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Lesser bird-of-paradise

The lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) is a medium-sized passerine bird in the family Paradisaeidae, endemic to the lowland and hill forests of New Guinea and adjacent islands in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Males measure about 32 cm in length (excluding tail wires) and weigh 183–300 g, featuring striking iridescent yellowish-green plumage on the head and nape, a maroon-brown breast, long yellow flank plumes, and elongated black tail wires used in courtship displays; females are smaller at 141–210 g, with a dark brown head, buff underparts, and no ornamental feathers.^[1] This species is renowned for its polygynous mating system, where males gather at leks to perform elaborate dances and vocalizations to attract females, who alone build nests and rear young.^[1] Native to a range spanning from the West Papuan Islands (such as Yapen and Misool) to northern and eastern New Guinea, up to elevations of 1,550 m, the lesser bird-of-paradise inhabits primary rainforests, advanced secondary growth, swamp forests, and forest edges, though males are more restricted to dense canopy areas while females tolerate a broader array of habitats.^[1] It forages primarily in the upper forest canopy for fruits, supplemented by arthropods like insects and spiders, occasionally descending to lower levels or the ground.^[1] Breeding occurs mainly from July to February, with males defending display territories at leks and performing ritualized behaviors including the "Convergence" phase (where they hover and call), "Static" displays with puffed plumage, and copulatory sequences; vocalizations consist of high-pitched "wak" notes varying in pitch and tone.^[1] Three subspecies are recognized: the nominate P. m. minor in western New Guinea, P. m. jobiensis on Yapen and northern New Guinea, and P. m. finschi in eastern New Guinea.^[1] Despite historical pressures from plume trade and habitat loss, the lesser bird-of-paradise is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List due to its widespread distribution across an extent of occurrence exceeding 547,000 km² and decreasing population trends in suitable habitats.^[2] It is listed on Appendix II of CITES to regulate international trade, and while hunting persists in some regions for ceremonial plumes, the species remains common in protected areas and forests.^[1]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The scientific name of the lesser bird-of-paradise is Paradisaea minor. The genus Paradisaea is derived from the Greek parádeisos (παράδεισος), meaning "paradise" or "enclosed park," a term of Persian origin adopted into Greek to describe lush gardens; Linnaeus applied it to the genus in 1758 to reflect the exquisite, otherworldly plumage of these birds, which seemed to hail from a paradisiacal realm.^[3]^[4] The species epithet minor, from Latin meaning "smaller" or "lesser," was assigned to differentiate it from the larger Paradisaea paradisaea, the greater bird-of-paradise.^[5] The common English name "bird-of-paradise" emerged in the 16th century among European explorers and traders encountering the birds via Indonesian intermediaries. Dried trade skins arrived in Europe without legs or feet—removed by Papuan and Moluccan preparers to reduce weight during transport or for cultural practices—fostering legends that these ethereal creatures originated in paradise, sustained by divine air without need for terrestrial locomotion.^[6]^[7] Accounts from Antonio Pigafetta, chronicler of Magellan's 1521–1522 voyage, first documented such tales, noting indigenous descriptions of the birds as divine beings from a heavenly paradise.^[7] British zoologist George Shaw provided the first formal scientific description of Paradisaea minor in 1809, drawing on specimens collected from New Guinea that had reached European collections.^[8] This naming built on earlier Linnaean foundations for the genus while specifying the smaller variant's distinct traits.

Subspecies

The Lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) is classified into three recognized subspecies, distinguished primarily by variations in plumage coloration, size, and geographic isolation on islands and mainland regions of New Guinea. These subspecies reflect adaptations to local environments within the species' range, with differences most evident in male plumage used for display.^[9] The nominate subspecies, P. m. minor, inhabits the western extent of its range, including Misool Island in the West Papuan Islands, western New Guinea east to the West Papua–Papua New Guinea border along the northern watershed, and southward to Etna Bay. Males exhibit a maroon-washed back, iridescent yellowish emerald-green face, pale orangy-yellow head, and bright yellow flank plumes that fade to beige, contributing to a relatively darker overall maroon tone compared to other races. Females show dark brown heads and white underparts with a pinkish wash. This subspecies serves as the baseline for comparisons due to its central role in early taxonomic descriptions.^[9] P. m. finschi occupies northern New Guinea, ranging from just east of the West Papua–Papua New Guinea border eastward to Gogol, the upper Ramu River, and the North Huon Peninsula. This race features males with brighter orangy-yellow flank plumes that are slightly shorter than in the nominate form, along with reduced yellow on the mantle and shoulders, resulting in slightly paler underparts overall. Size is comparable to P. m. minor, with no significant differences in body mass or wing length reported.^[9] The subspecies P. m. jobiensis is restricted to Yapen Island in Geelvink Bay (Cenderawasih Bay), off northwestern New Guinea. It is the largest of the three, particularly in tarsus length, and males display plumage similar to the nominate subspecies, including flank plumes of the same color, though some observations note a brighter yellow crown in display contexts. This isolation on Yapen has preserved distinct morphological traits without extensive hybridization.^[9] Subspecies distinctions are based on subtle plumage color variations—such as differences in yellow and maroon intensities—and allopatric distributions driven by island geography and mainland river barriers, which limit gene flow. These traits were formalized in early 20th-century classifications and remain stable, with no proposed taxonomic splits or elevations to full species status as of 2025. All subspecies belong to the genus Paradisaea within the family Paradisaeidae, reflecting their shared evolutionary lineage among birds-of-paradise.^[9]

Description

Plumage

The lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism in its plumage, with males displaying vibrant, iridescent colors and elaborate ornamental feathers, while females are more subdued to aid camouflage.^[1] Adult males feature a pale orangy-yellow head glossed with an iridescent silver sheen, transitioning to iridescent yellowish emerald-green on the lores, forehead, ear-coverts, chin, and throat; the nape and upper back are similarly yellow with emerald-green highlights.^[1] The body is mid-brown with a maroon wash on the rump and uppertail-coverts, accented by an orangy-yellow shoulder bar and outer wing edges; the breast is darker maroon-brown, fading to paler tones on the belly.^[1] ^[5] Unique to males are six elongated, filamental flank plumes that are bright yellow with maroon streaks, fading to dirty white at the tips—these plumes lack barbs at their distal ends, allowing them to fluff and spread during displays.^[1] The tail includes two central rectrices elongated into fine brown wires, up to 20 cm long, which are largely rachis without full vanes for a streamlined, thread-like appearance.^[1] ^[5] This iridescent plumage, produced by structural coloration in the feathers, shifts hues under different lighting conditions.^[1] The iris is yellow, the bill chalky bluish-grey, and the legs purplish grey-brown.^[1] Plumage varies slightly among subspecies; for example, in P. m. finschi, the flank plumes are slightly shorter and brighter orangy-yellow, with a less extensive yellow shoulder.^[1] In contrast, adult females have drabber plumage overall, with a dark brown head, paler buff-yellow on the nape and mantle, and mid- to dark brown upperparts; the underparts are white with a pinkish light brown wash on the flanks and undertail-coverts.^[1] ^[5] The tail is shorter and narrower than the male's, lacking the elongated wires, and there are no flank plumes or breast shield, resulting in a more uniform, cryptic brown tone that blends with forest understory.^[1] ^[10] The iris is yellowish white, the bill and legs bluish.^[1] Juvenile plumage remains undescribed in detail, but immature males closely resemble adult females in their dull brown coloration, gradually molting into adult male patterns over 8–9 years, with initial intrusions of yellow and green feathers and progressively longer central tail rectrices.^[1] These tail wires and flank plumes play a key role in courtship displays, where they are erected to accentuate the male's colors.^[5]

Size and measurements

The Lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) measures approximately 32 cm in total length, excluding the elongated central tail wires in males.^[1] Males exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism, with body sizes generally larger than females, particularly in wing length, while females possess shorter and narrower central rectrices.^[1] Adult males weigh between 183 and 300 g, whereas females range from 141 to 210 g, reflecting the males' greater mass associated with ornamental structures.^[1] Juveniles are smaller than adults and resemble females in overall form, gradually attaining adult dimensions as they mature, though specific growth timelines for size are not well-documented beyond plumage transitions occurring over several years.^[1] Among subspecies, the nominate P. m. minor and P. m. finschi are similar in overall size, but P. m. jobiensis is notably larger, especially in tarsus length.^[1] These variations contribute to subtle differences in physical proportions across populations, though comprehensive comparative metrics remain limited.^[1]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) is endemic to the New Guinea archipelago, with its range restricted to the island of New Guinea and adjacent islands, and it is not found elsewhere in the world.^[1] Its primary distribution spans lowland areas of northern and western New Guinea, from the western extent in Indonesia (West Papua) eastward through Papua New Guinea, including coastal and northern regions up to the Huon Peninsula.^[1]^[11] The species occurs on offshore islands such as Misool in the Raja Ampat Islands (part of the nominate subspecies P. m. minor) and Yapen Island in Geelvink Bay (subspecies P. m. jobiensis), as well as the northern mainland from the Sepik River eastward (subspecies P. m. finschi).^[1]^[11] In the southern watershed, the range extends to Etna Bay in western New Guinea for the nominate form.^[1] The overall extent of occurrence is estimated at 547,000 km² across Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.^[2] The species inhabits elevations from sea level up to approximately 1,550 m in northern coastal and lowland forests.^[1] Its range has remained stable since 19th-century records, with no major contractions documented as of 2025, though local declines occur in areas affected by hunting.^[1]^[2]

Habitat preferences

The lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) primarily inhabits lowland and hill rainforests, extending from sea level up to approximately 1550 meters in elevation across its range in northern New Guinea and adjacent islands.^[9] Adult and subadult males are more restricted to primary forest and advanced secondary growth with dense canopy, while female-plumaged birds tolerate a broader array of habitats, including more disturbed areas. The upper elevational limit is also lower for males than for females.^[1] It favors subtropical and tropical moist lowland forests as its core habitat, where dense vegetation supports its arboreal lifestyle.^[2] In addition to primary rainforests, the species occupies swamp forests, forest edges, and secondary growth areas, demonstrating a preference for structurally complex environments with tall trees and understory cover.^[9] It is notably absent from higher montane forests above 1550 meters and coastal mangroves, limiting its distribution to mid-elevation zones.^[9] Within these habitats, the bird utilizes the canopy and subcanopy layers for most activities, while nests are built in tree forks, typically 2–11 m above the ground, for protection.^[9]^[12] The species shows adaptability to human-modified landscapes, tolerating selectively logged forests and even gardens adjacent to native woodland, though it avoids open clearings that lack sufficient cover.^[9]^[2]

Behavior

Foraging and diet

The Lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) is primarily frugivorous, with its diet dominated by fruits such as figs and other wild berries, comprising the majority of its intake throughout the year.^[1]^[13] Arthropods, including insects and spiders, supplement this frugivorous base, particularly when the bird seeks protein-rich prey.^[1]^[14] Species in the genus Paradisaea, including P. minor, exhibit nearly exclusive reliance on fruit, with arthropods forming a lesser but essential component of the diet.^[15] Foraging primarily occurs in the upper canopy of rainforest trees, where the bird gleans fruits directly from foliage and branches using its curved bill to pluck and manipulate items.^[1]^[14] To capture arthropods, it descends to lower forest strata, employing quick, agile movements to probe and snatch prey from surfaces.^[1] The bird typically forages solitarily or in small groups of up to a few individuals, but it frequently joins mixed-species flocks—often including other birds-of-paradise and the Papuan babbler (Garritornis isidorei)—to enhance insect-hunting efficiency in the canopy.^[1]^[14] As a key frugivore in New Guinea's lowland rainforests, the Lesser bird-of-paradise contributes significantly to ecosystem dynamics by dispersing seeds through its fruit consumption and defecation, aiding forest regeneration.^[12]^[15] The Lesser bird-of-paradise is a diurnal species, active from dawn until dusk, during which it primarily forages in the forest canopy for fruits and arthropods while occasionally descending to lower levels to search for insects. At night, individuals roost in the upper canopy layers of trees. Foraging and general activity often peak in the early morning and late afternoon, aligning with periods of heightened environmental activity in its rainforest habitat.^[9]^[16] Outside the breeding season, the social structure is predominantly solitary or paired, though individuals may form loose, temporary foraging flocks when fruit resources are abundant, facilitating opportunistic feeding opportunities. Males defend traditional display perches year-round within leks, exhibiting stable territorial ownership without observed changes between individuals. These territories serve as focal points for non-breeding interactions, including aggressive chases and counter-calling among males to assert dominance. The species tolerates mixed-species foraging flocks, commonly associating with other birds-of-paradise and the Papuan babbler (Garritornis isidorei) without conflict.^[9]^[16] The Lesser bird-of-paradise is sedentary and non-migratory, residing year-round in suitable forest habitats with small home ranges typical of the family, estimated at a few square kilometers. Local movements occur in response to seasonal fruit availability rather than broad-scale dispersal, allowing individuals to shift within their restricted areas to exploit patchy resources.^[9]

Breeding

Courtship displays

The lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) employs a lekking system for courtship, where multiple males congregate at traditional display sites in the forest canopy to perform elaborate rituals aimed at attracting females. These leks are typically located in single large trees with defoliated perches, accommodating up to 12 adult males who display individually or in loose groups from fixed positions in the upper forest canopy; central perches are preferred, and the dominant male there often secures the majority of copulations. Leks are stable and may persist for many years, sometimes up to a century, facilitating female assessment of multiple suitors in one location.^[1]^[16]^[5] Male displays are structured in three main phases: convergence, static, and copulatory sequence. During convergence, males adopt an upright wing pose, rapidly flutter their chestnut wings, and emit high-pitched "wak" calls or the advertisement song "wik wong-wau wau" to draw attention; this transitions to a static phase where the male hangs upside down from the perch, fanning and shivering his bright yellow flank plumes while producing a low, harsh vibrating vocalization. In the copulatory sequence, if a female approaches, the male may bow, hover briefly, and intensify calls, using his iridescent emerald-green throat and pale orangy-yellow head to accentuate the display; the elongated flank plumes play a key role in visually signaling fitness. These elements combine physical movements, plumage exhibition, and acoustic signals to create a dynamic performance.^[1]^[5]^[17] Displays occur year-round but peak during the dry season from July to February, aligning with enlarged male gonads (February–August) and female oocyte development (primarily August). Individual display bouts typically last 10–30 minutes, with males active at leks primarily in the early morning (0600–0900) and late afternoon (1430–1715), during which females most frequently visit.^[1]^[16] Females visit leks to observe and evaluate multiple males, often "sampling" displays from a distance before approaching a preferred perch; selection is based on the vigor and quality of the performance, with females explicitly soliciting copulation by landing nearby and signaling acceptance. Copulations, lasting seconds, usually follow successful displays, after which females depart to handle all subsequent reproductive duties independently. Over an 18-day observation period at one lek, 99 female visits resulted in 26 copulations, predominantly by the central male but with evidence of choice among at least three males.^[1]^[16]^[18]

Reproduction and parental care

The breeding season of the lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) is opportunistic and primarily occurs during the dry season from July to February, influenced by the availability of fruits and insects, with peak female reproductive activity in August.^[9] Clutch size typically consists of 1–2 eggs, most commonly a single egg.^[9] Nesting is performed exclusively by the female, who constructs a bulky, open cup-shaped nest using twigs, sticks, vines, and dead leaves, often lined with black wire-like fibers or rootlets; these nests are usually placed about 6 m above the ground in forest trees near gardens or higher in thick foliage.^[9] Males provide no assistance in nest building or subsequent care, consistent with the species' polygynous mating system where males copulate with multiple females at leks following courtship displays.^[9] The female alone incubates the eggs for approximately 18 days.^[9] She continues to provide all parental care, feeding the chicks a diet primarily consisting of arthropods and fruit until they fledge after 18–19 days in the nest.^[9]

Conservation

Population status

The lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (assessed 2018).^[2] This assessment reflects its widespread distribution across northern New Guinea and adjacent islands, where it remains relatively common despite localized pressures.^[2] The global population size has not been precisely quantified, though the species is described as common and widespread throughout its estimated extent of occurrence of over 547,000 km².^[2] Densities vary by habitat but are typically reported as moderate in intact lowland and hill forests, supporting a stable overall abundance in core areas.^[2] Population trends are uncertain but tentatively assessed as declining overall, with stability in remote highland regions contrasted by reductions in more accessible lowland areas since the early 2000s.^[2] Monitoring efforts rely on assessments by BirdLife International, incorporating habitat modeling and threat analyses, alongside citizen-science data from eBird surveys that track sighting frequencies and distribution changes.^[2]

Threats and protection

The lesser bird-of-paradise faces primary threats from habitat loss driven by logging and agricultural expansion, which have degraded lowland forests across its range in New Guinea.^[2] Between 1972 and 2002, approximately 15% of Papua New Guinea's rainforests were cleared, exacerbating fragmentation and reducing suitable breeding and foraging areas.^[19] Hunting for ornamental plumes and involvement in the international pet and handicraft trade further pressure populations, with birds targeted for their striking feathers used in traditional attire and jewelry.^[2] To address trade risks, the species is included in CITES Appendix II, which regulates international commerce to prevent overexploitation.^[20] Conservation efforts include protection within key reserves such as Lorentz National Park in Papua, Indonesia, where the park's vast rainforests safeguard habitats for multiple bird-of-paradise species.^[21] In Papua New Guinea, community-based initiatives engage local indigenous groups to monitor and restrict hunting, promoting sustainable resource use around leks and foraging sites. Trade regulations under CITES have notably reduced legal exports of live birds and plumes, with quotas and permits enforced by 185 parties to the convention.^[22] The species holds protected status under national legislation in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, including provincial bans on commercial hunting and trade of birds-of-paradise for non-traditional purposes. Looking ahead, curbing hunting through stricter enforcement could support population recovery and potential reassessment of the species' conservation status, currently Least Concern but with declining trends linked to these threats.^[2] Ongoing research into sustainable ecotourism in Papua New Guinea highlights opportunities for economic incentives that align local livelihoods with habitat preservation, fostering long-term protection.^[23]

References

[1]
Lesser Bird-of-Paradise Paradisaea minor - Birds of the World
Adult and subadult males restricted to forest and advanced second growth, whereas birds in female-type plumage have broader habitat acceptance; upper ...
[2]
Lesser Bird-of-paradise Paradisaea Minor Species Factsheet
IUCN Red List assessment history ; 2009. Least Concern ; 2008. Least Concern ; 2004. Least Concern ; 2000. Lower Risk/Least Concern.
[3]
Paradise - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating from late Old English via Old French and Late Latin, "paradise" means the garden of Eden or a blessed park, deriving from Greek paradeisos and ...
[4]
Visitors from Paradise: The Paradiseidae
Sep 25, 2014 · Carl Linnaeus named this species Paradisaea apoda, meaning “legless bird-of-paradise.” The misnomer was based on early trade-skins prepared and ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
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Lesser Bird of Paradise - The Australian Museum
Common name. Lesser Bird of Paradise. Scientific name. Paradisaea minor. Etymology. Paradisaea (Latin, paradise); minor (Latin, lesser); common name ...Fast Facts · Courtship · DistributionMissing: origin genus
[6]
Bird of Paradise (Bird) | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants
The greater bird of paradise's taxonomic name means footless paradise bird. 16th century Indonesians sent the bird's skins to Europe without the legs ...About · Family Life · At The Zoo
[7]
Fallen Angels: Birds of Paradise in Early Modern Europe
Apr 4, 2018 · Bird of paradise from Ulisse Aldrovandi's Ornithologia (1599) Source. In 1522, the dismembered skins of new and fabulous creatures were ...
[8]
[PDF] PLUMES from Paradise - Sydney Open Library
Paradisaea minor (Shaw, 1809). Red Bird of Paradise. Paradisaea rubra ... The first was the Lesser Bird of Paradise obtained by the. Spanish in the ...
[9]
https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.lbopar1.01
[10]
Paradisaea minor - Monaco Nature Encyclopedia
Oct 18, 2024 · The Paradisea minor, or more simply, the Lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor Shaw, 1809) belongs to the order of the Passeriformes and to ...
[11]
Paradisaea minor (Lesser Bird-of-paradise) - Avibase
Paradisaea minor Shaw, G 1809 The lesser bird-of-paradise is a bird-of-paradise in the genus Paradisaea. Source: Wikipedia (0 votes)
[12]
BIRDS-OF-PARADISE IN PAPUA AND WEST PAPUA (INDONESIA ...
Lesser birds-of-paradise (Paradisaea minor) are ... The diet consists mainly of fruits such as figs, and arthropods. ... percent of light, and behavioral ...Missing: berries | Show results with:berries
[13]
Lesser Bird-of-paradise - Oiseaux-Birds
The young birds need about 8-9 years to acquire the full adult plumage. P.m. jobiensis is the largest, with longer tarsus. P.m. finschi has slightly shorter ...
[14]
https://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-lesser-bird-paradise.html
[15]
Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisaea minor) Information | Earth Life
IUCN classifies the Lesser Bird-of-Paradise as Least Concern because it is common in northern New Guinea, nearby islands, and many other areas. The species is ...
[16]
[PDF] Lek Behavior of the Lesser Bird of Paradise - Digital Commons @ USF
Sep 9, 2024 · My observations at this lek of the Lesser Bird of. Paradise provide the first direct evidence that, for this species, some males mate ...Missing: structure | Show results with:structure
[17]
How birds of paradise find mates, by David Attenborough
Apr 6, 2011 · ... lesser bird of paradise ( Paradisaea minor ), about the size of a … ... He shows them off by hanging upside down and throbbing them while ...
[18]
Inspection & Touch - Birds-of-Paradise Project
They decide who they mate with, and the choices they make determine what the next generation looks like. Lesser Bird-of-Paradise Displays start when males begin ...Missing: convergence static
[19]
Bird communities of the lower Waria Valley, Morobe Province ...
Sep 26, 2011 · Indeed, between 1972 and 2002, 15% of Papua New Guinea's rainforests were cleared and 8.8% degraded to secondary forest, equating to a total ...
[20]
Appendices | CITES
IntroductionAppendices in pdf formatAppendices I, II and IIIvalid from 7 February 2025Interpretation1. Species included in these Appendices are referred to:
[21]
Climate extremes impact fruit and nectar production… with ...
It is likely that increases in rainfall variability and intensity, and extreme temperatures may result in less-reliable and more spatially-dispersed nectar and ...Missing: paradise | Show results with:paradise
[22]
Lorentz National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Two of the restricted range bird species, Archbold's bowerbird (Archboldia papuensis), and MacGregor's bird-of-paradise (Macgregoria pulchra), are considered ...Missing: Lesser | Show results with:Lesser
[23]
https://news.mongabay.com/podcast/podcast-defending-new-guineas-forests-with-birds-of-paradise-and-ecotourism/
[24]
Protecting New Guinea's forests with birds-of-paradise and ecotourism
Feb 16, 2022 · In addition to ecotourism and developing independent and renewable energy sources, Bustar sees greater potential for the local and Indigenous ...