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Labyrinthulomycetes

Labyrinthulomycetes are a class of heterotrophic, marine protists belonging to the stramenopiles (Heterokonta), characterized by their fungus-like morphology and lifestyles, including the production of ectoplasmic nets or threads for gliding motility and nutrient absorption via osmotrophy.^[1] These organisms typically exhibit a life cycle involving walled cells, amoeboid or spindle-shaped forms, and biflagellate zoospores, with cells often covered in scales of dictyosomal origin and featuring bothrosomes—specialized organelles that generate the ectoplasm.^[2] Ubiquitous in coastal, estuarine, and open ocean environments, they thrive in organic-rich waters and can achieve biomass levels exceeding those of bacterioplankton, underscoring their ecological significance as decomposers.^[3] Taxonomically, Labyrinthulomycetes form a monophyletic group within the stramenopiles, historically misclassified as fungi or slime molds due to superficial resemblances but now firmly placed in the protist lineage based on molecular phylogenetics, such as 18S rRNA gene analyses.^[2] The class encompasses approximately 25 genera and over 50 described species, organized into five orders: Thraustochytrida (e.g., Thraustochytrium, Aurantiochytrium, Schizochytrium), Labyrinthulida (e.g., Labyrinthula, Aplanochytrium), Amphitremida, Amphifilida, and Oblongichytriales, with ongoing revisions revealing high undescribed diversity through environmental sequencing.^[3] Key distinguishing features include tubulocristate mitochondria and the absence of chloroplasts, reflecting evolutionary loss from photosynthetic ancestors, positioning them phylogenetically near groups like Bicosoecida.^[1] Ecologically, Labyrinthulomycetes primarily function as saprotrophs, breaking down detritus from algae, plants, and animals to recycle nutrients in marine food webs, though some species act as parasites causing diseases in seagrasses (Labyrinthula zosterae), shellfish, and turf grasses.^[2] Their abundance peaks in mangrove leaves, sediments, and plankton, with studies reporting densities up to 5.6 × 10⁵ colony-forming units per gram in subtropical environments.^[1] Biotechnologically, genera like Schizochytrium and Aurantiochytrium are notable for producing high levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) up to 53% of total fatty acids, making them promising for aquaculture feeds and nutraceuticals.^[3] Despite their importance, the group remains understudied, with meta-analyses identifying dozens of novel environmental clades that highlight their global distribution and adaptive diversity.^[2]

Taxonomy and Classification

Higher Taxonomy

Labyrinthulomycetes belongs to the domain Eukaryota, within the supergroup SAR (Stramenopiles, Alveolates, and Rhizaria), phylum Stramenopiles (also known as Heterokonts), subphylum Sagenista, and class Labyrinthulomycetes.^[4] The class was originally established by J.A. von Arx in 1970 as part of a classification of fungi sporulating in pure culture, reflecting early perceptions of these organisms as fungus-like. It was subsequently emended by M.W. Dick in 2001 to incorporate their protistan nature and align with straminipilous systematics, emphasizing shared features with other heterotrophic stramenopiles. Historically, Labyrinthulomycetes were misclassified as slime molds within Myxomycota due to their colonial growth, ectoplasmic networks, and saprotrophic habits, which superficially resembled fungal or myxomycete structures. This placement persisted into the mid-20th century until ultrastructural studies in the 1970s and 1980s revealed diagnostic heterokont features, such as tubular cristae in mitochondria, Golgi-derived scales on cell walls, and biflagellate zoospores with heterokont flagellation (one anterior tinsel flagellum and one posterior smooth flagellum). Molecular evidence from 18S rRNA gene phylogenies beginning in the late 1980s and early 1990s further confirmed their position among stramenopiles, distinguishing them from true fungi and myxomycetes by signatures like specific base pairings in ribosomal helices. In the current taxonomy outlined by Adl et al. (2019), Labyrinthulomycetes is recognized as a monophyletic class within the phylum Bigyra of Stramenopiles, forming a sister group to the class Eogyrea, which includes environmental clades and species like Pseudophyllomitus vesiculosus.^[4] This placement is supported by phylogenomic analyses integrating 18S rRNA and multigene data, resolving Bigyra as a basal heterotrophic lineage in Stramenopiles. Key diagnostic traits reinforcing this higher placement include their heterotrophic nutrition, production of biflagellate zoospores, and unique ectoplasmic elements (such as bothrosomes or sagenogens) for motility and nutrient uptake, which are characteristic of stramenopile osmotrophs.^[4]^[5]

Orders and Families

The internal classification of Labyrinthulomycetes recognizes five orders: Amphitremida, Amphifilida, Oblongichytriida, Labyrinthulida, and Thraustochytrida.^[4] These orders encompass diverse morphologies and life cycles, with Thraustochytrida including decomposer genera like Thraustochytrium and Schizochytrium, and Labyrinthulida featuring slime-net producers like Labyrinthula. Amphitremida includes phagotrophic forms such as Amphitrema, while Amphifilida and Oblongichytriida represent less-studied groups with amoeboid and zoospore-based forms, respectively. Nomenclature within Labyrinthulomycetes remains unsettled due to their ambiguous status as fungus-like protists, leading to dual regulatory systems: the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) for fungal affinities and the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for protistan traits.^[6] Approximately 50–60 species of Labyrinthulomycetes have been formally described, though environmental sequencing indicates substantial undescribed diversity, including over 200 operational taxonomic units recovered from marine sediments.^[6] Key genera illustrate this diversity: Labyrinthula, which produces ectoplasmic slime nets often associated with algal substrates; Thraustochytrium, a decomposer commonly found on organic detritus; and Diplophrys, a representative in freshwater environments.^[6]^[4]

Order	Family	Representative Genera
Amphitremida	Amphitremidae	Amphitrema, Archerella
Amphifilida	Diplophryidae	Diplophrys, Quondamattia
Oblongichytriida	Oblongichytriaceae	Oblongichytrium
Labyrinthulida	Labyrinthulaceae	Labyrinthula, Aplanochytrium
Thraustochytrida	Thraustochytriaceae	Thraustochytrium, Schizochytrium, Aurantiochytrium
Thraustochytrida	Aplanochytriaceae	Aplanochytrium

Morphology and Life Cycle

Cellular Structure

Labyrinthulomycetes cells are typically uninucleated and exhibit ovoid or spindle-shaped morphologies, with diameters ranging from 5 to 20 μm. These cells possess multilamellate cell walls composed primarily of sulfated polysaccharides, including galactose, xylose, mannose, glucose, and fucose, often arranged in thin scales characteristic of stramenopiles. The walls may also incorporate lipid components, providing structural integrity and protection.^[7]^[8]^[9] A defining feature in certain life stages is the production of biflagellate zoospores, which bear an anterior tinsel flagellum with tripartite tubular hairs and a posterior smooth whiplash flagellum, aligning with stramenopile ultrastructure. Internally, these cells contain prominent organelles such as tubular mitochondria and a bothrosome (or sagenogenetosome), a Golgi-derived structure responsible for ectoplasmic element production. Lipid droplets are abundant, particularly in thraustochytrids, serving as energy storage reservoirs rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids like docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).^[7]^[8]^[9] Ultrastructural variations occur between major groups. In thraustochytrids, cells are often spherical to ovoid with thick, scale-covered walls and are embedded within walled structures like sporangia, featuring a single bothrosome per cell. Labyrinthulids, in contrast, display elongated, fusiform cells that form chain-like colonies, with minimal or absent cell walls and multiple bothrosomes facilitating ectoplasmic networks. These differences underscore the diverse cellular adaptations within the class while maintaining core stramenopile traits. Morphological diversity extends to other orders: Amphitremida includes amoeboid forms like Diplophrys with filose pseudopodia derived from ectoplasmic elements and no known flagellate stages; Amphifilida features oblong cells producing filaments; and Oblongichytriales comprises endoparasites of marine algae with zoosporic development, though details remain limited due to understudied taxa.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[2]

Ectoplasmic Network and Motility

Labyrinthulomycetes are distinguished by their production of an ectoplasmic network, an extracellular system of filamentous, wall-less extensions of the plasma membrane that facilitates both locomotion and nutrient acquisition. This network is generated by the bothrosome, a specialized, Golgi-derived organelle approximately 200 nm in diameter, located at a cup-shaped invagination of the plasma membrane. The bothrosome serves as the point of origin for the ectoplasmic elements, which branch out to form a slime track or net, allowing cells to interact with their environment without direct contact.^[10]^[11] In labyrinthulids, such as species of Labyrinthula, the ectoplasmic network forms tubular tracks within which multiple spindle-shaped cells glide collectively, often in a parasitic manner inside host tissues like seagrasses. These cells maintain equal distances via the network, which surrounds and interconnects colonies, enabling coordinated movement and host penetration. In contrast, thraustochytrids, including genera like Thraustochytrium and Schizochytrium, typically feature a single bothrosome per cell and produce ectoplasmic nets that function more as appressoria-like attachments to solid substrates, aiding saprotrophic nutrient uptake rather than extensive cellular gliding within the net. Labyrinthulids generally possess multiple bothrosomes, reflecting differences in network structure and function between the two groups.^[12]^[7]^[13] Gliding motility in Labyrinthulomycetes occurs along the ectoplasmic filaments at speeds ranging from 5 to 175 μm/min, driven by an actomyosin-like mechanism rather than true pseudopodia. In labyrinthulids, force generation involves myosin (approximately 96 kDa) interacting with F-actin in the trackways via bothrosomes, producing contractile forces exceeding 50 pN to propel cells forward; this process is sensitive to myosin ATPase inhibitors but not to actin-disrupting agents like cytochalasin D. The ectoplasmic network anchors the cells to the substratum through a reticulopodial mesh rich in F-actin, facilitating directed movement without flagella in the vegetative stage. Surface tension along the filaments may contribute to extension in some cases, but the primary propulsion is actin-myosin based.^[14]^[15]^[16] The ectoplasmic network also plays a crucial role in nutrient absorption by extending toward organic substrates and secreting hydrolytic enzymes for extracellular digestion. These enzymes, including cellulases, chitinases, amylases, lipases, phosphatases, and proteases, break down complex polymers such as cellulose, chitin, and proteins into soluble forms that are then absorbed across the wall-less ectoplasm. In thraustochytrids, this appressorial attachment enhances enzymatic access to particulate matter, while in labyrinthulids, the network's penetration into hosts amplifies localized degradation. This osmotrophic strategy underscores the network's dual function in foraging and feeding efficiency.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Reproduction and Development

Reproduction in Labyrinthulomycetes is predominantly asexual, with sexual processes being rare and only recently documented in certain lineages.^[20] In the order Thraustochytrida, asexual reproduction occurs through the formation of biflagellate zoospores within sporangia; these structures develop from vegetative cells under specific culture conditions, producing 8 to 32 zoospores per Type I sporangium or up to 32 peripheral spores in Type II sporangia.^[20] Vegetative growth during the proliferating phase involves binary fission, where cells divide mitotically within the mother cell wall, often forming tetrads of daughter cells.^[20] In contrast, members of the order Labyrinthulida, such as Labyrinthula species, primarily reproduce asexually via binary fission of spindle-shaped vegetative cells or through sorogenesis, in which multiple cells aggregate into dense clusters called sori that subsequently release biflagellate zoospores.^[21] Other orders show variations: Amphitremida and Amphifilida lack documented zoospore stages, relying on amoeboid division and cyst formation, while Oblongichytriales produce zoospores as endoparasites, though life cycles are incompletely known.^[2] Sexual reproduction remains poorly understood and is not the dominant mode across the class, though direct evidence has been observed in the thraustochytrid genus Aurantiochytrium. In A. acetophilum, plasmogamy occurs between paired motile cells, involving cytoplasmic and nuclear fusion to form zygote-like structures, marking the first documented instance of sexual processes in Thraustochytridaceae.^[20] Earlier inferences of sexuality in labyrinthulids, such as aggregating plasmodia in Labyrinthula, suggested potential sexual modes, but these lack confirmation of meiosis or gamete fusion.^[21] Genetic recombination patterns in cultured strains have provided indirect support for occasional sexual exchange, though ultrastructural and molecular details are limited.^[20] The life cycle of Labyrinthulomycetes includes a proliferating vegetative phase characterized by binary fission and ectoplasmic network expansion for nutrient uptake, transitioning to reproductive stages under stress. Resting cysts form as survival structures during adverse conditions, featuring thick, stratified walls in thraustochytrids; these cysts excyst upon reintroduction of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfates, resuming vegetative growth.^[20] Dispersal occurs primarily via biflagellate zoospores, which swim briefly (0.5–1 hour) before settling and germinating into new colonies, with transformation to vegetative cells observed within 2 days in some parasitic contexts.^[20] In labyrinthulids, sori serve a similar dispersive role, releasing zoospores from aggregated cells to initiate new infections or saprophytic growth.^[21] Environmental factors strongly influence reproductive transitions, with nutrient availability playing a key role in triggering sporulation and cyst formation. In thraustochytrids, zoospore production and release are enhanced in media with specific amino acid compositions or under nutrient limitation, such as in seawater-based L1 medium at salinity 32.^[22] Host stress or low nutrient levels similarly induce sorogenesis and sporulation in labyrinthulids, promoting cyst development for dormancy during unfavorable conditions like temperature or salinity shifts.^[21] Overall, these triggers ensure adaptation to dynamic marine environments, with development from zoospore settlement to established colonies occurring rapidly to capitalize on transient resources.^[20]

Ecology and Distribution

Habitats and Distribution

Labyrinthulomycetes are predominantly found in marine environments, where they inhabit coastal sediments, the water column, and are often associated with algae, seagrasses, and mangroves.^[23] They are ubiquitous across global oceans, occurring from polar to tropical regions, and have been detected in every marine habitat examined to date.^[24] Environmental surveys confirm their presence in diverse marine settings, including estuaries, lagoons, and open seas, with adaptations such as ectoplasmic networks facilitating their colonization of these substrates.^[25] Occurrences in freshwater habitats are rare compared to marine ones, primarily represented by the genus Diplophrys, which includes species isolated from ponds, rivers, and other inland waters.^[26] Some isolates have also been reported from soil environments, though these are infrequent, including in terrestrial environments such as turf grasses (e.g., Labyrinthula terrestris).^[27]^[28] Their abundance is notably high in organic-rich environments, such as eutrophic coastal waters, where environmental DNA surveys indicate concentrations exceeding 10^4 18S rRNA gene copies per liter, with peaks reaching up to 3.68 × 10^5 copies per liter in some areas.^[29] In these settings, Labyrinthulomycetes can achieve biomass levels surpassing those of bacterioplankton, underscoring their prevalence in nutrient-enriched marine zones.^[29] Labyrinthulomycetes exhibit a cosmopolitan distribution pattern, reflecting their broad environmental tolerance.^[3] Diversity is highest in temperate and subtropical seas, followed by tropical regions, while polar areas show lower richness but consistent presence.^[30]

Ecological Roles and Interactions

Labyrinthulomycetes primarily function as saprotrophic decomposers in marine and coastal ecosystems, where thraustochytrids break down detritus from sources such as mangrove leaves, seagrasses, and algal remains, facilitating the recycling of carbon and nutrients through extracellular enzyme secretion via their ectoplasmic network.^[31]^[23] This decomposition process is crucial for remineralizing organic matter in sediments and water columns, with thraustochytrid biomass often comparable to or exceeding that of bacteria during phytoplankton decay, contributing substantially to microbial community dynamics—reaching up to 30% of heterotrophic bacterial biomass in nutrient-rich estuaries like the Pearl River.^[32]^[33] Their enzymatic activity targets recalcitrant substrates, enhancing nutrient availability for primary producers and influencing benthic oxygen and carbon fluxes.^[12] In terms of interactions, labyrinthulids such as Labyrinthula spp. exhibit parasitic behaviors, infecting algae and seagrasses; for instance, Labyrinthula zosterae causes seagrass wasting disease in eelgrass (Zostera marina), leading to tissue degradation via cell wall-lytic enzymes and historical population declines of up to 90% in affected regions.^[9] Some species also parasitize marine invertebrates or act as commensals and mutualists with living algae, potentially supporting mixotrophic lifestyles through symbiotic associations.^[23] These interactions can alter host microbiomes and contribute to biofilm formation on plant surfaces, influencing microbial ecology in coastal habitats.^[21] Trophically, Labyrinthulomycetes occupy a basal position in marine food webs, serving as prey for bacterivores, fungivores, ciliates, amoebae, and copepods, thereby transferring energy upward.^[32] Their production of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is ecologically significant, providing an essential nutrient for zooplankton like copepods that cannot synthesize it efficiently, with direct evidence of consumption in oceanic environments.^[34] This role positions them as a key link in supporting higher trophic levels, including fisheries.^[21] Environmentally, Labyrinthulomycetes thrive in organic-polluted, eutrophic waters, where elevated nutrient loads boost their abundance and highlight their potential as indicators of anthropogenic enrichment.^[32] By promoting organic matter aggregation and decomposition, they enhance carbon sequestration in sediments, playing a vital part in global marine carbon cycling and mitigating eutrophication effects through efficient nutrient remineralization.^[12]^[21]

Evolution and Phylogeny

Phylogenetic Position

Labyrinthulomycetes form a monophyletic class within the subphylum Sagenista of the phylum Bigyra in the stramenopiles, supported by phylogenomic analyses using hundreds of genes that resolve their position as a cohesive group distinct from other heterotrophic stramenopile lineages.^[35] Within Sagenista, Labyrinthulomycetes are the sister group to Eogyrea, a clade comprising environmental sequences from marine clades such as MAST-4, MAST-6, MAST-7, MAST-8, MAST-9, and MAST-11, as confirmed by multi-gene phylogenies incorporating 18S rRNA, actin, and related markers that highlight their shared ancestry while underscoring the basal divergence of Bigyra from photosynthetic gyristean stramenopiles like ochrophytes. This positioning is further reinforced by broader stramenopile trees derived from 247 nuclear genes, which place Sagenista (including Labyrinthulomycetes and Eogyrea) as sister to Gyrista, emphasizing the early radiation of heterotrophic lineages within the group.^[35] Divergence estimates from calibrated molecular phylogenies indicate that the early stramenopile lineages, including the ancestor of Bigyra and thus Labyrinthulomycetes, originated approximately 1200–1600 million years ago, during the Mesoproterozoic era following major Precambrian environmental shifts that likely influenced protist diversification.^[36] This timeline aligns with fossil-calibrated analyses of stramenopile evolution, positioning the Bigyra crown radiation postdating the initial stramenopile stem but predating the Phanerozoic explosion of multicellular life.^[37] Molecular evidence for their phylogenetic placement includes shared synapomorphies such as the bothrosome organelle, a specialized structure for ectoplasmic net production that links Labyrinthulomycetes to ochrophytes through conserved cytoskeletal and secretory mechanisms, though it is absent in oomycetes. Additionally, desaturase genes involved in polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis represent a genetic synapomorphy with ochrophytes, supporting their inclusion in a broader chromalveolate ancestry while distinguishing them from oomycete-specific metabolic pathways. These markers, analyzed via multi-locus approaches including actin and 18S rRNA, underscore the monophyly of Labyrinthulomycetes and their divergence from oomycetes, which lack these shared traits. Metagenomic studies have expanded the known phylogeny by revealing undescribed diversity, including novel lineages of Labyrinthulomycetes in anoxic marine sediments, where 18S rDNA sequences from uncultured protists form deep-branching clades outside described families like Thraustochytriaceae and Labyrinthulaceae. These environmental surveys, often from oxygen-depleted coastal and deep-sea habitats, indicate that the class harbors significantly greater phylogenetic breadth than currently cultured representatives, potentially including anaerobic-adapted forms that predate or parallel the radiation of aerobic stramenopiles. Recent studies as of 2025 have further revealed high phylogeographic diversity and novel clades through environmental sequencing in seagrass and estuarine systems, underscoring adaptive evolutionary radiation.^[38]^[25]

Evolutionary Origins and Adaptations

Labyrinthulomycetes are believed to have originated from a mixotrophic ancestor within the stramenopiles that possessed photosynthetic capabilities, with a secondary loss of plastids leading to their current heterotrophic lifestyle. This evolutionary transition is supported by vestigial features such as eyespot-like structures in the zoospores of labyrinthulids, which resemble the carotenoid-based eyespots found in photosynthetic stramenopiles like ochrophytes, suggesting retention from a plastid-bearing progenitor. Additionally, the presence of algal-like desaturase and elongase enzymes enables the synthesis of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which are biochemically linked to chloroplast-derived pathways in ancestral algae. Key adaptations in Labyrinthulomycetes include the development of an ectoplasmic network, a unique extracytoplasmic structure that facilitates osmotrophic nutrition by secreting hydrolytic enzymes to break down complex organic substrates in nutrient-poor marine environments. This network, produced via bothrosomes in the cell membrane, initially evolved for substrate attachment and nutrient assimilation in non-gliding ancestors but later enabled ectoplasmic gliding motility, allowing efficient exploration of detrital surfaces. Within the group, labyrinthulids exhibit a further shift toward parasitic lifestyles, colonizing algal and seagrass hosts, which contrasts with the predominantly saprotrophic thraustochytrids and reflects diversification in trophic strategies from free-living phagotrophy. The fossil record of Labyrinthulomycetes lacks direct evidence, as their soft-bodied, unicellular nature precludes preservation; however, their origins are inferred from broader stramenopile traces in Proterozoic microfossils and molecular clock estimates placing heterokont diversification around 1200–1600 million years ago. Modern analogs, such as organic-walled microfossils from late Proterozoic assemblages, provide indirect support for early stramenopile-like protists in marine settings.^[36] Diversification of Labyrinthulomycetes was likely driven by marine anoxic events around 500 million years ago, which favored saprotrophic osmotrophy by increasing organic detritus availability in oxygen-limited sediments. More recent radiations correlate with the Cenozoic expansion of seagrass meadows, angiosperm-dominated habitats that provided new niches for parasitic labyrinthulids, enhancing their association with coastal ecosystems.

Genetic and Biochemical Features

Genome and Genetic Code

The nuclear genomes of Labyrinthulomycetes are compact, ranging from approximately 35 to 61 Mb in size, with relatively low intron densities that contribute to their streamlined structure. For instance, the genome of Aurantiochytrium limacinum ATCC MYA-1381 is 60.93 Mb and encodes 14,859 protein-coding genes, while Schizochytrium aggregatum ATCC 28209 has a 40.85 Mb genome with 10,612 genes; these species typically exhibit 1.5 introns per gene, with median intron lengths of 345–494 bp.^[39] Recent assemblies, such as the 2023 chromosome-scale genome of Aurantiochytrium limacinum ATCC MYA-1381, reveal 26 linear chromosomes and a circular element, highlighting subtelomeric ribosomal DNA organization.^[40] The nuclear genetic code in Labyrinthulomycetes follows the standard universal code (NCBI translation table 1). Mitochondrial genomes in Labyrinthulomycetes are small, typically 30–40 kb in length, and are generally circular-mapping, encoding a core set of protein-coding genes, rRNAs, and tRNAs without introns. For example, the mitochondrial genome of Schizochytrium sp. TIO1101 is 31,494 bp and contains 33 protein-coding genes, 21 tRNA genes, and two rRNA genes.^[41] Unlike many stramenopiles, Labyrinthulomycetes lack plastids, but their nuclear genomes retain relics of red algal origin, reflecting the ancient secondary endosymbiosis that gave rise to plastids in the broader stramenopile lineage.^[42] The mitochondrial genetic code deviates from the standard, corresponding to NCBI translation table 23 (Thraustochytrium mitochondrial code), in which the codon TTA (UUA) functions as a stop codon rather than encoding leucine, a variant observed across thraustochytrids and labyrinthulids.^[43] Genome sequencing efforts have revealed extensive horizontal gene transfer from bacteria, particularly for enzymes involved in specialized metabolic pathways; for example, polyketide synthase-like genes for polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) biosynthesis in thraustochytrids show bacterial origins, enabling efficient DHA production.^[44]

Biochemical Pathways and Metabolites

Labyrinthulomycetes, particularly members of the thraustochytrid clade, exhibit specialized lipid metabolism characterized by the accumulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3), which can constitute 30-70% of total lipids in biomass. These organisms primarily synthesize PUFAs through the aerobic front-end desaturase-elongase pathway, involving delta-4 and delta-5 desaturases that introduce double bonds proximal to the carboxyl end of fatty acyl chains, a mechanism akin to chloroplast-associated desaturation in photosynthetic eukaryotes. For instance, in Thraustochytrium sp., the delta-4 desaturase catalyzes the conversion of 22:5 n-3 to DHA, enabling efficient production under heterotrophic conditions. This pathway coexists with a polyketide synthase-like system in some strains, allowing flexible adaptation to nutrient availability.^[44]^[7] In addition to lipid synthesis, Labyrinthulomycetes secrete a suite of extracellular hydrolases that support saprotrophic lifestyles by breaking down complex biopolymers. These include lipases for lipid hydrolysis, proteases for protein degradation, and glycosidases such as chitinases and cellulases for polysaccharide breakdown. Notably, chitinases facilitate the decomposition of chitin-rich algal cell walls, as observed in parasitic interactions with marine algae, where enzyme activity peaks during host colonization. Such secretions are deployed via the ectoplasmic network, enhancing nutrient acquisition in organic-rich environments.^[19] Secondary metabolites in Labyrinthulomycetes encompass carotenoids (e.g., β-carotene and zeaxanthin), sterols (e.g., cholesterol and ergosterol), and associated antioxidants that protect cellular lipids from oxidative stress. These compounds are biosynthesized via mevalonate and methylerythritol phosphate pathways, with squalene serving as a key intermediate for sterol production. Certain isolates, such as Thraustochytrium sp., exhibit antimicrobial activity attributed to lipases/phospholipases and carotenoid derivatives, inhibiting bacterial growth like Staphylococcus aureus with inhibition zones up to 78%.^[45]^[46]^[47] From a biotechnological perspective, engineered thraustochytrid strains, such as optimized Schizochytrium limacinum, achieve DHA contents exceeding 50% of total fatty acids within lipid fractions comprising 50-70% of dry biomass, yielding overall DHA levels up to 35% of biomass under controlled fermentation. These high-purity omega-3 sources serve as sustainable alternatives to fish oil in aquaculture feeds, supporting larval nutrition and reducing reliance on wild fisheries.^[48]^[49]

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Labyrinthulomycetes are diverse marine heterokont protists with fungus-like lifestyles, found in every marine habitat examined.
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Community Structure of Labyrinthulomycetes Protists in Zostera ...
Globally, Labyrinthulomycetes are diverse and widespread, including many uncultured and undescribed lineages from deep-sea and anoxic environments [23]. Genomic ...
[26]
Diplophrys mutabilis sp. nov., a new member of ... - PubMed
Oct 28, 2013 · Although most members of Labyrinthulomycetes prefer marine habitats, the genus Diplophrys exclusively consists of the freshwater species ...
[27]
[PDF] Reference Tree and Environmental Sequence Diversity of ...
LABYRINTHULOMYCETES are a group of ubiquitous and diverse unicellular stramenopiles. They are characterized by the production of an ectoplasmic network, a mem- ...
[28]
Niche Partitioning of Labyrinthulomycete Protists Across Sharp ...
May 23, 2022 · Labyrinthulomycetes, as a typical group of marine fungus-like protists, are known to possess high biomass and diversity in the coastal oceans, ...
[29]
[PDF] A GLOBAL PROTIST: DYNAMICS OF MARINE ... - Figshare
The taxonomic classification of Labyrinthulomycetes is still highly contested as Labyrinthulomycetes is an extremely diverse and understudied group.
[30]
Thraustochytrids, a neglected component of organic matter ...
Decomposition of organic matter in marine sediments is a critical step influencing oxygen and carbon fluxes. In addition to heterotrophic bacteria and fungi ...Missing: saprotrophic | Show results with:saprotrophic
[31]
Labyrinthulomycetes thrives in organic matter-rich waters with ... - NIH
Feb 6, 2024 · Labyrinthulomycetes are marine fungus-like protists that are widely distributed in estuarine (1–3) and marine habitats (4–6), even in extreme ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[32]
Flow Cytometry for Rapid Enumeration and Biomass Quantification ...
The thraustochytrid biomass contributed 10.9% to 98.1% of the total biomass of the heterotrophic microbial community comprising bacterioplankton and ...
[33]
Marine Ecology Progress Series 399:53
The importance of Labyrinthulomycetes (thraustochytrids) in the marine food web, as sources of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) 'docosahexaenoic.
[34]
https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps2009/399/m399p053.pdf
[35]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107468
[36]
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1110633108
[37]
Codon Usage | Labyrinthulomycetes @SBU
Codon Usage ; Species, Size (Mb)/ coverage, # scaffolds ; Aplanochytrium, 35.77/ 108x, 207 ; Schizochytrium, 40.85/ 72x, 283 ; Aurantiochytrium, 60.93/ 31x, 101 ...
[38]
Complete mitochondrial genome of a DHA-rich protist ... - NIH
The assembled mitogenome was 31 494 bp long with 33.92% GC content. The mitogenome contains 56 genes, including 33 protein-coding genes, 21 transfer RNA genes ...Missing: size | Show results with:size
[39]
Secondary Plastids of Stramenopiles - ScienceDirect.com
Alongside genes of red algal origin, which were expected given the ultimate red ancestry of the stramenopile plastid, stramenopile nuclear genomes have been ...2. Endosymbiotic Origins · 2.1. Endosymbiotic Histories... · 4. Biochemistry And...<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
Evolution of the genetic code in the mitochondria of Labyrinthulea ...
Here we report a detailed analysis of the mitochondrial genetic code in the stramenopile group Labyrinthulea (Labyrinthulomycetes) and their relatives.
[41]
PUFA synthase-independent DHA synthesis pathway in ... - Nature
Dec 9, 2021 · Genomic DNA from thraustochytrids was extracted by the standard phenol–chloroform method. The draft genome sequences of T. aureum ATCC 34304 and ...
[42]
Screening of a Thraustochytrid Strain Collection for Carotenoid and ...
A screening of 62 strains of thraustochytrids sensu lato for their potential to produce carotenoids and squalene was performed.Missing: translation | Show results with:translation
[43]
PUFA and carotenoid producing thraustochytrids and their anti ...
Thraustochytrium sp., exhibited the highest antibacterial activity with the zone of inhibition of 78.77% against Staphylococcus aureus and the lowest (20.95%) ...
[44]
A thraustochytrid-specific lipase/phospholipase with unique ... - Nature
Nov 8, 2019 · Antimicrobial activity of 2-acyl LPL enables thraustochytrids to obtain nutrients preferentially in the marine environment even in the presence ...
[45]
Isolation and optimization of a novel thraustochytrid strain for DHA ...
Jan 13, 2021 · Thraustochytrid biomass containing both LC-PUFA and astaxanthin can be a valuable source as aquafeed in the aquaculture industry. For use in ...
[46]
Bioprospecting of thraustochytrids for omega-3 fatty acids
Thraustochytrids, robust microbial source of essential fatty acids is described. •. Distinguished metabolic pathway for PUFA synthesis in thraustochytrids is ...