Khanith

Khanith (Arabic: خنيث, romanized: khaneeth or xanith) constitutes a traditional third-gender category in Omani society, occupied by biological males who adopt feminine attire, mannerisms, domestic occupations, and passive roles in same-sex sexual relations.^[1] Documented primarily through ethnographic fieldwork in the northern Omani town of Sohar during the 1970s, khanith individuals perform tasks such as sewing, cooking, and childcare—roles reserved for women—and gain conditional access to female-only social spaces like wedding celebrations, though they are barred from veiling or certain purification rituals.^[1] Their status permits tolerance for behaviors that would stigmatize full males, such as effeminacy and receptive homosexuality, yet khanith retain male names, legal inheritance rights, and the capacity to transition to unambiguous male identity via marriage to a woman and fatherhood, after which they discard feminine markers.^[1] This role emerges from cultural accommodations in a patrilineal, Islamic context where strict gender segregation prevails, enabling khanith to serve as entertainers, musicians, or intermediaries without disrupting core male dominance or female seclusion.^[1] Unlike surgically altered or self-identified transsexuals in contemporary Western frameworks, khanith do not pursue genital modification and embody a socially imposed liminality rather than personal gender dysphoria, with their persistence linked to observed patterns of innate behavioral divergence from boyhood.^[1] Anthropological accounts emphasize that relations with khanith do not compromise the masculinity of active male partners, preserving heteronormative ideals while pragmatically channeling variant expressions into defined outlets.^[1] Reports of declining visibility in modern Oman suggest erosion due to urbanization, stricter religious enforcement, and exposure to global norms, though the category endures in rural pockets.^[2]

Definition and Origins

Core Definition

The khanith (also spelled xanith) constitutes a culturally recognized third gender category in traditional Omani society, comprising biological males who display persistent effeminate traits and assume intermediate social functions between men and women. These individuals are born male, possess intact male genitalia, experience typical male puberty including voice deepening and circumcision, and retain the anatomical capacity for penile-vaginal intercourse and fathering children.^[3] Their assignment to this role derives from observable behaviors such as feminine speech inflections, swaying gait, and participation in female-segregated activities like entering women's quarters or performing domestic tasks typically reserved for women, without any medical or surgical modification to align with female physiology.^[3]^[4] This delineation prioritizes empirical markers over self-identified feelings, as khanith status emerges in childhood through consistent feminine mannerisms and persists into adulthood absent external interventions, distinguishing it from transient effeminacy. Omani cultural norms classify khanith as neither fully male nor female, permitting them limited access to female social domains while barring them from male-only spaces like mosques during prayer, yet affirming their biological maleness in reproductive contexts.^[3] Unlike Western transgender frameworks, which often entail hormone therapy, surgery, or rejection of natal sex for gender congruence, khanith integrate their male biology with feminine social expression without seeking physical alteration, and some transition to full male roles later in life, marrying women and siring offspring.^[3]^[4] Khanith differs from homosexuality in Oman, where male same-sex attraction alone does not confer third-gender status; rather, it requires the adoption of a formalized feminine persona in public and social interactions, often including receptive roles in anal intercourse with men while maintaining potential for heterosexual procreation. Anthropological observations from the 1970s in northern Oman, such as Sohar, document approximately 12-15 khanith among a population of several thousand, underscoring the role's rarity and cultural specificity rather than a universal orientation or identity.^[3] This framework reflects causal social assignment based on behavioral congruence with gender norms, not innate psychological dysphoria.^[3]

Historical Documentation

The khanith social category in Oman remained undocumented in scholarly literature until the mid-1970s, when Norwegian anthropologist Unni Wikan encountered individuals during ethnographic fieldwork in the coastal town of Sohar.^[2] Wikan's immersion, beginning in the summer of 1974, revealed khanith men performing domestic tasks in women's quarters, such as serving food and attending to segregated female spaces, which facilitated her observations of their intermediate gender role.^[5] Prior to this, awareness of khanith existed through local oral traditions and community practices in Oman, but no verifiable written records or anthropological accounts from before the 1970s have been identified, distinguishing the phenomenon from broader historical references to effeminate figures like mukhannathun in Islamic hadith traditions.^[4] Wikan's initial analysis appeared in her 1977 article "Man Becomes Woman: Transsexualism in Oman as a Fact and as a Theory," which described khanith as a recognized third gender based on behavioral and occupational patterns observed in everyday Omani life, rather than medical or psychological diagnostics.^[6] This publication marked the entry point for Western scholarship, grounding the khanith in empirical fieldwork rather than speculative historical continuity. Her subsequent 1982 book, Behind the Veil in Arabia: Women in Oman, expanded on these findings through case studies, emphasizing khanith integration into household service roles while noting the absence of earlier systematic documentation.^[7] No evidence supports widespread attestation of khanith-like roles in pre-modern Omani texts or artifacts, underscoring the category's localization to contemporary Gulf Arab cultural contexts as captured by Wikan's research.^[2]

Cultural Characteristics

Dress and Appearance

Khanith employ a hybrid style of dress and grooming that blends masculine and feminine elements, deliberately signaling their intermediate gender role without mimicking full female attire or undergoing biological changes. This presentation, observed by anthropologist Unni Wikan during fieldwork in Sohar, Oman, in the 1970s, includes the dishdasha—a loose, ankle-length male robe—tailored in pastel or colored fabrics atypical for men, who wear plain white versions, and often embroidered in patterns resembling those on women's dresses.^[8]^[4] Grooming practices further accentuate femininity: khanith grow their hair long and adorn it with flowers, pluck eyebrows, apply kohl eyeliner, apply henna to hands and feet, and use perfume liberally—adornments permitted for women but forbidden for men.^[8] They are barred from female-specific items like the batula face mask or head coverings, preserving a non-female legal and social distinction while adopting stylistic cues judged by feminine beauty standards.^[8]^[4] Such attire functions practically in Omani society, where strict gender segregation prevails; by appearing neither fully male nor female, khanith gain entry to women's quarters, markets, and homes for domestic or performative roles, as they are categorized as "not-men" in ritual and spatial contexts. Wikan noted this in everyday settings, where khanith's appearance elicited acceptance among women but exclusion from male-only domains like mosques during prayer.^[8]^[4] This codified intermediate aesthetic, refined through social norms, underscores khanith as a culturally recognized third category rather than mere cross-dressing.^[8]

Behavioral Traits

Khanith adopt learned feminine mannerisms that differentiate them from conventional male behaviors, including a swaying gait, high-pitched or falsetto voice, expressive laughter, and facial gestures mimicking those of Omani women. These traits, documented through ethnographic observation in Sohar, Oman, during the 1970s, emphasize gracefulness and emotional expressivity while eschewing the directness and restraint typical of male speech and movement.^[9]^[4] In male social contexts, khanith signal deference by avoiding assertive postures, competitive banter, or displays of dominance, behaviors that align with the cultural perception of their sexual impotence and thereby reduce potential rivalry over women. This non-threatening demeanor allows them to navigate male groups without eliciting hostility, as their role is viewed as outside normative male competition.^[9] Conversely, khanith integrate into female social spheres by adopting deferential yet participatory roles, such as joining women in secluded gatherings, sharing meals, and assisting with domestic tasks—privileges denied to other men. These adaptations, performed consistently to maintain their status, underscore the performative nature of the khanith role rather than innate predispositions.^[4]

Occupational Functions

Khanith occupy specific economic roles in Omani society that exploit their intermediate gender status amid strict sex segregation, particularly in tasks requiring unsupervised access to female spaces. They commonly serve as domestic servants in households, handling cleaning, cooking, and personal assistance for women, a position enabled by cultural views of them as non-threatening compared to adult males.^[9] ^[10] This utility stems from khanith being permitted to enter women's quarters freely, unlike men, while performing labor typically barred to unrelated females outside the home.^[8] Khanith also function as entertainers at women's wedding festivities, where they perform singing and dancing in segregated female gatherings, providing amusement without violating norms of male exclusion.^[8] Anthropologist Unni Wikan, drawing from 1970s fieldwork in Sohar, Oman, documented these roles as integral to khanith economic niches, emphasizing how their perceived effeminacy fosters trustworthiness in service provision to women.^[1] Such occupations highlight khanith contributions to household and social functions in a context where rigid gender boundaries limit cross-sex interactions.^[11] Khanith occupy an intermediate social position in traditional Omani society, affording them specific liberties such as unrestricted access to women's quarters and the ability to engage in female-exclusive social and domestic spaces, privileges denied to ordinary males under norms of gender segregation.^[12] This recognition as a distinct category exempts them from certain male-specific obligations, including strict prohibitions on unsupervised interactions with unrelated women and associated guardianship duties, thereby facilitating their integration into female spheres without incurring penalties for boundary violations.^[13] Despite these accommodations, khanith lack the full legal entitlements of male status, notably in inheritance, where Sharia principles grant males larger shares than females; khanith are neither accorded male portions nor fully reclassified to female allotments, resulting in diminished economic protections.^[4] Their position remains precarious, as reversion attempts to male roles—often tested through marital potency—frequently fail, exposing them to heightened social stigma and vulnerability to ostracism or physical harm if they deviate from expected effeminate behaviors.^[2] This institutionalized role offers conditional stability for anatomically male individuals displaying persistent effeminacy, channeling nonconformity into a tolerated niche tied to perceived innate differences rather than outright rejection, though acceptance hinges on consistent adherence and societal non-interference rather than affirmative protections.^[3] Outside this framework, such traits invite broader stigmatization without the buffer of categorical legitimacy.^[2]

Sexuality and Reproduction

Sexual Behaviors

Khanith primarily engage in receptive anal intercourse with men, fulfilling the passive role in sexual encounters that parallels the expected position of women in heterosexual relations.^[12] This role adherence is culturally enforced, with khanith prohibited from initiating penetration or adopting an active stance, as doing so would violate their intermediate gender status and invite severe social rebuke.^[1] Such behaviors occur discreetly and are integrated into Omani social norms without conferring the stigma of homosexuality on either participant, provided the khanith maintains passivity; in this context, homosexual labeling targets active partners rather than the act itself.^[9] Ethnographic observations by Unni Wikan, based on direct interviews in coastal Oman during the 1970s, indicate that men often select khanith as preferred partners for their adeptness in feminine seduction techniques and emotional expressiveness, which enhance relational dynamics beyond mere physicality.^[1] These patterns underscore a role-based understanding of sexuality, where observable conduct determines acceptability over intrinsic orientation.^[2]

Marriage and Procreation

Xanith in Oman occasionally enter into marriage with women, though such unions are rare and mark a pivotal transition in their social status. Upon demonstrating fertility by fathering children, a xanith may abandon feminine dress, mannerisms, and roles, thereby reverting to full male identity and privileges, including rights to inheritance and participation in male-only domains previously barred to them.^[9]^[10] This reversion underscores the provisional nature of the xanith category, anchored in biological maleness and reproductive capacity rather than irreversible gender transformation.^[14] The infrequency of these marriages reflects the entrenched feminine orientation of most xanith, who typically forgo procreation and remain in the third-gender role throughout life, without stigma for failing to reproduce.^[9] Ethnographic accounts from the 1970s in coastal Oman document cases where former xanith, post-procreation, integrated seamlessly as men, their prior status neither disqualifying them from male kinship obligations nor perpetuating social exclusion.^[2] This flexibility highlights how Omani gender constructs prioritize demonstrated virility and patrilineal continuity over fixed behavioral traits, allowing biological males to navigate roles contingent on life-stage achievements like fatherhood.^[15]

Religious Compatibility

Islamic Historical Context

In early 7th-century Medina, mukhannathun—effeminate men who adopted feminine mannerisms, dress, and speech—formed a recognized social category within the nascent Muslim community. These individuals often served as domestic attendants in women's quarters, trusted due to the prevailing belief that their inherent disposition rendered them devoid of sexual interest in women, thereby minimizing risks of impropriety. Historical accounts from prophetic traditions indicate that such roles were partially accommodated, as exemplified by Hit, a mukhannath employed in the household of the Prophet Muhammad's wife Umm Salama; he performed tasks like entertaining women with poetry and music until demonstrating erotic awareness by vividly describing a woman's physical attributes, prompting his expulsion with the directive that mukhannathun capable of lust should not enter women's presence.^[16] Prophetic hadith collections further delineate distinctions among mukhannathun, categorizing them into those innately effeminate without lustful inclinations toward women—who were not to be cursed or expelled—and those who actively imitated the opposite sex or harbored desire, warranting removal from households to prevent moral corruption. For instance, Aisha reported the Prophet stating, "I do not know that he is a mukhannath," upon encountering one, implying tolerance for non-predatory types, while other narrations curse effeminate men and masculinized women, ordering their ejection if they transgress gender norms in ways that incite vice. This framework parallels later khanith customs, where access to segregated female spaces is permitted under strictures against sexual engagement, reflecting a pragmatic accommodation rooted in assessed behavioral restraint rather than outright endorsement. In the context of Oman, where khanith roles persist, the dominant Ibadi school of Islam—tracing to early Kharijite schisms but emphasizing communal righteousness over rigid sectarianism—exhibits comparative leniency toward gender-variant expressions when they align with non-lascivious social functions, contrasting with mainstream Sunni jurisprudence that more uniformly condemns effeminacy as imitation of the opposite sex deserving rebuke or punishment. Ibadi doctrine prioritizes verifiable piety and utility within the ummah, allowing cultural survivals like mukhannathun precedents to inform local tolerances, whereas Sunni hadith interpretations, such as those in Bukhari and Abu Dawud, often prioritize expulsion to safeguard modesty without equivalent nuance for "non-lustful" variants. This historical divergence underscores partial Islamic precedents for khanith-like accommodation, contingent on abstinence from immorality.^[2]^[17]

Contemporary Religious Tensions

In contemporary Omani and UAE Arabophone communities, the khanith identity encounters substantial social stigma, rendering public discussions taboo and typically initiated with explicit Islamic denunciations of gender nonconformity and associated behaviors.^[2] This marginalization stems from the perceived transgression of heteronormative and cisnormative boundaries, positioning khanith as outliers in societies emphasizing rigid binary roles under Islamic jurisprudence.^[2] Khanith individuals respond with heightened discretion, confining expressions of identity to private online spaces—such as anonymous chatrooms with 30–40 Gulf Arab participants—where feminine pronouns and behaviors emerge freely, thereby evading potential religious accusations of immorality or deviation from faith.^[2] Conservative critiques, drawing on fiqh principles of immutable biological sex and prohibitions against behaviors enabling sodomy, frame effeminacy as a catalyst for fitna, or societal temptation toward sin, though such scrutiny remains sporadic outside traditional tolerance in Ibadi-dominated Oman.^[2] In areas influenced by stricter Salafi interpretations, including migrant communities, this has led to isolated instances of heightened monitoring, prioritizing Sharia conformity over cultural accommodations.^[2]

Modern Evolution

Westernization and Decline

The role of khaniths in Omani society has undergone notable shifts amid broader modernization processes initiated by oil discoveries and revenues, which began accelerating after 1967 and intensified under Sultan Qaboos's reforms from 1970 onward, transforming Oman from a subsistence economy to one with diversified employment opportunities and urban migration patterns. These changes diminished the socioeconomic niches traditionally occupied by khaniths, such as domestic service, sewing, and musical performance at social events, as expatriate labor—comprising over 40% of the population by the 2000s—filled low-wage service roles, reducing demand for local individuals in intermediate gender positions. Anthropological observations indicate that social life and education have evolved since the 1970s fieldwork of Unni Wikan, with expanded schooling and bilingual exposure facilitating shifts in gender role embodiment and greater stigma attached to khanith identities in contemporary Oman.^[2] The term "khanith" now often carries pejorative connotations amid heightened cisnormative pressures, contributing to reduced public visibility, as individuals increasingly conceal feminine mannerisms or attire to align with stricter, uniform male dress codes like the dishdasha enforced in public and professional settings.^[2] By the 2000s, reports from Gulf region studies noted khaniths adapting by downplaying visible traits in response to conservative social enforcement, further eroding the role's distinct social integration as economic alternatives—such as salaried jobs in the growing non-oil sectors—provided viable paths for males without reliance on gender-variant occupations.^[2] This functional redundancy, coupled with urbanization drawing populations to cities like Muscat where traditional communal roles waned, has led to fewer observable khaniths in everyday Omani life compared to pre-oil eras.

Anthropological Analyses

Unni Wikan's pioneering ethnographic research in Sohar, Oman, during the 1970s framed the khanith as a culturally constructed intermediary role for biological males exhibiting effeminate traits, enabling their integration into female-dominated domestic spheres while preserving male reproductive potential.^[2] Wikan posited that this accommodation challenges Western assumptions of rigid gender essentialism, suggesting Omani tolerance stems from recognizing behavioral variance as malleable through social categorization rather than innate psychological disorder.^[4] Her analysis emphasized how khanith perform passive roles in same-sex encounters and adopt intermediate attire, yet revert to masculine conduct in contexts like prayer or aging, underscoring the role's situational adaptability over fixed identity.^[12] Scholarly debates contrast the "third gender" interpretation—positing khanith as a distinct ontological category bridging male-female binaries—with views of it as sanctioned deviance, wherein effeminacy and homosexuality are compartmentalized to minimize disruption to patrilineal Islamic norms.^[18] Empirical observations reveal no documented cases of khanith pursuing genital modification or expressing persistent incongruence between biological sex and self-perception, distinguishing the phenomenon from Western gender dysphoria diagnoses rooted in psychological distress over anatomy.^[4] Instead, causal factors appear tied to observable traits like mannerisms emerging post-puberty, with the role serving as a low-status outlet for nonconformity amid prohibitions on overt homosexuality, rather than evidence of decoupled gender from sex.^[5] Critiques of Wikan's framework highlight its tendency to romanticize tolerance, portraying a marginal, often ridiculed status as egalitarian accommodation while downplaying empirical constraints like exclusion from full marital rights with women and vulnerability to exploitation in asymmetrical sexual dynamics.^[18] Anthropological relativism in such accounts has been faulted for sidelining biological dimorphism—wherein khanith retain male physiology and fertility potential, incompatible with female reproductive roles—and Islamic textual bans on effeminacy (mukhanath) and sodomy, which render the practice precarious rather than institutionalized acceptance.^[2] These analyses risk overreach by prioritizing cultural narratives over verifiable limits on human sexual dimorphism and causal pathways of mate attraction, where effeminate males function as receptive partners without altering underlying dimorphic realities.^[6]

Etymology and Terminology

The term khanīth (خنيث), variously transliterated as xanith or khaneeth, derives from the Arabic triliteral root khāʾ-nūn-thāʾ (خ-ن-ث), which conveys notions of mixing forms, softness, bending, and ambiguity in physical or behavioral traits.^[2] This root links khanīth to classical Arabic concepts of effeminacy and impotence, as seen in the verb khanatha (خنث), meaning "to fold back the mouth of a bellows," a metaphor for closing or non-erectile impotence originating from 9th-century lexicographer Abū ʿUbayd al-Qāsim ibn Sallām.^[19] Etymologically connected to khuntha (خنثة), denoting a hermaphrodite or person with ambiguous genitalia, and mukhannath (مخنث), referring to an effeminate male often associated with passive or non-penetrative roles, khanīth emerged as a colloquial Gulf Arabic variant post-Islam, specific to Omani coastal societies while retaining the root's implications of languor and gender liminality without modern ideological overlays.^[2] In broader Arabian Peninsula usage, it contrasts with classical mukhannath by emphasizing regional vernacular application to individuals exhibiting feminine mannerisms amid male anatomy.^[2]