Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Landing Craft Infantry

The Landing Craft Infantry (LCI), particularly the prominent LCI(L) or "Large" variant, was a class of steel-hulled, seagoing amphibious assault craft developed by the during specifically to transport and disembark large numbers of troops directly onto hostile beaches without requiring a or dock. These vessels featured bow and stern doors or ramps for rapid troop deployment, a shallow draft for beaching, and sufficient seaworthiness for ocean voyages, distinguishing them from smaller, less capable like the LCVP. 923 LCI(L)s were constructed between 1942 and 1945, primarily by American shipyards, with 211 transferred to the Royal Navy via , making them a cornerstone of Allied amphibious operations. The LCI's development stemmed from British requirements for a versatile infantry carrier in 1941, which the U.S. adapted into a standardized by early , with the first units entering service that November for in . Measuring approximately 158 feet in length, 23 feet in beam, and with a draft of about 5 feet, the LCI(L) displaced 234 tons standard and 389 tons fully loaded, powered by eight diesel engines delivering 1,600 horsepower for a top speed of 15 knots and a range of 4,000 nautical miles at 12 knots. It accommodated a of 24 (including 3 officers) and could carry 180 to 210 troops or up to 75 tons of cargo, though in overload conditions it transported as many as 388 soldiers; armament typically included four 20 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns, with some variants fitted for additional roles like fire support using 40 mm guns or rocket launchers. In service, LCIs played pivotal roles in major WWII amphibious campaigns across both theaters, including the invasions of Sicily, Salerno, Normandy (where over 250 participated, with U.S. Coast Guard-manned units supporting Omaha and Utah beaches), Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and the Philippines, often performing auxiliary tasks such as minesweeping, smoke screening, and casualty evacuation. Under a 1943 agreement, the U.S. Coast Guard manned 28 LCI(L)s, contributing to their operational flexibility in high-risk assaults, though the class suffered losses like the four vessels destroyed at Normandy's Omaha Beach. Postwar, many LCIs were decommissioned by 1946, transferred to allied navies (such as Britain, France, and Argentina), or repurposed for Korean and Vietnam War duties until the mid-1960s, earning nicknames like "Elsie Item" for their rugged, multi-role utility.

Design and Development

Historical Context and Requirements

Prior to , amphibious warfare capabilities were severely limited by the reliance on smaller such as the (LCM) and (LCVP), which were intended for short-haul operations from nearby transport ships and could only accommodate limited numbers of troops or equipment, making it impractical to deliver large units directly onto defended beaches in a single wave. These craft, including the iconic Higgins boat (LCVP), typically carried no more than a 36-man or 60 troops at most, necessitating multiple shuttles that increased exposure to enemy fire and logistical complexity during assaults. The fall of in 1940 underscored these deficiencies, as Allied planners recognized the need for more robust vessels to conduct cross-Channel operations without dependence on secured harbors, prompting the British Royal Navy to formally request U.S. assistance in developing a specialized transport. In response to this urgency, the British Admiralty sought a seagoing craft capable of ferrying approximately 200 fully equipped troops across the for potential invasions or counterattacks against German-held territory. Influenced by the British initiative, the U.S. Navy's outlined specifications for the Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) in , calling for a vessel displacing around 250 tons (light), featuring a shallow draft for effective beaching, and providing capacity for 200 soldiers plus a crew of about 24. These requirements aimed to bridge the gap between smaller coastal craft and larger amphibious ships, enabling direct delivery in support of major operations. Central to the LCI's design prerequisites were its self-propelled nature for autonomous movement, ocean-going endurance sufficient for 48-hour passages to accompany crossings, and the incorporation of bow ramps for rapid troop disembarkation without cranes or facilities. This configuration allowed the LCI to evolve from earlier prototypes like the Higgins boat, scaling up to handle company-sized forces while maintaining versatility for contested landings.

Development Process and Prototypes

The development of the Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) began in late 1941 through close collaboration between the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Ships and British advisors, who sought a seagoing vessel capable of transporting and landing larger numbers of troops than existing designs like the Landing Craft Assault (LCA). This effort was spurred by the wartime urgency of early Pacific and Atlantic campaigns, necessitating rapid advancements in amphibious capabilities. The resulting design modified the British concept for greater range and seaworthiness, adapting it for U.S. production while retaining the core idea of direct beach debarkation for infantry. Testing revealed several limitations in the original configuration, prompting key engineering modifications to enhance operational viability. Twin-screw was adopted for better maneuverability during beaching and retraction. Additionally, bow doors with an enclosed ramp replaced earlier side gangways, enabling safer and more efficient direct troop debarkation onto beaches. Following successful evaluations, the U.S. Navy approved the refined LCI design for in early 1942, with initial contracts awarded in June to multiple shipyards, including in . The first LCI(L)s were laid down in mid-1942, with launches beginning in December 1942 and commissions in early 1943. Production ramped up across at least ten U.S. facilities, culminating in the completion of 923 units by the end of .

Construction and Specifications

Hull Design and Dimensions

The Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) utilized a riveted hull optimized for amphibious assaults, with side plating measuring 1/4 inch thick to provide durability during beaching operations. The structure incorporated multiple watertight compartments, enhancing survivability against battle damage by limiting flooding. This design emphasized seaworthiness for ocean transit while enabling shallow-draft beach landings. Key dimensions of the standard LCI hull included a length overall of 158 feet 3 inches, a beam of 23 feet 3 inches, and a forward draft of 5 feet 10 inches when fully loaded. was 246 tons light and 387 tons at full load, reflecting the vessel's capacity for troops and supplies without compromising maneuverability in coastal waters. At the bow, a hydraulically operated and ramp facilitated direct beaching, allowing troops to disembark at a shallow 10-degree angle for rapid deployment. The internal arrangement focused on transport, featuring two decks with bunk spaces accommodating up to 200 troops, separate quarters for a of 24, and dedicated storage for and . Unlike larger , the LCI lacked vehicle-carrying capacity to prioritize personnel delivery efficiency. Some variants incorporated minor superstructure additions, but the core hull remained consistent across production models.

Propulsion and Performance

The Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) utilized a robust propulsion system consisting of eight General Motors 6-71 series two-stroke diesel engines, configured in two banks of four engines each driving twin propeller shafts through reduction gears. This arrangement produced a total output of 1,600 brake horsepower, enabling reliable operation in amphibious environments. Performance characteristics emphasized endurance over high speed, with a maximum of 16 knots achieved in light condition and approximately 12 knots when fully loaded with troops and equipment; cruising speeds typically ranged from 8 to 10 knots to optimize . The craft's range extended to 4,000 nautical miles at 12 knots without embarked troops or 500 nautical miles at 15 knots, supported by a fuel capacity of 110 to 130 tons of oil stored across four tanks. was managed via a hydraulic system operating twin rudders, which improved control during beaching and extraction maneuvers. Seakeeping qualities were adequate for moderate conditions up to , where the vessel maintained stability for offshore transits, but the shallow draft of about 3 feet forward led to pronounced pitching and discomfort in heavier seas, often causing seasickness among crew and troops due to the flat-bottomed hull's tendency to pound through waves.

Armament and Equipment

The standard armament of the US Navy's Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) during was designed for self-defense against aircraft and small surface threats, consisting of four single-mount 20 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns—one forward, one amidships, and two —along with two .50-caliber machine guns. These weapons were mounted in gun tubs with integral splinter shields and protected by 2-inch plastic splinter armor on the shields, , and pilothouse. Some LCIs received an optional single 40 mm Bofors gun amidships to bolster anti-aircraft defense. The equipment suite supported , communication, and basic operational needs, including for surface search and , an echo sounder for depth measurement, and radio sets for coordination within convoys and flotillas. Limited medical facilities were provided for casualty care during amphibious operations, enabling the evacuation of wounded personnel alongside troop transport. Defensive features emphasized protection during beach assaults and transit. Smoke generators allowed LCIs to lay protective screens for larger ships and formations, as demonstrated during operations like the landings. cables were fitted to neutralize the vessel's magnetic signature, reducing vulnerability to magnetic mines. measures, such as netting and spotted hull paint schemes, helped conceal the craft against sea and coastal backgrounds. Due to their shallow draft and focus on delivery, LCIs lacked dedicated equipment. Crew operations centered on the amidships bridge within the armored pilothouse, which housed steering controls, communication gear, and command functions while offering protection from small-arms fire and . Troop and supply loading occurred through side ports and hatches, while unloading onto beaches was achieved via deployable bow or side ramps, often supported by anchors to hold position in ; this setup enabled rapid debarkation of up to 200 troops or equivalent cargo. While baseline LCIs prioritized utility and defense, variants incorporated enhanced weaponry for shore bombardment.

Operational History

World War II Service

The Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) played a pivotal role in amphibious operations during World War II, serving primarily as troop transports capable of delivering up to 200 infantrymen directly onto beaches from offshore positions. These vessels, with a standard crew of 24 to 60 personnel, were organized into flotillas typically comprising 36 craft divided into groups of 12, allowing coordinated assaults across multiple sectors. A total of 923 LCIs were constructed between 1942 and 1945, with significant numbers deployed to both the Pacific and European theaters to support major invasions. The class's first combat use was during in in November 1942, primarily with British crews, before U.S.-manned vessels entered service. In the Pacific Theater, LCIs saw their initial combat deployment during the June 1943 landings on in the , where they transported follow-on waves of troops after initial Higgins boat assaults. They subsequently supported key operations, including the invasions of in June 1944, where flotillas delivered elements of the U.S. Army's 27th Division to the beaches amid intense Japanese resistance; in February 1945, facilitating Marine landings under heavy artillery fire; and Okinawa in April 1945, where they shuttled reinforcements and evacuated casualties during the prolonged battle. LCIs operated in flotillas that emphasized mutual protection, often forming waves of 4 to 6 craft to maximize firepower and reduce vulnerability during beach runs. Across the European Theater, LCIs were instrumental in the Mediterranean and campaigns. In July 1943, during Operation Husky, the invasion of , U.S. and British LCIs landed troops at beaches near and Scoglitti, supporting the U.S. 7th Army's advance against forces. They followed with landings at in September 1943 and in January 1944, where LCI-20 was struck by a bomb shortly after troops disembarked, highlighting the vessels' exposure to shore batteries. The pinnacle came during Operation Neptune on D-Day, June 6, 1944, when over 250 LCIs, many manned by U.S. crews, ferried American and British forces to and Omaha Beaches; at Omaha, heavy seas and enemy fire led to the loss of several craft, including LCI-92, which exploded after a direct hit, resulting in 41 fatalities. Beyond direct assaults, LCIs fulfilled critical roles in casualty evacuation and , often making multiple runs to resupply forward positions with and medical teams while retrieving wounded under fire. In later Pacific campaigns, some were adapted into gunboats (LCI(G)) by adding 20mm and 40mm antiaircraft guns, 37mm cannons, and rocket launchers to provide close during landings at and Okinawa, where they neutralized beach defenses and screened against attacks. Overall, the fleet suffered heavy attrition, with dozens lost, including 21 sunk by enemy action, across both theaters, underscoring their vital yet hazardous contribution to Allied amphibious doctrine.

Post-War Operations

Following , several Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) vessels were recommissioned by the U.S. Navy for service in the (1950–1953), where they supported amphibious operations including the pivotal Inchon landing in September 1950 and subsequent patrol duties along coastal areas. For instance, USS LCI(L)-1091, redesignated LSIL-1091, participated in Korean War operations and earned four battle stars for her contributions. These vessels proved valuable for troop transport and logistics in littoral environments, drawing on World War II experience to adapt to the conflict's demands. In the Vietnam War era, the U.S. transferred numerous LCI(L) vessels to the (RVNN), where they were redesignated in the HQ series and employed for riverine operations, coastal interdiction, and troop shuttles until the fall of Saigon in 1975. Examples include LCI(L)-872, transferred in 1956 and commissioned as RVNS Thien Kich (HQ-329), and LCI-351, which became RVNS My Tho (HQ-800) before further transfer. These craft were integral to efforts, navigating inland waterways to support South Vietnamese forces against activities. Beyond major conflicts, LCIs saw international transfers under mutual defense programs, enhancing allied amphibious capabilities. The U.S. provided at least 14 LCIs to France in 1951 for use in the , where they served as troop transports and gunboats on rivers like the ; examples include LCI(L)-1092, redesignated L9032. Additional vessels went to the and ; LCI-351 was acquired by the as BRP Marinduque (LF-36) after 1975, while LCI(L)-670 and LCI(L)-739 remained in Thai service into the late . By the , some surplus LCIs were converted for civilian roles, such as tugs and survey vessels, due to their robust, low-maintenance designs. The U.S. Navy gradually decommissioned its LCI fleet post-World War II, with most struck from the by 1946, though some remained in reserve or active duty longer. Vessels like USS LCI(L)-1091 were decommissioned in 1955 after service, and the class was fully phased out of active and reserve roles by the mid-1960s as newer amphibious designs emerged. Their extended service life, often spanning two decades, stemmed from simple construction and adaptability to non-combat tasks.

Variants and Modifications

Command and Support Variants

The Landing Craft, Infantry (Large), or LCI(L), served as the baseline for several command-oriented conversions known as LC(FF), or Landing Craft, Flagships, designed to accommodate commanders and their staffs during amphibious operations. A total of 43 LCI(L) vessels were converted to this configuration between late 1944 and 1945, featuring an enlarged wheelhouse to house additional communication equipment, including extra radios for coordinating multiple craft, and dedicated flag quarters capable of berthing up to 10 officers. These modifications focused on enhancements, such as added decks for antennas, while keeping hull alterations minimal to preserve the vessel's seaworthiness and ability to retain standard troop capacity of approximately 200 personnel when operating in a non-command role. In operational use, LC(FF) vessels primarily supported Pacific theater assaults by directing flotillas of up to 36 LCIs, enhancing communication and command efficiency during complex beach landings. For instance, conversions like LC(FF)-367, reclassified on December 31, 1944, participated in Asiatic-Pacific campaigns, while others, such as those derived from LCI-627, served as flagships for at in February 1945, where they facilitated synchronized troop deployments amid intense combat. Although most LC(FF) deployments occurred after the Normandy invasion, earlier LCI flotillas in relied on similar command arrangements, and the design's improved radio setup proved vital for operations like Okinawa in April 1945, where cramped quarters were noted as a limitation despite effective flotilla coordination. Beyond flagship roles, some LCI(L) units were adapted for utility support, including and minor repairs, though dedicated conversions were limited. These involved expanding internal spaces for temporary medical bays or equipping holds with gear and spare parts storage to service damaged in forward areas, retaining the core LCI(L) design for versatility in amphibious fleets. Such adaptations underscored the LCI's adaptability for non-combat , with examples including vessels assigned to protection and resupply in the Pacific, where they maintained operational tempo by addressing immediate and equipment issues without requiring larger repair ships.

Fire Support Variants

The fire support variants of the Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) were specialized conversions designed to deliver close-range indirect and during amphibious landings, enhancing for advancing troops. These modifications typically included reinforced decks to absorb weapon recoil, expanded ammunition storage accommodating up to 500 rounds per major , and the reconfiguration of interior spaces by removing portions of the troop bunks to house additional members and fire control equipment. Such adaptations allowed the vessels to transition from troop transport to combat platforms while maintaining their shallow-draft beaching capabilities essential for near-shore operations. The LCI(G) gunboat variant represented a primary direct-fire configuration, with 169 units converted between 1944 and 1945. Equipped with four 20 mm Oerlikon antiaircraft guns for close defense, two 40 mm antiaircraft guns for medium-range suppression, and racks for antisubmarine protection, these craft provided sustained shore bombardment to neutralize beach defenses. They proved critical in Pacific Theater assaults, including the February 1945 invasion of , where groups of LCI(G)s delivered despite heavy enemy counterbattery, and the April 1945 Okinawa campaign, where they supported initial waves amid threats. Complementing the gunboats, the LCI(M) mortar variant focused on high-angle , with 54 units outfitted using a design from the U.S. Army's Chemical Warfare Service. Each carried three 4.2-inch M2 s mounted on the well deck, enabling a combined firing rate of approximately 45 rounds per minute to targets beyond line-of-sight, such as entrenched positions or reverse-slope defenses. These vessels supported key landings, including the September 1944 assault on , where they provided pre-invasion barrages to soften Japanese fortifications, and the January 1945 Luzon operation, aiding the advance from by targeting inland strongpoints. The LCI(R) rocket variant emphasized area saturation for initial beach clearance, comprising 47 units armed with six 5-inch rocket launchers featuring 504 tubes, similar in concept to but distinct from the Army's multiple rocket system mounted on tanks. Capable of unleashing salvos of up to 504 rounds in rapid succession to blanket enemy positions with high-explosive fragmentation, these craft delivered devastating pre-landing volleys. They were instrumental at , where LCI(R)s fired massive rocket barrages on February 19, 1945, to suppress pillboxes and wire obstacles during the first assault waves, enabling landings despite intense response.

Other Adaptations

In addition to the primary transport role, a small number of Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) were slated for conversion into s under the designation LCI(D), with plans for eight units equipped with a 3-inch and for anti-submarine duties; however, the project was canceled in 1944 due to redundancy with the established (DE) class. Several LCIs served in utility roles during , including as carriers designated LCI(A); for instance, four such vessels supported in the action by transporting mortar before their subsequent conversion to types. Post-Normandy operations saw some LCIs repurposed for logistical supply runs, leveraging their of up to 75 tons to ferry and other across contested beaches in support of advancing Allied forces. The also adapted LCIs for mine countermeasures, with at least 32 units converted postwar into coastal minesweepers (AMCU-7 class) equipped for underwater locator duties, though wartime use included support for teams clearing obstacles. British adaptations of the LCI concept diverged from the standard U.S. LCI(L), incorporating the wooden-hulled LCI(S) built by Fairmile Marine Company as Type H vessels, which featured different propulsion systems suited to shallow-water operations and were employed in assaults like in 1944. Postwar, surviving U.S. LCIs underwent various conversions, including transfers to foreign navies—such as 14 , where they were modified into gunboats with 75 mm and 40 mm armaments for use in Indochina—and domestic reclassifications for training and support roles, with some serving into the era after refurbishment. Experimental modifications included early trials integrating anti-aircraft on select LCIs for enhanced detection during protection, though these were limited and not widely adopted due to the vessels' primary amphibious focus.

Related Designs

British Fairmile Type H

The Fairmile Type H landing craft was developed in 1941 by the Fairmile Marine Company as a prefabricated, wooden-hulled to address urgent requirements for coastal assault operations, resulting in the production of over 40 units designated as Landing Craft (Small), or LCI(S), numbered 501 to 540 from 1942 onward. This construction approach enabled rapid assembly in multiple yards, leveraging the company's expertise in modular wooden boatbuilding to overcome steel shortages and production bottlenecks during wartime. The drew brief influence from U.S. LCI requirements for infantry transport but was scaled down for shorter-range needs. Key specifications included a length of 105 feet 1 inch, a beam of 21 feet 4 inches, and a draught of 2 feet 10 inches forward, with a light displacement of 63 tons increasing to 100 tons when loaded. Propulsion came from two Hall-Scott petrol engines providing 1,120 horsepower total (or 1,500 horsepower in supercharged variants), delivering a maximum speed of 15 knots and a continuous speed of 13.25 knots, supported by a fuel capacity of 4,000 gallons for a range of 330 nautical miles at full speed or 700 nautical miles at 12.5 knots. Each LCI(S) accommodated a crew of 2 officers and 15 ratings, plus up to 96 troops plus 6 officers, and featured a bow ramp for direct beach unloading, with defensive armament limited to two 20 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns and two .303 Lewis machine guns. A specialized variant, the or LCS(L), adapted the Type H hull for fire support roles, with 10 units produced incorporating a turreted (or earlier 2-pounder in models) and rocket projectors, alongside additional 20 mm guns and machine guns for close-in suppression during landings. These vessels provided essential naval gunfire in operations such as the Normandy invasion and the assault in 1944. Operationally, the Fairmile Type H focused on the Mediterranean and theaters, supporting commando raids and amphibious assaults in shorter coastal hops rather than extended ocean voyages like those undertaken by the more robust U.S. LCI. The wooden build offered significant cost and time savings in production—facilitating quicker deployment amid resource constraints—but resulted in a shorter operational lifespan due to vulnerability to rot, battle damage, and environmental wear compared to counterparts.

LCS(L) Mk.3 and LSSL

The LCS(L) Mk.3, also known as the Landing Craft Support (Large) Mark 3, represented a post-World War II evolution of U.S. landing craft concepts, shifting focus from troop transport to dedicated fire support for amphibious operations. Produced between 1944 and 1945, a total of 130 units were built across three shipyards: George Lawley & Sons in Neponset, Massachusetts (47 vessels), Albina Engine & Machine Works in Portland, Oregon (31 vessels), and Commercial Iron Works in Portland, Oregon (52 vessels). These craft utilized a 158-foot steel hull derived from the earlier LCI design but optimized for combat, eliminating troop-carrying capacity in favor of enhanced armament including one 3-inch/50-caliber gun forward, two twin 40 mm Bofors mounts, four single 20 mm Oerlikon mounts, and four .50-caliber machine guns, supplemented by a Mark 7 rocket launcher for close-in support. Design upgrades emphasized speed and firepower integration, with eight Gray Marine 6-71 diesel engines providing 1,600 horsepower to achieve a top speed of 16.5 knots, an improvement over prior for better positioning during assaults. Radar-directed fire control systems enabled precise gunnery, allowing the LCS(L) Mk.3 to serve as a mobile gun platform for suppressing shore defenses without the vulnerability of troop exposure. Complementing the , the vessels included equipment such as two depth charge tracks and four depth charge projectors (K-guns), which could launch projectiles for and duties. With a of 250 tons light and 387 tons full load, a of 23 feet 8 inches, and a draft of 5 feet 8 inches forward and 6 feet 6 inches aft when loaded, these craft balanced maneuverability in shallow waters with robust combat capability. In 1949, the surviving LCS(L) Mk.3 vessels were redesignated as Landing Ship Support, Large (LSSL) to reflect their expanded roles beyond pure landing support. Many were recommissioned for the Korean War, providing fire support during operations such as the Inchon landings and general coastal patrols, where their guns and radar proved effective against shore targets. During the Vietnam War, LSSLs contributed to riverine warfare efforts, operating in shallow inland waterways to support U.S. and allied forces against insurgent positions, often in coordination with the Mobile Riverine Force. Most were decommissioned by the mid-1970s, with their versatile littoral design influencing subsequent U.S. Navy developments in amphibious and coastal combat vessels.

Preservation and Legacy

Surviving Examples

Several Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) vessels from have survived into the , though their numbers are extremely limited worldwide, with only two confirmed examples remaining as of 2025. These rare artifacts serve primarily as museum ships dedicated to educating the public about amphibious operations during the war. The USS LCI(L)-713, a veteran of Pacific Theater landings including Mindanao and Borneo, is preserved at the Amphibious Forces Memorial Museum in , moored in the Swan Island Lagoon. Commissioned in 1944, it underwent significant restoration efforts starting in the early , including hull repairs and interior refits to replicate its wartime configuration, with ongoing work documented as recently as August 2025 through narrated video tours highlighting its operational readiness for static displays. Managed by a , the vessel hosts educational tours and events but remains non-operational for active due to its age and maintenance needs. The USS LCI(L)-1091, which served in both and the before postwar commercial use as a cannery tender, is preserved ashore near , in Humboldt County since 2016. Owned by a local heritage group, it faced challenges including structural deterioration but continues to be the focus of volunteer-led restoration to maintain it as an educational exhibit on history. Like LCI-713, it is non-operational and used solely for static museum purposes. The USS LCI National Association, a veterans' nonprofit, coordinates broader preservation efforts for these vessels, including for and historical . While no active use persists, both ships occasionally participate in commemorative events, such as D-Day anniversaries, through land-based displays rather than sea voyages, emphasizing their role in public education over functionality. Estimates suggest 5-7 LCI hulls or significant remnants may exist globally in various states of disrepair, but verifiable intact examples beyond the U.S. pair are scarce.

Historical Significance and Modern Relevance

The Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) played a pivotal role in reshaping amphibious doctrine during by enabling the direct delivery of up to 200 troops onto beaches via side ramps, thereby minimizing the need for intermediate larger transports and accelerating assaults. This capability addressed key limitations in earlier , allowing for more efficient troop surges in contested littorals and transforming the scale and speed of establishment. The LCI's design proved essential to strategic operations, including , where it supported the rapid reinforcement of beaches, and the Pacific island-hopping campaigns, where it facilitated successive assaults across vast oceanic distances by integrating seamlessly with convoy-based logistics. In terms of production, the constructed 923 LCIs between 1942 and 1945, leveraging modular techniques that enabled rapid assembly in shipyards across the country and kept unit costs low relative to larger warships. This approach exemplified wartime industrial innovation, producing seaworthy vessels capable of up to 16 knots and armed with anti-aircraft guns in quantities that outpaced initial projections, thereby sustaining Allied amphibious momentum. The LCI's success in scalable manufacturing influenced post-war amphibious standards, promoting standardized, adaptable designs for multinational operations that prioritized interoperability and cost efficiency in joint exercises. The LCI's legacy endures in modern naval architecture and doctrine, with its focus on over-the-horizon troop insertion echoing in platforms like the Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC), which uses hovercraft technology for speeds exceeding 40 knots to deliver forces rapidly over beaches, and the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle (EFV), designed for high-speed transit from amphibious ships to inland objectives. Lessons from LCI shallow-water operations—such as beaching in surf zones and vulnerability to small-arms fire—have shaped littoral combat ship (LCS) concepts, informing modular mission packages for mine countermeasures and surface warfare in near-shore environments. Culturally, the LCI symbolizes the grit of , featured in depictions of landings that capture the chaos of direct beach assaults, as seen in films like . The USS Landing Craft Infantry National Association organizes annual veteran reunions to honor crews and share oral histories, fostering ongoing commemoration of the vessel's contributions. Surviving examples, such as restored LCIs at museums, provide tangible connections to this era, underscoring the LCI's lasting impact on naval heritage.

References

  1. [1]
    Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) (1942) - Naval Encyclopedia
    The Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) was the Allies main specialized Infantry landing Craft, capable of offshore travel but to land troops directly onto beaches.
  2. [2]
    LCI(L)-Class Landing Ship - World War II Database
    The craft was designed to carry a crew of 24 (3 officers and 21 enlisted) and either 188 passengers (6 officers and 182 enlisted) or 75 tons of cargo.
  3. [3]
    Landing Craft Infantry (Large)-10 (USS LCI(L)-10)
    USS LCI(L)-10, commissioned in 1943, served in WWII, including Normandy. It was 157 feet long, had a crew of 24, and four 20mm guns.
  4. [4]
    US Coast Guard-Manned LCI(L)s - Landing Craft Infantry (Large)
    LCI(L)s were Navy Landing Craft Infantry (Large) manned by the Coast Guard, participating in major invasions and various duties like minesweeping and rescue.
  5. [5]
    Landing Craft Mechanized, the "Other" Higgins Boat at D-Day | The ...
    Jun 2, 2020 · With two engines, the LCM was capable of making 130 mile trips and could carry one 30 ton tank or 60 men fully loaded with gear. A heavy steel ...
  6. [6]
    LCVP-Class Landing Craft | World War II Database
    Despite their compact size, they could carry an entire 36-man platoon, a jeep with a 12-man squad, or 8,000 pounds of cargo. The boats drew only 3 feet of water ...
  7. [7]
    LCI Facts - USS Landing Craft Infantry National Association
    The LCI was an important ship and widely used for amphibious warfare in World War II. The LCI carried passengers, but could not transport vehicles.
  8. [8]
    [PDF] m/v husky ii - Loc
    A detailed discussion of the design history of the LCIs appears in. Norman Friedman, U.S. Amphibious Ships and Craft: An Illustrated Design History (Annapolis, ...
  9. [9]
    [PDF] Landing craft and the War Production Board April 1942 to May 1944
    United States Navy to develop a large landing «raft of real ship dimensions. This craft, according to the British had to be capable of undertaking long ...
  10. [10]
    D-Day Landing Craft - DDay.Center
    The “LCI(L)” or “Landing Craft, Infantry (Large)” was developed in response to a British request for a vessel capable of carrying and landing substantially more ...
  11. [11]
    Solomon Islands Campaign: I The Landing in the Solomons
    2) Landing Craft, Infantry (flotilla flagship) Landing Craft, Infantry (gunboat) Landing Craft, Infantry (large) Landing Craft Mechanized (Mk. II) Landing ...
  12. [12]
    Landing Craft Infantry LCI(L) - Naval Marine Archive
    LCI(L), 1, New York SB, Camden NJ, 7-Oct-42, Lost off Tunisia 17-Aug-43. LCI(L), 2, New York SB, Camden NJ, 9-Oct-42, To NDRF 1946. LCI(L), 3, New York SB ...Missing: prototypes Solomons trials
  13. [13]
    https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/OCSNCOE/References/NVICs/NVIC-7-68.pdf?ver=2017-08-07-105057-670
  14. [14]
    The Archeology of the Atomic Bomb (Chapter 4) - National Park Service
    Sep 22, 2008 · There were numerous watertight compartments that were strongly built, contributing directly to hull girder strength. The majority of damage, as ...
  15. [15]
    [PDF] ONI 226 - Ibiblio
    Troops are provided with hammocks in the compartments shown above. LANDING CRAFT, INFANTRY (SMALL) LCI(S). Opera-. Medium-sized British infantry carrier ...
  16. [16]
    Landing Craft Infantry LCI - NavSource Naval History
    Nov 10, 2023 · Speed: 6 kts (max.) 14 kts maximum continuous; LCI(L) ... two sets of four General Motors Diesel engines, four per shaft, BHP 1,600 ...Missing: performance range
  17. [17]
    Stanley Galik - LCI 35 - About the Landing Craft Infantry - Stanley Galik
    The Landing Craft Infantry (LCI), small in comparison to other ships, was affectionately called an "Elsie" or "Spitkit". These "New Ships of War", known for ...
  18. [18]
    Ship to Shore Movement - Naval History and Heritage Command
    Oct 31, 2017 · Hydraulic arbor press, minimum capacity 5 tons (to be provided in machine shop). ... When practicable, boats with bow ramps should be used.
  19. [19]
    Landing Craft Infantry LCI - NavSource Naval History
    Jun 30, 2017 · Displacement 246 t.(light), 264 t.(landing), 419 t.(loaded) · Length 158' 5½" · Beam 23' 3"; Draft: Light, 3'1½" mean: Landing, 2' 8" forward, 4' ...
  20. [20]
    LCI(L) Flotilla 4/10 History - Coast Guard Historian's Office
    The degaussing station is where the LCI's magnetic field was neutralized as protection from magnetic mines. ... A barrage balloon with steel cable attached to ...
  21. [21]
    HyperWar: The Amphibians Came to Conquer [Chapter 24] - Ibiblio
    The landing craft (infantry) (LCI) had grown into a small gunboat, and was now labeled a landing craft support ship. The landing ship (medium) had been ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  22. [22]
    Operation Shingle: Landing at Anzio, Italy
    Troops and equipment come ashore on the U.S. Fifth Army beachhead near Anzio, 22 January 1944. USS LCI-20 is burning at left, after being hit by a German bomb.
  23. [23]
    80-G-421289 Normandy Invasion, June 1944
    Troops land from USS LCI(L)-412 during the D-Day assault on Omaha Beach, 6 June 1944. Note half-track weapons carriers at the water's edge.
  24. [24]
    104th Medical Battalion, 29th Division Aboard LCI(L)-94 on D-Day
    There were 912 LCIs built. The U.S. fleet received 662. The British were given 220 and the Russians received 30. LCI(L)-94 was built in 1942 and delivered to ...Missing: total | Show results with:total
  25. [25]
    H-086-2: Iwo Jima: The Battle of the LCI Gunboats
    Jan 28, 2025 · A column of large support landing craft (LCS[L]) passes Mount Suribachi, on the southern end of Iwo Jima, during the pre-invasion bombardment, ...Missing: Infantry | Show results with:Infantry
  26. [26]
    [PDF] Chnages in United States Navy Riverine Warfare Capabilities ... - DTIC
    Jun 17, 2005 · ... Navy efforts, preventing them from building truly ideal riverine craft. The principle vessels used were: Landing Craft-Infantry (LCI). The ...
  27. [27]
    LCI(L)-759 - Naval History and Heritage Command
    Jul 14, 2016 · The unnamed large infantry landing craft LCI(L)-759 was laid down on 17 April 1944 at Portland, Ore., by Commercial Iron Works; launched on 10 May 1944.<|separator|>
  28. [28]
    US Navy Landing Ships/Craft, 1940-1945 - Ibiblio
    Sep 23, 2010 · LCI(G) -- Landing Craft, Infantry (Gunboat) · Displacement: 387 tons (full load) · Length: 160'4" · Beam: 23'3" · Draft: Landing: 2'10" forward, 5'3 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  29. [29]
    USS LC(FF)-367 ex USS LCI(L)-367 (1943 - Landing Craft Infantry LCI
    Jun 16, 2017 · Reclassified Landing Craft (Flotilla Flagship) LC(FF)-367, 31 December 1944; During World War II USS LC(FF)-367 was assigned to the Asiatic- ...
  30. [30]
    Dominick C. Maurone: USS LCI(G) 440 - Voices from the Pacific War
    The armament consisted of three 40-mm antiaircraft guns, two 20–mm guns, and eight .50-caliber machine guns that were fastened on the well deck. We also had ...
  31. [31]
    H-044-2: Naval Battle of Okinawa, Part 1
    Apr 3, 2020 · LCI(G)-82*. Infantry landing craft (gunboat) LCI(G)-82 was sunk by a Japanese Shinyo suicide boat during a night attack off the east coast ...Missing: built | Show results with:built
  32. [32]
    The Mortar-Equipped Landing Craft - HistoryNet
    Oct 3, 2019 · LCI(M)s were landing craft equipped with 4.2-inch mortars, used to provide close fire support during amphibious assaults, with three mortars ...
  33. [33]
    Amphibious Operations: Capture of Iwo Jima
    ... gunboat units were to deploy into line for firing rockets. Of the original 12 LCI(G)'s of Gunboat Support Units No. 1 and No. 2, only 3 were in condition to ...
  34. [34]
    Mortar Gunboats
    Designated as LCI(M) numbers 739, 740, 741, and 742, the mortar boats were earmarked for the campaign in the Palaus. The four boat crews prepared for the ...
  35. [35]
    [PDF] US Navy “Bird Boats” – Four Generations of Mine Warfare Ships
    Sep 2, 2015 · craft (LCI[L]) vessels completed conversion to AMCUs, i.e.. Coastal Minesweepers (Underwater Locator). All told, forty- eight AMCUs were ...
  36. [36]
    Excerpt from “USS LCI(L) 419…Its Story”
    Jan 26, 2020 · ... radar protection. Many of these “experimental” voyages included large convoys of LST's and resulted in tragedy. These approaches to France ...
  37. [37]
    British Amphibious ships and landings crafts of world war two
    This article is about British and commonwealth amphibious warfare in WW2, and the assault ships and landing crafts built in UK, canada, and from lend-lease.
  38. [38]
    Wooden Boats of World War 2 - Encyclopedia.pub
    Oct 14, 2022 · The 36-foots boats: Have two cabinets, displacement of 10,000 lbs. (5 tons), a beam of 8.9 feet, a draft of 30 inches, a Crew of 3, fuel of 240 ...
  39. [39]
    Landing Craft Infantry (Large) (LCI(L)) Amphibious Assault Ship
    Jun 7, 2016 · Dimensions included a length of 158.5 feet, a beam of 23.2 feet, and a draught of 6 feet. The shallow draught was of note for the vessel was to ...
  40. [40]
    WW2 US assault ships, landing ships and landing crafts
    An overview of all USN landing ships and landing crafts, support ships and variants, as well as amphibious vehicles of WW2.
  41. [41]
    A Closer Look at the U.S. Navy's 'Mighty Midget' - HistoryNet
    Nov 24, 2023 · Armament: One Mark 22 3-inch/50-caliber gun; two twin Bofors 40 mm L/60 antiaircraft guns; four Oerlikon L70 20 mm antiaircraft guns; four ...
  42. [42]
    Korean War - History - Inchon Landing (Operation Chromite)
    Sep 16, 2025 · The Inchon invasion demonstrated how naval forces can be a decisive factor in littoral operations. The 230 ships of Vice Admiral Arthur D.Missing: LCI recommissioned
  43. [43]
    [PDF] War in the shallows - Naval History and Heritage Command
    At the height of the U.S. Navy's involvement in the Vietnam War, the Navy's coastal and riverine forces included more than 30,000.
  44. [44]
    museumships.us - LCI(L)-713 - Museum Ships
    The USS LCI (L) 713 is a World War II era Landing Craft Infantry. Its mission was to place up to 200 soldiers onto almost any beach in the world.<|separator|>
  45. [45]
    Amphibious Forces Memorial Museum
    Two of those shipyards, Albina Engine and Machine and Commercial Iron Works were in Portland, Oregon. The LCI 713 is on the National Parks Service National ...
  46. [46]
    WW2 USN USS LCI(L)713 Restored "Landing Craft Infantry ...
    Aug 9, 2025 · ... WW2 US Navy Landing Craft Infantry, USS LCI(L)-713. Jerry takes ... USS Slater WWII Destroyer Escort Full Tour. Destinations of History ...Missing: D) | Show results with:D)
  47. [47]
    Landing Craft Infantry: USS LCI(L)-1091 - NavSource
    Nov 17, 2023 · USS LCI(L)-1091 earned two battle stars for World War II service and as LSIL-1091 received four battle stars for Korean War service; Sold in ...
  48. [48]
    Humboldt Outdoors: Discover USS LSI(L) 1091 - Redheaded Blackbelt
    Sep 8, 2025 · This is an interesting episode about a group of local veterans striving to restore a World War II ship with a unique history.Missing: conversion | Show results with:conversion
  49. [49]
    USS Landing Craft Infantry National Association – Navy and Coast ...
    The LCI National Association is dedicated to preserving the history of the World War II Landing Craft Infantry ships and honoring the sailors that manned them.Missing: 2025 | Show results with:2025
  50. [50]
    USS LCI 1091 is one of only two surviving Landing Craft Infantry ...
    Aug 30, 2024 · USS LCI 1091 is one of only two surviving Landing Craft Infantry ships left. A veteran of WWII and Korea, she is barely surviving now and the future is ...Landing ship medium (LSM) US Navy history - FacebookUSS LCI(L) 700 launching at shipyard - FacebookMore results from www.facebook.comMissing: timeline | Show results with:timeline<|control11|><|separator|>
  51. [51]
    Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) – D-Day Overlord
    Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) history. The Americans wanted a landing ship capable of transporting several hundred soldiers (200 equipped and 250 for simple ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  52. [52]
    The Amphibious Revolution | Naval History Magazine
    Aug 7, 2005 · Source: Norman Friedman, U.S. Amphibious Ships and Craft: An Illustrated Design History (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2002), Appendix B.
  53. [53]
    Corps advancing amphibious vehicles, landing craft for 21st century ...
    Jun 20, 2014 · The air cushioned landing craft, the LCAC, will be eventually be replaced with the Ship to Shore Connector (SSC), a more capable air cushioned ...Missing: influence modern EFV littoral<|separator|>
  54. [54]
    Lessons from the Littoral Combat Ship - War on the Rocks
    Nov 15, 2021 · The ship could be tasked to perform a wide range of missions (including surface warfare, mine countermeasures, and anti-submarine warfare) while ...
  55. [55]
    Landing Craft - Saving Private Ryan Online Encyclopedia
    Apr 11, 2009 · LCI, Landing Craft, Infantry, Large craft designed to carry 200 soldiers. LCM, Landing Craft, Mechanized, Capable of carrying 1 tank, or 50 men ...
  56. [56]
    Reunions - USS Landing Craft Infantry National Association
    These reunions provided LCI veterans, their families and friends an opportunity to renew friendships, share stories, enjoy social events and have a really good ...Missing: cultural Saving Private Ryan 2025 centennial