federal Ethics Commissioner ruled on January 17, 2013, that the action violated sections of the Conflict of Interest Act, as it improperly used his position to influence a regulatory decision outside his ministerial . Flaherty apologized publicly, stating the letter was intended as routine constituent support without intent to sway the outcome, but the incident drew criticism from opposition leaders for undermining in ministerial impartiality. Later that year, on , 2013, revelations emerged that Flaherty had submitted expense claims with items pre-redacted—such as bills for charges—contrary to standard ministerial practice of providing unedited receipts for review and access-to-information requests. This self-redaction, including blacked-out details on and accommodation costs, was criticized as an evasion of rules, prompting NDP accusations of rule-breaking and calls for from the Ethics Commissioner, though no formal sanction followed beyond public scrutiny. Flaherty defended the practice as protecting privacy for legitimate expenses, but it fueled broader debates on ministerial expense oversight amid heightened sensitivity to .

Resignation and transition out of office

On March 18, 2014, Jim Flaherty announced his resignation from the position of Minister of Finance, effective immediately, after informing the previous day. In his statement, Flaherty cited his intention to return to the following more than eight years in the role, emphasizing that the decision was difficult but appropriate for him and his family at the time; he explicitly denied that health issues were the cause. Harper accepted the resignation with "great reluctance," praising Flaherty's contributions to Canada's economic stability during the global and subsequent recovery. The transition occurred swiftly, with Harper appointing Joe Oliver, the incumbent Minister of Natural Resources and a former banker, as Flaherty's successor on , 2014. Oliver assumed the portfolio without a formal public handover ceremony, maintaining continuity in amid ongoing efforts to balance the federal budget. Flaherty retained his seat as for Whitby—Oshawa until his death less than a month later, but played no further role in departmental operations.

Honors, legacy, and assessments

Professional awards and recognitions

Flaherty was named Finance Minister of the Year by Euromoney magazine in 2009, recognizing his stewardship of Canada's economy during the global financial crisis; he was the first Canadian recipient of this annual award. In 2012, as Minister of Finance, he received the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal, one of approximately 60,000 awarded to for distinguished . Posthumously, Flaherty was awarded the (Civil Division) in the 2017 Honours for his leadership in co-founding the Abilities Centre in , with his wife , an organization providing inclusive programs and facilities for individuals with disabilities. The honour, presented to his sons John and Quinn, highlighted the centre's role in fostering community accessibility and support services since its establishment in 2006.

Posthumous tributes and building naming

Following Flaherty's death on April 10, 2014, a was held on April 16 at St. James Cathedral in , attended by over 1,100 people including , , and numerous political figures. Eulogies highlighted his fiscal stewardship during the 2008 crisis and personal integrity; Harper described him as a "friend" and "tough, principled" who prioritized Canada's economic stability. Flaherty's widow, , read the poem "Death Is Nothing at All" by , while his sons called him a "" for his dedication to family and . Tributes extended to Parliament, where MPs from all parties offered condolences in the House of Commons on April 11, praising Flaherty's role in avoiding deficits and maintaining economic resilience. Public viewings drew hundreds in Whitby, his longtime riding, reflecting constituent appreciation for his local representation as MPP and MP. International figures, including U.S. Treasury Secretary Jacob Lew, acknowledged his G20 contributions to global recovery efforts. In recognition of his tenure as Finance Minister, the federal government named the new Department of Finance headquarters at 90 Elgin Street in the James Michael Flaherty Building on , 2014, as announced by . Completed in October 2014, the 12-story structure features sustainable elements like a vertical garden and serves as a symbol of Flaherty's legacy in . Staff relocated there in early 2015, underscoring the building's practical role in housing the ministry he led for nearly eight years.

Evaluation of economic stewardship and long-term impacts

Flaherty's tenure as Minister of Finance is credited with effective during the 2008-2009 , where Canada's GDP contraction of 2.9% was milder than the average of 4.5%, followed by a robust rebound averaging 2.7% annual growth from 2010 to 2014. Unemployment peaked at 8.7% in before falling to 6.9% by 2014, outperforming U.S. and European trends due to timely fiscal stimulus via the Economic , which injected approximately $40 billion in infrastructure and job programs without derailing long-term solvency. This approach, combining government mortgage purchases to thaw credit markets with rate cuts, preserved banking stability rooted in pre-existing regulations, averting the systemic failures seen elsewhere. Fiscal prudence post-recession emphasized deficit reduction, with the federal rising from 43.3% in 2006 to a peak of 55.7% in 2012 before declining to 51.5% by 2014—the lowest in the —through spending restraint and revenue growth from economic recovery. reforms, including a two-point GST cut to 5% (costing $14 billion annually but boosting consumption), corporate rate reductions from 22% to 15%, and the 2009 TFSA introduction, enhanced incentives for investment and savings, contributing to per capita GDP growth of 1.4% annually excluding recession effects. These measures aligned with causal principles of supply-side incentives, fostering competitiveness amid global uncertainty, as evidenced by Canada's sustained -leading growth projections into 2014. Long-term impacts include a more resilient fiscal framework that buffered against eurozone-style debt spirals, with net debt payments consuming under 2% of GDP by versus higher burdens in peer nations. However, extended rules (e.g., 40-year amortizations until reversed in ) and low rates fueled household -to-GDP surpassing 90% by , amplifying price surges of over 50% in major cities and contributing to imbalances that pressured post-tenure. Critics, including analyses from left-leaning outlets, contend Flaherty underinvested in social transfers like health funding (cutting $36 billion over a decade), potentially exacerbating amid stagnant median incomes, though empirical data shows Gini coefficients stable around 0.32 and rates declining slightly. Program spending rose 11.6% inflation-adjusted, partly offsetting tax relief gains, yet overall, policies prioritized control over expansionary risks, yielding a legacy of relative amid commodity volatility.

Personal life

Marriage, family, and personal interests

Flaherty married , a and who later served as a member of the Legislative Assembly, in 1986. The couple had triplet sons—John, , and —born in 1991. Flaherty and Elliott practiced law together at the firm Flaherty, Dow, Elliott & McCarthy LLP before his entry into provincial politics. In his brief retirement following resignation as finance minister on March 18, 2014, Flaherty prioritized time with his family, including dinners with his wife and sons, underscoring his commitment to them amid health struggles. Flaherty maintained lifelong interests in sports, having been a competitive player during his youth at Loyola High School in , where he starred as a forward on an undefeated in 1965. In his later years, he expressed enthusiasm for , planning a summer trip to for the sport shortly before his death.

Health challenges and death

Flaherty developed , a rare autoimmune disorder causing tense, fluid-filled blisters and severe itching, around late 2011. He publicly disclosed the condition on January 31, 2013, after speculation about his altered appearance during parliamentary sessions, explaining that it required ongoing treatment with , a high-dose to suppress the . The medication induced side effects including facial puffiness, weight gain exceeding 20 pounds, and increased vulnerability to infections, which Flaherty described as temporary but disruptive to his daily routine. Despite these challenges, he maintained that the condition did not impair his professional duties, emphasizing its non-life-threatening nature while noting the treatment's physical toll. On March 18, 2014, Flaherty resigned as Minister of Finance after eight years in the role, explicitly stating that health was not a factor in the decision and framing it as a planned transition to opportunities. Observers noted his visible and reliance on support during recent public appearances, amid prolonged use known to elevate risks of metabolic disturbances and cardiovascular strain. Three weeks later, on April 10, 2014, Flaherty died at age 64 from a massive heart attack at his Ottawa residence, where he collapsed in the presence of former colleague Kellie Leitch, who attempted CPR. A state funeral took place on April 16, 2014, attended by Prime Minister Stephen Harper and other dignitaries, honoring his contributions to Canadian fiscal policy. Autopsy details were not publicly released, though medical commentary attributed the event to potential cumulative effects of chronic illness and pharmacotherapy rather than acute unrelated factors.

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