LCC
The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a subject-based system for organizing and shelving library materials, developed by the United States Library of Congress to catalog its growing collections of books, serials, and other resources.[1] First outlined in 1904 under the supervision of classifiers Charles Martel and James Hanson, it emerged from a 1897 congressional mandate to create a new classification scheme tailored to the Library's needs, replacing earlier ad hoc methods amid rapid expansion after the 1876 copyright deposit law.[2][1] LCC divides knowledge into 21 main classes, each denoted by a single letter from A to Z (omitting I, O, W, X, and Y to avoid confusion with numerals or other letters), covering broad disciplines such as general works (A), philosophy and psychology (B), history (D), and technology (T).[3] Subdivisions within classes use decimal numbers for specificity, followed by optional Cutter numbers for authors, titles, or further granularity, enabling precise arrangement by topic rather than pure form or chronology.[1] Unlike the decimal-based Dewey Decimal Classification, LCC employs an enumerative approach that explicitly lists subjects in schedules, with built-in provisions for literary warrant—expanding classes based on actual holdings—resulting in over 500,000 valid class numbers maintained by the Library's Policy and Standards Division.[1] Widely adopted beyond the Library of Congress by research libraries, academic institutions, and government agencies for its adaptability to specialized collections, LCC supports efficient retrieval in large-scale environments, with free PDF schedules and web-based tools available for public use since the early 2000s.[4] Its ongoing evolution, including annual updates to reflect new knowledge domains, underscores its role as a practical tool for causal organization of information, prioritizing empirical utility over rigid universality.[1][5]Aviation and Transport
Low-cost carrier
A low-cost carrier (LCC), also known as a budget or no-frills airline, operates by offering significantly lower ticket prices than full-service carriers through aggressive cost minimization and limited onboard amenities.[6] These airlines typically eliminate extras such as complimentary meals, assigned seating, and interline baggage agreements, instead relying on direct sales channels, high aircraft utilization, and ancillary fees for revenue.[7] Key operational strategies include using a single aircraft type for maintenance efficiency, rapid turnaround times of 25-30 minutes, and point-to-point routes focused on high-density short-haul markets rather than hub-and-spoke networks.[8] The LCC model originated in the United States, with Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) pioneering elements like low fares and informal service in the 1940s, but Southwest Airlines formalized the approach starting commercial operations on June 18, 1971, between Dallas and San Antonio.[9] Southwest's success, achieving profitability from its early years by avoiding established airports and emphasizing volume over yield, inspired global adoption; in Europe, Ryanair launched in 1985 and transformed into a pure LCC post-1990 deregulation, while EasyJet began in 1995.[10] In Asia, AirAsia entered the market in 2001, capitalizing on regional liberalization.[11] LCCs generate revenue primarily from low base fares that stimulate demand, supplemented by ancillaries like baggage fees, seat selection, and onboard sales, which can exceed ticket revenue per passenger in some cases.[12] This model has driven aviation growth by making air travel accessible to price-sensitive leisure travelers, with Europe's LCC passenger volume rising from 8 million in 1998 to over 100 million by 2007.[13] Globally, the LCC sector's market is projected to reach $440.46 billion by 2030, though challenges persist, including rising fuel costs, capacity constraints, and shifting consumer expectations for services amid competition from ultra-low-cost variants.[14] Examples include Southwest (serving over 100 destinations in the U.S.), Ryanair (Europe's largest LCC by passengers, carrying 183.7 million in fiscal 2024), and IndiGo (India's dominant LCC with a 60% market share).[15] While LCCs have lowered industry-wide fares and increased load factors, their point-to-point focus has sometimes strained secondary airports and prompted regulatory scrutiny over predatory pricing claims.[16]Government and Politics
London County Council
The London County Council (LCC) served as the primary local authority for the County of London, an administrative area comprising inner London, from its creation in 1889 until its abolition in 1965.[17] Established under the Local Government Act 1888, the LCC succeeded the unelected Metropolitan Board of Works, assuming responsibilities for key infrastructural and public services across an area of approximately 117 square kilometers (45 square miles), excluding the separate governance of the City of London.[18] The council consisted of 138 elected members, including councillors and aldermen, and operated from offices at Spring Gardens and the Victoria Embankment, with a focus on direct administration rather than policy delegation to boroughs.[18] The LCC's powers encompassed drainage and sewerage management, public works such as embankments and road improvements (including the Thames Embankment and Kingsway), oversight of electric tramways and traffic, maintenance of parks and open spaces, operation of the London Fire Brigade, building regulations, prevention of food adulteration, and housing provision.[18][17] From 1904, it gained control over elementary and higher education following the Education Act 1902 (effective 1903 in practice), managing schools and publishing annual service particulars until 1965.[18][17] Additional responsibilities included public health, welfare and children's services, town planning, and cultural heritage preservation, funded partly through a county rate of about 2s. 11d. per pound outside the City (including 1s. 6d. for education).[17][18] Water supply remained with the separate Metropolitan Water Board, and docks were addressed via the Port of London Authority established in 1908.[18] Politically, the LCC elections from 1889 polarized along party lines, with initial control by the Progressive Party (aligned with Liberals) holding a majority until 1907, followed by Municipal Reformers (Conservatives) dominating until 1934.[19] Labour then secured control in 1934 under leaders like Herbert Morrison, retaining it through 1965 amid expanding social services.[19][20] Under both Progressive and Labour administrations, the LCC advanced slum clearance and public housing estates, constructing thousands of units to address overcrowding in a population that reached 4.48 million in 1921 before declining to 4.08 million by 1931 due to suburban migration.[20][21] Conservative-led councils continued housing and infrastructure projects, such as facilities and transport extensions, countering narratives of exclusive partisan innovation.[22] The LCC's dissolution stemmed from the London Government Act 1963, which reorganized governance effective 1 April 1965, transferring strategic functions to the new Greater London Council and devolving others to 32 London boroughs plus the City. This reform addressed the LCC's limitations in managing outward urban growth beyond inner London, with its 76-year tenure marked by empirical advancements in public infrastructure despite fiscal constraints and inter-authority overlaps.[17]Other political and governmental bodies
The Legislative Coordinating Commission (LCC) in Minnesota serves as a non-partisan umbrella organization coordinating joint legislative activities between the state Senate and House of Representatives, including oversight of commissions, agencies, and boards such as the Legislative-Citizen Commission on Minnesota Resources and the Iron Range Resources and Rehabilitation Board.[23] Established under Minnesota Statutes Section 3.303, the LCC manages administrative support, policy coordination, and resource allocation for these entities, with membership comprising legislative leaders from both chambers.[24] It handles budgeting, staffing, and compliance for approximately 20 joint entities as of 2023, ensuring bipartisan operation without direct policymaking authority.[23] In Kansas, the Legislative Coordinating Council (LCC) functions as a joint committee of the state legislature, comprising eight members (four from the Senate and four from the House) appointed by leadership to oversee interim legislative activities, including study committees and fiscal policy reviews.[25] Formed to facilitate coordination during legislative sessions and recesses, it addresses issues like state library services, revisor operations, and research director duties, with policies updated annually as seen in the 2019 general policies document.[25] The council's role emphasizes administrative efficiency and cross-chamber collaboration, convening meetings such as those planned for late 2025 on topics including regional economic development.[26] The League of California Cities (LCC), founded in 1898, represents over 480 California municipalities as a nonprofit advocacy organization influencing state and federal policy on local government matters, including taxation, land use, and public safety.[27] It lobbies the California Legislature and Congress, provides legal resources, and hosts annual conferences, with a focus on protecting municipal autonomy amid state-level interventions; membership dues funded operations totaling $12.5 million in expenditures as of its latest audited fiscal year. While not a direct governing body, it shapes policy through coalitions and amicus briefs in cases affecting city revenues and regulations.Education
Community colleges and universities
Lansing Community College, located in Lansing, Michigan, was established in 1957 as a public two-year institution serving Ingham, Eaton, and Clinton counties.[28] It enrolls approximately 9,500 students in credit programs annually, offering associate degrees, certificates, and transfer pathways in fields such as nursing, computer information technology, and liberal arts.[29] The college operates multiple campuses and emphasizes workforce development alongside general education. Lane Community College, situated in Eugene, Oregon, traces its origins to a 1964 voter-approved measure and opened its main campus in 1968.[30] With a total enrollment of about 7,700 students, it provides associate degrees for university transfer, applied bachelor's degrees, and career-technical programs in areas like aviation, culinary arts, and health professions.[31] The institution also supports community education through non-credit courses and partnerships with local industries.[32] Lower Columbia College, founded in 1934 as Lower Columbia Junior College in Longview, Washington, transitioned to a community college in 1961 and joined the state system in 1967.[33] It serves Cowlitz and Wahkiakum counties with associate degrees, applied bachelor's programs in fields like cybersecurity and dental hygiene, and vocational training, maintaining a focus on accessible higher education during its early years amid the Great Depression.[34] Other U.S. community colleges using the LCC designation include Lenoir Community College in Kinston, North Carolina, chartered in 1958 and accredited to award associate degrees across multiple campuses.[35] Labette Community College in Parsons, Kansas, operates as an open-enrollment institution emphasizing associate degrees and technical certificates.[36] LCC International University, a private liberal arts institution in Klaipėda, Lithuania, was founded in 1991 with roots in Lithuania Christian College and maintains a Christian worldview in its curriculum.[37] It offers accredited bachelor's and master's degrees in social sciences and humanities, such as international business and English language and literature, drawing students from over 60 countries through a North American-style, multidisciplinary approach.[37] London College of Communication, a specialist college within the University of the Arts London, concentrates on creative communications education across design, media, and screen disciplines.[38] It delivers undergraduate and postgraduate courses preparing students for careers in advertising, journalism, and visual communication, with facilities supporting industry-relevant skills development.[38]Other educational organizations
The Learner-Centered Collaborative (LCC) is a nonprofit organization established in 2017 and headquartered in Vista, California, that supports the implementation of learner-centered education models across K-12 and higher education settings.[39] It partners with educators, schools, districts, and state agencies to develop whole-learner outcomes—emphasizing competencies in identity, community thriving, and world engagement—and provides tools, training, and ecosystem frameworks to shift from traditional instruction to personalized, competency-based approaches.[40] As of 2023, LCC has collaborated on initiatives including a research partnership with the University of California, San Diego, to evaluate the impact of learner-centered practices on student agency and equity, drawing from data across multiple U.S. districts.[41] LCC also maintains an online platform hosting professional development courses, leadership cohorts, and diagnostic tools for assessing learner-centered readiness, with participation from over 100 educational entities nationwide by 2024. The organization's work prioritizes evidence-based strategies, such as integrating social-emotional learning with academic rigor, supported by partnerships with entities like the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, though outcomes remain subject to ongoing empirical validation in diverse contexts. Other entities using the LCC acronym in education include LCC Computer Education, an institute in India offering vocational courses in computing, accounting, and multimedia since the early 2000s, with a curriculum aligned to industry certifications. Similarly, the Lucas-Cranach-Campus (LCC) in Germany operates as an independent educational platform since 2010, facilitating non-degree programs in arts, culture, and professional development through collaborations with local partners.[42] These organizations typically serve niche roles in professional training or curriculum innovation rather than broad degree conferral.Computing and Technology
LCC compiler
The LCC (Little C Compiler) is a retargetable compiler for the ANSI C programming language, developed by Christopher W. Fraser at AT&T Bell Laboratories and David R. Hanson at Princeton University.[43] First publicly described in a 1991 technical report and conference paper, it supports code generation for architectures including the VAX, Motorola 68020, SPARC, MIPS R3000, Alpha, and Intel x86 processors.[43][44] The compiler's design emphasizes simplicity, portability, and efficiency, compiling at speeds up to ten times faster than some contemporaries like gcc on certain benchmarks, while producing comparable code quality.[43] LCC's architecture separates the front end (handling ANSI C parsing, semantic analysis, and intermediate code generation) from the back end (machine-specific code generation and optimization), enabling retargeting by modifying only the latter.[45] The front end produces an abstract syntax tree and intermediate representation, which the back end processes using a tree-pattern matching system based on the lburg tool for instruction selection.[46] Register allocation employs a graph-coloring algorithm, and peephole optimization refines the output; these components impose minimal limits on input size, such as supporting programs with thousands of lines without arbitrary cutoffs.[43] The full design and implementation are detailed in Fraser and Hanson's 1995 book A Retargetable C Compiler: Design and Implementation, which includes source code listings and serves as both a textbook and reference for compiler construction.[47] Source code for LCC is freely available for personal, non-commercial use, with distributions including version 4.2 hosted on GitHub, which differs from the version 3.x covered in the book by incorporating updates for modern standards and architectures.[46] It requires integration with a C preprocessor like GNU cpp for full ANSI compliance, including trigraph support via options like-Wp,-trigraphs.[45] LCC has influenced educational tools and embedded systems due to its modularity, though it lacks some extensions of later C standards beyond ANSI C89.[46]
Leadless chip carrier
The leadless chip carrier (LCC) is a surface-mount integrated circuit package characterized by the absence of protruding external leads, instead employing metallized pads or castellations along its bottom perimeter and edges for direct electrical and thermal connections to a printed circuit board or socket.[48] These packages typically feature a square or rectangular footprint with pin counts ranging from 20 to over 100, constructed from ceramic for high-reliability applications or plastic for cost-sensitive uses, and offer a low-profile height often under 2 mm.[49][50] JEDEC standards define LCC dimensions and configurations, including the .050-inch pitch Type A packages (variations AA-AH) in publication MS-002, originally established to support surface-mount assembly with precise pad layouts for solder fillet formation.[51] Additional JEDEC documents, such as JESD30E, classify LCC alongside related formats like leadless ceramic chip carriers (LCCC), specifying tolerances for body size, pad spacing, and coplanarity to ensure manufacturability and interoperability.[52] These standards emerged in the late 1960s to early 1970s as part of broader efforts to transition from through-hole to surface-mount technology, with pinout guidelines in JESD 1 adapting dual in-line package (DIP) layouts for linear ICs in LCC form.[53] Key features of LCC packages include short internal electrical traces enabled by multilayer construction, which minimizes signal propagation delay and inductance compared to leaded alternatives.[49] They provide superior mechanical durability, withstanding higher vibration and shock due to reduced weight and volume, and exhibit lower parasitic resistance for improved high-speed signal integrity.[54] Environmentally, LCCs avoid leaded materials, aligning with restrictions on hazardous substances, though ceramic variants excel in thermal dissipation and hermetic sealing for harsh environments.[55] Drawbacks include challenges in rework and inspection, as the leadless design demands precise alignment during soldering to prevent bridging or open joints, often requiring advanced reflow processes or X-ray verification.[56] LCC packages find applications in compact electronics such as telecommunications modules, automotive controls, and military systems, where space constraints and reliability are paramount; ceramic LCCs are particularly suited for MEMS devices and high-frequency RF components due to their stability.[57] Sockets conforming to JEDEC Types A-D support prototyping and testing, available in sizes like 28- to 124-pin configurations for surface-mount or through-hole mounting.[58] Microchip Technology, for instance, offers 32-lead and 44-lead plastic LCC variants compliant with JEDEC MS-016 and related outlines, emphasizing stringent dimensions for assembly yield.[59][60]Other technical uses
In power electronics, LCC designates a resonant converter topology featuring an inductor in series with two capacitors, commonly employed in wireless power transfer systems for applications such as electric vehicle charging. This configuration, often denoted as LCC-S or LCC-LCC depending on primary and secondary side implementations, enables constant voltage output under varying load conditions and improves efficiency by mitigating frequency variations.[61][62] The topology's design leverages the inherent resonance to achieve zero-voltage switching, reducing switching losses, as demonstrated in analyses of systems operating at frequencies around 85 kHz with power levels exceeding 3 kW. In high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission, LCC refers to Line Commutated Converter, a thyristor-based technology that dominates grid-scale power conversion due to its maturity and capacity for high power ratings up to several gigawatts. LCC-HVDC systems operate by converting AC to DC through controlled rectification, relying on the line voltage for thyristor commutation, which necessitates additional reactive power compensation via capacitors or synchronous condensers to maintain stability.[63] Deployments include major interconnectors like the Changji-Guquan line in China, operational since 2018 with ±1,100 kV and 12 GW capacity, highlighting LCC's role in long-distance, low-loss transmission despite limitations in black-start capability compared to voltage-source converters.[64] In radiofrequency (RF) electronics and signal processing, LCC stands for Localized Conjugate Component, an intermodulation distortion metric used to detect and characterize electronic devices through their nonlinear responses to specific waveforms. This technique exploits conjugate signal pairs to isolate device-specific signatures in the RF spectrum, enabling applications in electronic warfare and spectrum monitoring with detection sensitivities down to milliwatt levels.[65] Experimental validations have shown LCC's efficacy in identifying active components amid noise, as processed via baseband envelope analysis.[66]Classification and Standards
Library of Congress Classification
The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is an alphanumeric system for organizing library materials by subject, primarily used in large research libraries across the United States.[1] Developed internally by the Library of Congress to manage its growing collections, LCC arranges items on shelves in a logical sequence that facilitates browsing and retrieval based on topical proximity.[1] Unlike purely hierarchical systems, LCC employs an enumerative approach, listing specific subjects explicitly within schedules rather than relying solely on synthetic principles for new topics.[1] Initiated in 1897 under the direction of James Hanson, chief of the Catalog Department, with assistance from classifier Charles Martel, the system addressed the limitations of earlier schemes like the Dewey Decimal Classification for handling the Library's specialized and voluminous holdings.[67] The first classes—A (General Works), B (Philosophy, Psychology, Religion), and C (Auxiliary Sciences of History)—were implemented for shelving by 1901, with gradual expansion thereafter.[67] Publication of individual class schedules began in 1910, culminating in the first comprehensive printed edition by 1952, though ongoing revisions reflect evolving knowledge domains.[1] LCC divides knowledge into 21 main classes, each denoted by a single capital letter from A to Z (excluding I, O, W, X, and Y to avoid confusion with numerals or other symbols).[3] Subclasses follow with decimal numbers (e.g., QA for Mathematics within Q Science), further refined by additional letters and numbers for granularity, such as QA76 for Computing.[1] Cutters—alphanumeric codes combining letters for authors or titles with numbers for chronological or form aspects—append to base numbers for unique call numbers, enabling precise distinctions within shelves.[1] The main classes encompass: A (General Works), B (Philosophy, Psychology, Religion), C (Auxiliary Sciences of History), D (World History and History of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand), E-F (History of the Americas), G (Geography, Anthropology, Recreation), H (Social Sciences), J (Political Science), K (Law), L (Education), M (Music and Books on Music), N (Fine Arts), P (Language and Literature), Q (Science), R (Medicine), S (Agriculture), T (Technology), U (Military Science), V (Naval Science), and Z (Bibliography, Library Science, Information Resources).[3] This structure prioritizes the Library of Congress's emphasis on humanities and social sciences, with broader enumerations in those areas compared to sciences, reflecting institutional collection priorities since its inception.[1] Maintained by the Library's Policy and Standards Division, LCC schedules are updated periodically, with free PDF versions released annually and subscription-based tools like Classification Web providing searchable access for catalogers.[5] As of 2023, over 500,000 class numbers exist across schedules, supporting classification for millions of items in the Library's catalog and adopted by approximately 90% of U.S. academic libraries.[1] While adaptable via provisional numbers for emerging fields, the system's fixed enumerative nature can lag behind rapid innovations, necessitating manual overrides by classifiers.[1]Life cycle costing
Life cycle costing (LCC), also referred to as life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA), is an engineering economic technique for evaluating the total costs associated with acquiring, owning, operating, maintaining, and disposing of an asset, project, or system over its projected service life, typically by converting future costs to present value using discounted cash flow methods.[68][69] The approach contrasts with traditional upfront pricing by incorporating long-term expenses such as energy consumption, repairs, and salvage values to identify the most cost-effective alternative among mutually exclusive options.[70] The concept originated in the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) during the 1960s, with the term "life cycle costing" first appearing in a 1965 military-related document produced by the Logistics Management Institute to address escalating costs in weapon systems acquisition and sustainment.[71] By the 1970s, it evolved into a formalized tool under DoD directives, emphasizing total ownership costs including research, development, investment, operations, support, and disposal—often comprising two to three times the initial capital outlay.[72][73] Its application expanded beyond defense; for instance, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) promoted LCCA for pavement design following the Intermodal Surface Transportation Equity Act of 1991, with demonstration projects in over 40 states by 2002.[68] The core LCC methodology involves several sequential steps: defining mutually exclusive alternatives, determining the analysis period (e.g., 35 years for pavements or up to 40 years for federal energy projects), estimating disaggregated costs, applying discount rates to compute present values, and performing sensitivity analyses for uncertainties like escalation rates.[68][69] Costs are categorized as follows:- Initial costs (I): Acquisition, design, and construction expenses.
- Replacement costs (Repl): Periodic substitutions of components.
- Residual value (Res): Salvage or remaining service life value at end-of-period, subtracted from total.
- Energy (E) and water (W) costs: Utility consumption, escalated per regional rates (e.g., U.S. Department of Energy forecasts).
- Operations, maintenance, and repair (OMR): Ongoing labor, materials, and downtime.
- Other costs/benefits (X): Disposal, user delays, or incentives.