Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Lesser nighthawk

The lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) is a small, crepuscular or nocturnal bird in the nightjar family Caprimulgidae, characterized by its cryptic brown, buff, and gray plumage that provides excellent camouflage against arid ground substrates, long pointed wings with white patches near the tips, and a wide gape fringed with bristles for capturing insects in flight.^[1]^[2]^[3] Measuring 8 to 9.2 inches (20–23 cm) in length, it is slightly smaller and paler than its close relative the common nighthawk, with a less deeply forked tail and more buffy tones overall; males feature a distinctive white throat patch, while females have a buff one.^[2]^[3] This species is renowned for its low, erratic flight during dawn and dusk foraging bouts, where it pursues flying insects such as moths, beetles, and mosquitoes, often near water sources or over open terrain.^[1]^[2] Native to the Americas, the lesser nighthawk breeds in arid and semi-arid lowlands from the southwestern United States (including California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas) south through Mexico, Central America, and northern South America; northern populations are migratory, while those farther south are largely resident, favoring habitats such as desert washes, scrubby grasslands, dry farmlands, and open woodlands with sparse vegetation.^[1]^[3]^[2] It is a summer breeder in the U.S., arriving from March to May and departing by August to October for nonbreeding grounds in central Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, where it occupies similar dry lowlands, mangroves, or beaches.^[3]^[2] During the day, it roosts motionless on the ground or low branches, relying on torpor to conserve energy in cool temperatures and gaping its mouth to dissipate heat.^[1] Breeding pairs lay two cryptic eggs directly on bare ground without a nest structure, with incubation lasting 18–19 days primarily by the female and fledging occurring after about 21 days; they may raise one or two broods per season.^[1]^[2] Males perform courtship displays involving a whistled trill or bleating call and shallow dives, producing a soft, sustained tremolo whir that is quieter and less nasal than the common nighthawk's.^[3]^[2] With a global population estimated at around 14 million individuals that has increased by about 15% since 1970 (as of 2020), the species faces low conservation concern, though it may be vulnerable to habitat loss from urbanization and agriculture in its breeding range.^[1]^[2]

Taxonomy and Classification

Etymology

The scientific name of the lesser nighthawk is Chordeiles acutipennis. The genus Chordeiles was established by the English naturalist William Swainson in 1832, originally to accommodate the common nighthawk (C. minor), and derives from the Ancient Greek khordē (χορδή), meaning "gut," "string," or "chord" (as in a musical instrument like a lyre), combined with deilē (δείλη), meaning "evening" or "afternoon." This etymology alludes to the resonant, musical quality of the birds' calls during twilight hours.^[4] The specific epithet acutipennis stems from the Latin acutus, meaning "sharp" or "pointed," and penna, meaning "wing" or "feather," describing the species' acutely pointed primary wing feathers, a diagnostic morphological feature. Originally described as Caprimulgus acutipennis by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Hermann in 1783 based on specimens from South America, the name was later transferred to the genus Chordeiles by Swainson upon its creation.^[5]^[6] The common English name "nighthawk" first appeared in the early 17th century, notably in the 1611 King James Version of the Bible (Leviticus 11:16), where it served as a vernacular term for the European nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus), evoking the bird's crepuscular activity and the sharp, hawklike silhouette it presents in flight at dusk. This name was subsequently extended to New World nightjars in the genus Chordeiles by early ornithologists, including John Cassin in 1851, due to analogous nocturnal foraging and aerial prowess. The modifier "lesser" differentiates this smaller species (typically 20–23 cm in length) from its larger congener, the common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor), with which it shares superficial resemblances but differs in size, vocalizations, and habitat preferences. Historically, the lesser nighthawk was also called the Trilling Nighthawk, referencing its distinctive, frog-like trill call, a usage noted in early 20th-century American ornithological literature.^[7]

Systematics

The lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) is classified in the order Caprimulgiformes, which encompasses nocturnal and crepuscular birds adapted to insectivory, and the family Caprimulgidae, comprising nightjars, nighthawks, and their allies, with around 100 species distributed globally.^[7] This placement reflects the bird's shared morphological and behavioral traits, such as cryptic plumage and aerial foraging, with other caprimulgids.^[8] Within Caprimulgidae, the lesser nighthawk belongs to the genus Chordeiles, which includes six species: the least nighthawk (C. pusillus), sand-coloured nighthawk (C. rupestris), common nighthawk (C. minor), lesser nighthawk (C. acutipennis), Antillean nighthawk (C. gundlachii), and Nacunda nighthawk (C. nacunda). Molecular phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences have established that the lesser nighthawk is sister to the sand-coloured nighthawk (C. rupestris) within Chordeiles.^[9] Advancements in molecular phylogenetics during the 2010s prompted significant taxonomic revisions in Caprimulgiformes, including the separation of frogmouths (Podargidae) from broader assemblages previously linked to nightjars based on genetic evidence of divergent evolutionary histories.^[10] These shifts highlighted the paraphyly of traditional groupings and refined the order's structure through multi-gene studies.^[11] The International Ornithological Congress (IOC) World Bird List, in its 2025 update (version 15.1), upholds this classification, recognizing the lesser nighthawk as a distinct species in a monophyletic Chordeiles lineage supported by contemporary phylogenetic data.

Subspecies

The lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) is recognized as comprising seven subspecies, differentiated primarily by variations in plumage coloration, size, and subtle differences in vocalizations, as delineated in established taxonomic treatments.^[12] These distinctions reflect adaptations to diverse arid and semi-arid environments across their range, with no proposed taxonomic splits in recent reviews up to 2025.^[12] The subspecies C. a. texensis, found from the southwestern United States to central Mexico, exhibits paler overall plumage with broad white bands on the primaries and rectrices, and is among the larger forms (male wing length often exceeding 164 mm).^[12] In contrast, C. a. acutipennis, distributed from northern South America through central Brazil and northern Bolivia, displays darker grayish plumage, narrower white bands, and heavier barring on the dorsum, contributing to enhanced camouflage in denser tropical scrub.^[12] C. a. exilis, restricted to coastal western Peru, is notably smaller and paler with broader wing and tail bands, including whitish tail markings, reflecting its specialized coastal habitat.^[12] Other subspecies include C. a. littoralis (southern Mexico to western Panama), which is darker in both adult and juvenile plumage compared to northern populations; C. a. micromeris (northern Yucatán Peninsula and Belize), featuring coarser markings and a browner dorsum in juveniles; C. a. aequatorialis (western Colombia to northwestern Peru), characterized by grayer tones, buff tail bands, and smaller size (wing under 163 mm); and C. a. crissalis (central and southwestern Colombia), paler than acutipennis with lighter barring.^[12] Across these taxa, size gradients range from larger northern forms to smaller southern ones, while coloration shifts from pale desert-adapted variants to darker, more barred tropical types. Vocalizations, such as the trilling call, show minor regional variations in pitch and duration, though these are not diagnostic for field identification.^[13] This subspecific framework, upheld in the latest ornithological assessments, underscores the species' clinal variation without warranting further fragmentation.^[12]

Physical Characteristics

Plumage and Morphology

The lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) measures 20–23 cm in body length, with a wingspan of approximately 55 cm and a weight ranging from 45–50 g.^[14]^[15] Its plumage is mottled in shades of brown, gray, and buff, providing a cryptic pattern across the upperparts, head, and underparts, with the crown and upper back appearing darkest and finer barring on the chest and malar region.^[3]^[15] The wings feature long, pointed primaries that are dark brownish gray, often with buff spotting on the basal portions, and a conspicuous pale bar located about two-thirds from the wing bend to the tip, which is white in males and cream-colored in females.^[14]^[3] The tail is short and slightly forked, measuring around 106–111 mm on average, with thin white bars visible on the upper surface.^[15] Sexual differences in plumage are evident primarily in the prominence of the white wing bar and tail band, which are more distinct in males.^[14] Structurally, the lesser nighthawk has a small, thin bill averaging 6 mm in length, surrounded by sensitive bristles, but a notably wide gape that extends broadly for aerial feeding.^[15]^[16] The eyes are large and dark brown with a faint green sheen, capable of a ruby-red glow at close range, suited to low-light conditions.^[15] Its legs are short and dull pinkish-gray, terminating in weak feet with tiny toes that limit terrestrial mobility.^[14]^[15] The overall wing chord length averages 175–183 mm, contributing to its slender, pointed silhouette.^[15]

Sexual Dimorphism

The lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) displays moderate sexual dimorphism, primarily in plumage coloration and pattern, with males featuring more contrasting markings that are accentuated during courtship displays. Males exhibit a conspicuous broad white subterminal band on the tail and bold white patches on the four outer primaries (p7–p10), which form a prominent white bar across the distal portion of the wings visible in flight.^[15] These features contrast sharply against the otherwise mottled gray-brown upperparts and pale underparts, aiding in visual signaling.^[14] In contrast, females are duller overall to enhance camouflage during ground nesting, lacking the white tail band or showing only faint buff mottling terminally on the tail. Their wing bar is buffy or cinnamon-colored rather than white, appearing less distinct and smaller, while the throat patch is buffy instead of purely white.^[15] This subdued patterning provides effective crypsis against arid substrates.^[14] Size differences between the sexes are minimal, though males are slightly larger on average across most populations; for example, male wing chord measures 183.1 mm (±5.3 SD, n=34) compared to 174.9 mm (±3.9 SD, n=28) in females, with similar proportional differences in tail length (110.8 mm vs. 105.1 mm).^[15] These variations can be more pronounced in certain subspecies, such as C. a. acutipennis. Juveniles resemble females in plumage, with more uniform ochraceous tones, smaller and deeper buff primary patches, and indistinct tail bands; they undergo a preformative molt into adult-like plumage during their first year.^[15]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) has a broad breeding distribution spanning the southwestern United States, Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, primarily at elevations below 2,500 m. In the United States, it breeds in arid and semiarid regions of Arizona, Texas, southern California (from Owens Valley to Salton Sea), Nevada (such as Overton), southern New Mexico, and Utah (Virgin River valley). Southward, the breeding range extends through Mexico (including the Yucatán Peninsula), Central America (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama), and into northern South America, encompassing Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru (up to 950 m), Bolivia, Paraguay, and southern Brazil.^[17]^[18] Northern populations, particularly those in the United States, are migratory and spend the non-breeding season (winter) in Mexico (from Baja California to Veracruz), Central America (Costa Rica and Panama), and as far south as Colombia. Southern populations, from central Mexico through much of South America, are largely year-round residents. The species occurs year-round or as a non-breeder in additional countries including Chile and Trinidad and Tobago.^[17]^[19]^[18] Vagrant records outside the core range include sightings in Florida, Colorado, Oklahoma, Louisiana, New Jersey, Ontario, Alabama, and Bermuda, often during migration in April–May. In North America, populations have shown a small increase over the past 40 years, potentially linked to habitat availability in arid regions.^[17]^[18]

Habitat Preferences

The lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) primarily occupies arid and semi-arid ecosystems, including deserts, scrublands, dry grasslands, and savannas, where sparse vegetation allows for unobstructed flight and camouflage.^[7] These habitats often feature xerophilic low trees or creosote bushes, providing suitable conditions for daytime roosting on the ground.^[7] The species avoids dense forests and heavily disturbed areas with dense weeds, favoring naturally open landscapes with minimal human interference.^[20]^[8] Nesting occurs on open, gravelly or sandy soils, typically in flat or gently sloping terrain that offers expansive views of both ground and sky, such as dry washes or sparsely vegetated creosote flats.^[21]^[18] Eggs are laid directly on bare ground without a constructed nest, blending with the substrate for protection.^[20]^[8] The bird tolerates low to moderate elevations from sea level to 2,500 m, and it can occupy urban edges, such as gravel rooftops, or agricultural fields adjacent to its core breeding range, provided these areas support insect populations.^[18]^[22]^[8]

Migration and Movements

Breeding and Wintering Areas

The Lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) breeds primarily in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, with the northern extent of its breeding range encompassing arid regions such as the Sonoran Desert in Arizona, the Mojave Desert in California, and the Rio Grande Valley in Texas. Populations in these areas arrive on breeding grounds from early March to mid-May and remain through the summer months, typically until September, before departing southward.^[17]^[23] In contrast, southern populations in central and southern Mexico, as well as parts of Central and South America, exhibit year-round breeding behavior, with individuals occupying suitable habitats continuously without pronounced seasonal shifts.^[17] For northern migrant populations, wintering areas are concentrated in the lowlands of southern Central America, extending into northern South America, where birds arrive from late September to early November and remain through March. Key wintering sites include coastal and inland lowlands in Costa Rica and Panama, as well as the Andean foothills in Colombia and the Marañón Valley in Peru, where open scrub and dry woodlands provide foraging opportunities during the non-breeding season.^[23]^[17] These regions support the species' crepuscular habits amid seasonal insect abundance. The species demonstrates partial migration, with many tropical populations remaining sedentary year-round in their core range from Mexico southward, showing little to no movement between breeding and wintering areas. This sedentary lifestyle is particularly evident in central Brazil and Paraguay, where environmental conditions allow continuous occupancy without the need for long-distance relocation.^[23]^[1]

Migration Patterns

The lesser nighthawk's migratory populations, primarily those breeding in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, undertake seasonal movements southward to wintering areas in southern Mexico and Central America, covering distances up to approximately 3,000 km.^[23]^[2] Fall migration typically occurs from early August to late October, with peak passage in mid-August to mid-September, while spring migration brings birds north from early March to mid-May, peaking in April.^[23] Migration routes are predominantly overland, passing through Mexico and Central America, with some northern breeders extending as far south as Colombia.^[23]^[2] During transit, individuals often travel in loose flocks of up to 40 birds, though many migrate singly or in pairs, flying at higher altitudes and sometimes during daylight hours rather than their typical nocturnal patterns.^[23] Stopover behaviors involve brief rests in arid or scrubby habitats along the route, such as those in western-central Nicaragua, where concentrations of up to 220 individuals have been observed in October; these pauses are largely dictated by the availability of swarming insects essential for refueling.^[23]^[1] Recent analyses indicate that climate warming may induce shifts in migration timing and routes for the lesser nighthawk, potentially altering breeding and wintering distributions as over half of its current range becomes climatically unsuitable by 2080.^[24]

Behavior and Ecology

Foraging and Diet

The lesser nighthawk is primarily an aerial insectivore, capturing flying insects mid-air by scooping them into its wide gape, which is lined with stiff bristles to help trap prey.^[25] This method allows it to forage efficiently while in flight, often patrolling low over open habitats like deserts, grasslands, or bodies of water.^[1] Although it occasionally hunts from the ground by fluttering up to snatch passing insects, nearly all feeding occurs during aerial pursuits.^[2] Foraging activity peaks at dusk and dawn, aligning with the emergence of nocturnal insects, though the bird may also hunt on moonlit nights or even midday in shaded areas.^[25] It is highly opportunistic, targeting swarms of abundant prey in open spaces, and in subtropical regions, individuals often form loose aggregations of over 100 birds at productive sites such as rivers.^[25] The diet consists exclusively of insects, with no recorded plant matter, and includes a diverse array of flying species such as termites, flies, mosquitoes, winged ants, beetles (including June bugs), moths, leafhoppers, and cicadas.^[2] Prey selection reflects local abundance, with seasonal shifts toward emergent or swarming insects; for example, flying ants can comprise the majority of the diet in southern New Mexico, while small beetles dominate in Panama.^[26] Stomach analyses reveal up to 47 insect families, but typically one or two species account for 90–100% of the weekly food mass, underscoring the bird's reliance on whatever is most readily available.^[25]

Vocalizations

The lesser nighthawk produces a primary vocalization described as a soft, toadlike, buzzing or churring trill, typically lasting 7–13 seconds and sometimes repeated in series for up to 3 minutes.^[13] This trill has a low frequency of approximately 0.5 kHz and is often given from a perch or in flight during the breeding season.^[13] It serves primarily for territorial defense and mate attraction, with the species being much less vocal overall compared to relatives like the common nighthawk and rarely calling outside of breeding activities.^[13] Additional calls include a bleating or whinnying flight note, resembling a goat's bleat, used during aerial chases or courtship, as well as sharper chip notes and soft, insect-like tseep sounds.^[27]^[13] Defensive hisses may be emitted by females or young at the nest site.^[13] These vocalizations play a role in breeding displays, where males perform trills while circling potential mates.^[13] The lesser nighthawk also generates mechanical sounds through wing movements, including claps and whirring noises produced during courtship or territorial displays.^[28] As of 2025, xeno-canto hosts over 100 recordings of lesser nighthawk vocalizations from across its range.^[29]

Daily Activity Patterns

The lesser nighthawk exhibits primarily crepuscular and nocturnal activity patterns, with foraging and flight activity peaking at dusk and dawn. During the day, it roosts motionless on the ground, low branches, or flat surfaces such as rocks or logs, relying on its mottled gray-brown plumage for effective camouflage against predators. This sedentary daytime behavior minimizes energy expenditure and detection risk in arid habitats.^[21]^[30]^[2] Activity typically commences 26–41 minutes after sunset, lasting up to about 40 minutes initially, before tapering into nocturnal foraging that may extend into the morning until around 11:00 in some populations. To conserve energy during periods of environmental stress, such as extreme cold, the lesser nighthawk can enter torpor, a state of reduced metabolic rate and body temperature that allows survival until conditions improve.^[1] In hot conditions, it employs gular fluttering—rapid vibration of the throat—to facilitate evaporative cooling.^[1]^[25] Socially, the lesser nighthawk is generally solitary or occurs in loose pairs and small family groups outside of breeding, with minimal flocking during daily routines except when converging on insect swarms attracted to lights or water sources. Roosts are often communal, accommodating up to 20 individuals, particularly non-breeders, but interactions remain limited to subtle communicative displays rather than cooperative activities. No evidence exists of cooperative breeding or complex group dynamics in non-migratory contexts.^[30]^[1]

Reproduction

Breeding Season and Displays

The breeding season of the Lesser Nighthawk varies geographically, reflecting its wide distribution across arid and semi-arid regions. In northern populations, such as those in the southwestern United States and Texas, breeding occurs from mid-April to late August, with peak activity from mid-May to mid-June and most eggs laid in June.^[31]^[22] In more tropical areas, the season is similarly extended but shifted earlier, spanning March to June in Costa Rica and February to May in Trinidad and Tobago.^[31] Courtship displays commence in early spring or summer, primarily involving aerial pursuits by males to attract females. Males fly close behind the female with stiff wingbeats, puffing out their white throats conspicuously while emitting trilling or chuckling calls, such as vigorous "whaa" notes.^[2]^[1]^[30] These displays include short plunges of up to 2 meters with wings bent downward, highlighting the bird's white wing and throat markings in low light, though without the booming sound produced by wing action in related species like the Common Nighthawk.^[30]^[1] Mate selection occurs during these courtship flights, with limited documentation suggesting females assess male displays for vigor, including throat puffing and vocal intensity.^[30] Resulting pairs form monogamous bonds for the breeding season, often foraging together in pairs or small groups while maintaining contact through quiet trills.^[1]^[30]

Nesting and Eggs

The Lesser nighthawk constructs no true nest, laying its eggs directly on bare, flat ground in open arid habitats such as gravelly mesas, rocky streambeds, dry washes, or scrublands, often amid scattered pebbles or on flat rocks for camouflage.^[31] Sites are typically selected in full sun exposure, though partial shade under low bushes like creosote or greasewood may be chosen in hotter regions; urban populations occasionally use flat rooftops.^[1]^[31] Clutch size is consistently two eggs across subspecies and populations, though single-egg clutches occur rarely in parts of the range such as Brazil.^[31] The eggs are oval to elliptical, averaging 27 mm in length and 20 mm in width (range 25–30 × 18–22 mm), with a smooth, moderately glossy surface and average mass of about 5.7 g.^[31]^[1] They are creamy white to clay-colored, sometimes with a faint pinkish tint, and marked with fine peppering of gray and lilac spots plus coarser blotches in fawn, olive-brown, and dark brown for crypsis against the substrate.^[31] The two eggs are laid on consecutive days, typically 24–48 hours apart.^[31]

Incubation and Chick Rearing

The female lesser nighthawk performs incubation alone, maintaining constant attentiveness to the eggs for a period of 18–19 days, during which she regulates egg temperatures (mean daytime 39.5°C, nighttime 36.1°C) and may reposition them to shaded areas if needed.^[31] The male remains nearby but does not participate directly in incubation.^[2] Upon hatching, which typically occurs on consecutive days, the semiprecocial chicks emerge down-covered with eyes open and are mobile shortly after, though they remain nidicolous.^[31] The female provides primary brooding care to the young, shading them from heat and protecting them at the nest site, while the male delivers most feedings by regurgitating balls of insects, primarily during crepuscular periods.^[31]^[22] Chicks achieve their first flight at approximately 21 days of age, with sustained flight capability developing by 23 days, marking the fledging stage.^[31]^[1] Nestling survival is vulnerable primarily to predation, with eggs and young most often lost to predators such as coyotes, raccoons, kit foxes, striped skunks, snakes, Black-crowned Night-Herons, Loggerhead Shrikes, and Greater Roadrunners.^[30]

Physiological and Behavioral Adaptations

Thermoregulation

The lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) employs gular fluttering as a primary evaporative cooling mechanism in hot environments, involving rapid pulsations of the throat that facilitate water evaporation from the respiratory tract. This behavior allows the bird to maintain body temperatures below ambient air temperatures exceeding 50°C, preventing dangerous hyperthermia during daytime roosting in arid habitats.^[32] In physiological experiments, preventing gular fluttering at an ambient temperature of 50°C caused body temperature to stabilize around 42.8–42.9°C, while resuming the fluttering rapidly lowered it to approximately 41.9°C, demonstrating its effectiveness in heat dissipation.^[32] To conserve energy during periods of cold or food scarcity, the lesser nighthawk enters daily torpor, a state of controlled hypothermia that reduces metabolic rate and lowers body temperature. This adaptation is particularly useful in fluctuating desert conditions, where nighttime lows can drop sharply.^[33] Torpor bouts can last for extended periods, enabling survival when ambient temperatures approach 0°C without excessive energy expenditure.^[33] The species exhibits broad thermal tolerance, enduring ambient temperatures from near 0°C to 60–62°C through a combination of physiological and behavioral strategies, including shade-seeking during peak heat and orienting into the wind to enhance convective cooling.^[34] Physiological studies highlight that its evaporative water loss remains minimal relative to other birds, with maximum rates of 3.5 g/h at heat tolerance limits around 60°C, allowing efficient cooling in water-scarce arid habitats without rapid dehydration.^[34] This low water loss, achieved primarily via gular fluttering rather than panting, underscores the lesser nighthawk's adaptations to extreme environmental aridity.^[34] Recent studies (as of 2021) on related urban-nesting nighthawks indicate tolerance of high temperatures via similar mechanisms, suggesting resilience but potential vulnerability to prolonged heatwaves from climate change.^[35]

Camouflage and Predation Avoidance

The lesser nighthawk employs cryptic plumage as its primary defense against predation, featuring a mottled pattern of brownish gray, buff, and black that closely resembles the scattered ground litter and arid substrates of its habitat.^[15] This coloration allows the bird to blend seamlessly with the desert floor or open ground where it roosts during the day, making it nearly invisible to diurnal predators.^[21] A distinctive white V-shaped patch on the male's throat, or buff patch in females, remains concealed when the bird presses flat against the substrate in a roosting posture, further enhancing its invisibility.^[15] To avoid detection, the lesser nighthawk relies on a freeze response, remaining completely motionless during daylight hours while perched on the ground or low vegetation, which minimizes movement cues that could alert predators.^[21] This behavioral adaptation is complemented by the cryptic placement of eggs and chicks directly on bare ground without a nest, where their mottled, substrate-mimicking patterns provide effective camouflage against visual predators.^[31] Chicks, in particular, exhibit downy plumage that matches the surrounding soil and debris, allowing them to hunker down and evade notice shortly after hatching.^[1] Predators likely include mammals, reptiles, and birds that target ground-nesting and roosting species, posing threats primarily to eggs and adults, though specific rates for the lesser nighthawk are undocumented.^[30] Predation rates remain low due to strategic site selection for roosting and nesting in open, sparsely vegetated areas that maximize camouflage effectiveness while providing quick aerial escape routes if needed.^[30] Cats and other opportunistic mammals also target the species, but the combination of immobility and plumage reduces encounters.^[21] These anti-predator traits reflect geographic variation in plumage across populations, enhancing concealment in diverse arid environments.

Flight and Locomotion

Flight Mechanics

The lesser nighthawk exhibits a distinctive V-shaped posture during flight, with wings held in a dihedral angle above the horizontal, which reduces induced drag and facilitates efficient low-speed gliding.^[30] This configuration, combined with its high-aspect-ratio wings (aspect ratio approximately 7.6–7.8 in adults), enables buoyant and maneuverable locomotion suited to arid habitats.^[26] Flight involves alternating short bursts of flapping with gliding phases, where the bird employs erratic, flicking wingbeats at a moderate rate of 4–6 beats per second, particularly during takeoff and initial ascent.^[26] These bursts are followed by extended glides comprising 41–95% of foraging time, minimizing energy expenditure through an energetically conservative mode that supports prolonged aerial activity.^[26] The species' low wing loading of approximately 0.15 g/cm² contributes to its efficiency in hovering and sustained flight, allowing the bird to maintain position with minimal power output relative to its body mass.^[26] This adaptation is particularly advantageous for brief hovers, such as when accessing water sources.^[26] To capitalize on dense insect concentrations near the substrate, the lesser nighthawk typically flies low over the ground or vegetation, exploiting ground effect to enhance lift and stability during low-altitude traversal.^[30]

Aerial Hunting and Displays

The Lesser nighthawk is an aerial insectivore that captures prey primarily during crepuscular hours at dawn and dusk, employing erratic, low-altitude pursuits characterized by rapid bounding flights with deep wing strokes, swerves, and abrupt changes in speed.^[30] These maneuvers allow it to skim the tops of low shrubs and trees while flying close to the ground, often in pairs or small family groups, alternating between snappy wingbeats, fast flutters, and short glides with wings held in a shallow V-shape.^[1]^[30] Foraging flights typically constitute 41–95% gliding time, enabling efficient energy use during extended patrols that may cover considerable distances from nesting sites.^[26] During hunting, the bird maintains a wide gape lined with fine rictal bristles that aid in scooping and trapping flying insects such as moths, flies, and mosquitoes directly in mid-air, without the need to perch.^[1] This silent flight, facilitated by specialized wing fringes that reduce noise, allows stealthy approaches to prey, with the bird occasionally emitting quiet trills during group foraging but generally remaining eerily mute to avoid detection.^[30] The lesser nighthawk's greater maneuverability compared to related species, such as the common nighthawk, stems from its lower flight altitude and buoyant, moth-like flitting, which supports hovering and precise adjustments in arid desert environments.^[30] In reproductive contexts, male lesser nighthawks perform aerial displays to attract females, involving close-range pursuits in flight accompanied by vocal notes and a conspicuous throat display where white throat feathers are puffed out.^[1] These displays feature short plunges of up to 2 m with wings bent downward, lacking the booming sound produced by wing flexing in other nighthawks, followed by sailing above the female while emitting vigorous "whaa" calls.^[30] Unlike the typically silent foraging flights, these courtship behaviors are highly vocalized, with trilling or bleating calls enhancing the male's visibility and appeal during the early spring and summer breeding period.^[1]^[30]

Conservation and Status

Population Estimates

The global population of the Lesser Nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) is estimated at 14,000,000 mature individuals, based on assessments from Partners in Flight (2020).^[36] These figures reflect the species' broad distribution across arid and semi-arid habitats in the Americas, where it maintains relatively high abundance in suitable environments despite challenges in precise enumeration due to its cryptic behavior and nocturnal habits. North American populations alone are projected at around 3.8 million mature individuals within this range.^[18] Breeding densities typically range from 1 to 10 pairs per square kilometer in core habitats such as deserts, grasslands, and scrublands, with stability observed across much of the species' primary range.^[18] This low to moderate density aligns with the bird's solitary nesting strategy on open ground, allowing for wide dispersal without intense competition. Long-term population trends indicate a 15% rise since 1970 in monitored regions, though recent estimates (as of 2024) show a slight decline.^[1]^[18] Ongoing monitoring through programs like the Christmas Bird Counts and the North American Breeding Bird Survey reveals no significant long-term declines, though data reliability is moderate due to the species' crepuscular activity. Subspecies variations contribute to this picture, with the northern C. a. texensis showing positive trends, including a modest +1% annual change in Texas based on breeding bird survey data.^[22] Demographic parameters support these observations, influenced by factors like predation and environmental conditions in arid ecosystems.^[18] The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies the Lesser Nighthawk as Least Concern, reflecting its large population and extensive range.^[37]

Threats and Conservation Measures

The lesser nighthawk faces several anthropogenic threats across its range, primarily habitat degradation from urbanization and agriculture, which disrupts open desert and scrubland nesting sites essential for the species. In California, mining activities have degraded gravelly nesting areas since the mid-20th century, contributing to local population declines. Pesticide use, particularly in agricultural regions like cotton fields in New Mexico and Brazil, reduces the abundance of flying insects that form the bird's primary prey, exacerbating food scarcity. Climate change poses additional risks by altering precipitation patterns in arid habitats, potentially shifting suitable ranges and affecting breeding success, though the species is projected to remain relatively stable under moderate warming scenarios. Collisions with vehicles are a noted hazard, especially for fledglings in desert roadsides, while increased predation from introduced species such as feral cats threatens ground-nesting populations in fragmented habitats. Conservation efforts for the lesser nighthawk benefit from its occurrence in protected areas, including Saguaro National Park in Arizona, where habitat preservation supports breeding populations. Broader initiatives to conserve insect populations through pollinator-friendly programs indirectly aid the species by maintaining prey availability in agricultural landscapes. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the lesser nighthawk as Least Concern, reflecting its large overall population and stable long-term trends in many regions as of 2024. Ongoing management focuses on monitoring and reducing pesticide impacts in key breeding areas. Further research is needed to track migration patterns using technologies like satellite telemetry, which could clarify connectivity between breeding and wintering grounds and inform targeted protection against habitat loss.

Cultural and Historical Significance

Folklore and Mythology

The "goatsucker" moniker for nightjars, including the lesser nighthawk, stems from ancient European folklore that portrayed these birds as nocturnal thieves of goat milk, a belief that persisted and spread to the Americas with European colonization.^[38] This myth originated in Greek antiquity, where Aristotle described the bird—known as caprimulgus—as entering stables at night to suckle from goats, causing the animals to go blind as a result.^[39] The tale, rooted in observations of the bird's wide gape and evening flights near livestock, symbolized superstition around the unknown nocturnal habits of these crepuscular species, which European settlers applied to New World nightjars upon encountering them in the Americas.^[40] In indigenous North American cultures, nighthawks held varied symbolic significance, often tied to their eerie calls and twilight activity, featuring prominently in tribal myths and traditions long before European contact.^[41] These associations underscored the nighthawk's role as a bridge between day and night, embodying transitions in the natural and spiritual worlds. Specific folklore for the lesser nighthawk in arid Southwestern indigenous traditions remains sparsely documented.

Representation in Media

The lesser nighthawk has appeared in various forms of visual art and educational media, often emphasizing its cryptic camouflage and nocturnal habits in desert environments. Early illustrations of the species date back to the 19th century, such as those in ornithological works like the 1860 "The Birds of North America" by Spencer Fullerton Baird, where it was depicted to aid identification in field studies.^[42] Modern representations frequently include detailed photographs in bird identification guides, such as the Audubon Field Guide, showcasing the bird's mottled plumage against arid substrates to highlight its adaptation for concealment.^[2] These images have become staples in popular birdwatching literature and online resources, contributing to broader appreciation of the species' ecology. In audiovisual media, the lesser nighthawk features in short documentaries focused on its breeding and foraging behaviors. A notable example is the 2020 short film "Lesser Nighthawk," produced by wildlife photographer Matthew Falcon, which documents the nesting period in desert habitats and underscores the bird's elusive lifestyle through close-up footage and narration.^[43] Such content has circulated on platforms like YouTube, raising awareness among bird enthusiasts. While not prominently featured in major broadcast series, clips of the species occasionally appear in regional wildlife segments on channels like National Geographic, illustrating aerial insectivory in southwestern ecosystems.^[3] The bird's portrayal in popular culture remains niche, primarily within birding communities and digital media. More prominently, conservation efforts have leveraged social media in the 2020s, with eBird's species profiles and user-submitted photos prompting viral posts about sightings, such as rehabilitation releases shared on platforms like Reddit's r/birding, fostering public engagement with the species' status.^[44]^[45]

References

[1]
Lesser Nighthawk Life History - All About Birds
Lesser Nighthawks inhabit deserts, areas with scrubby vegetation, dry washes, and agricultural fields. They also seek out areas with swarming insects.
[2]
Lesser Nighthawk | Audubon Field Guide
Very similar to the more widespread Common Nighthawk, but it is a much quieter bird, without the sharp calls and 'booming' flight displays of its larger cousin.
[3]
Lesser Nighthawk | National Geographic
The Lesser Nighthawk is 8-9.2 inches long, with a trilling call, dark gray/brownish gray above, buffy underparts, and a male's white throat. It breeds in arid ...
[4]
A monograph of the genus Chordeiles Swainson
The Biodiversity Heritage Library works collaboratively to make biodiversity literature openly available to the world as part of a global biodiversity ...
[5]
[PDF] Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names
... etymology of the birds of the world). From that labour of love, encouraged ... acutipennis L. acutus sharp-pointed; -pennis. -winged (penna feather) ...
[6]
Chordeiles acutipennis (Hermann, 1783) - GBIF
Chordeiles acutipennis (Hermann, 1783). In: GBIF Backbone Taxonomy. Basionym: Caprimulgus acutipennis Hermann, 1783 · 161,512 occurrences · Overview · Metrics ...
[7]
Lesser Nighthawk - Chordeiles acutipennis - Birds of the World
The Lesser Nighthawk, formerly known as the Texas or Trilling Nighthawk, is a little-studied, desert-dwelling bird of the American Southwest and Central and ...
[8]
Chordeiles acutipennis (lesser nighthawk) - Animal Diversity Web
It has a short bill, and the upper parts of the body have a gray and white patterning. Its head and chest are brown, with white patterning.
[9]
A multi-gene estimate of phylogeny in the nightjars and nighthawks ...
We constructed a robust phylogeny of Caprimulgidae using molecular sequence data from more than 60% of caprimulgid species and 14 of 16 currently recognized ...
[10]
Podargiform Affinities of the Enigmatic Fluvioviridavis platyrhamphus ...
Frogmouths have long been classified within the traditional order “Caprimulgiformes” comprising the extant Podargidae, Steatornithidae (oilbird), Caprimulgidae ...
[11]
A multi-gene estimate of phylogeny in the nightjars and nighthawks ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Caprimulgidae is a cosmopolitan family of nocturnal and crepuscular insectivorous birds comprising the nightjars, nighthawks, and relatives.
[12]
https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/lesnig/cur/systematics
[13]
Sounds and Vocal Behavior - Lesser Nighthawk - Birds of the World
No distinction made between songs and calls in this species, so vocalizations here are considered calls because of their simple structure. Much less vocal ...Missing: differences coloration
[14]
Lesser Nighthawk Identification - All About Birds
Size & Shape. Lesser Nighthawks are small nighthawks with rounded wings and a fairly long, notched tail. · Color Pattern. Lesser Nighthawks are camouflaged in ...Missing: subspecies vocalizations
[15]
Plumages, Molts, and Structure - Lesser Nighthawk - Birds of the World
A monograph of the genus Chordeiles Swainson, type of a new family of goatsuckers. United States National Museum Bulletin 86. Close , Oberholser 1974 ...
[16]
Lesser Nighthawk - Birds of Colombia
Taxonomy · Kingdom: Animalia · Phylum: Chordata · Class: Aves (Birds) · Order: Caprimulgiformes · Family: Caprimulgidae · Genus: Chordeiles · Species: Chordeiles ...Missing: systematics | Show results with:systematics
[17]
Distribution - Lesser Nighthawk - Chordeiles acutipennis
2024. eBird Status and Trends, Data Version: 2023; Released: 2025. Cornell ... Lesser Nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis), version 1.0. In Birds of the ...
[18]
Lesser Nighthawk Chordeiles Acutipennis Species Factsheet
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[19]
Lesser Nighthawk Range Map - All About Birds
Populations in the United States move south to Mexico and Central America for the winter, but other populations farther south are year-round residents. Map data ...Missing: distribution | Show results with:distribution
[20]
Lesser Nighthawk | Outdoor Alabama
Lesser nighthawks belong to a group of birds commonly known as Goatsuckers in Order Caprimulgiformes and Family Caprimulgidae. Lesser nighthawks look similar to ...
[21]
Lesser Nighthawk Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of ...
The Lesser Nighthawk is a desert bird that flies like a butterfly, eating insects. It nests on the ground, and the female lays eggs directly on the ground.
[22]
LESSER NIGHTHAWK | The Texas Breeding Bird Atlas
Chordeiles acutipennis. The Lesser Nighthawk, previously known as the Texas Nighthawk, is a cryptically-colored bird of mottled brown, buff, and black, ...
[23]
Movements and Migration - Lesser Nighthawk - Birds of the World
Lesser Nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https ...
[24]
https://www.audubon.org/magazine/field-guide-future-north-american-birds
[25]
Diet and Foraging - Lesser Nighthawk - Chordeiles acutipennis
Lesser Nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https ...
[26]
[PDF] Competitive Relationships of the Common and Lesser Nighthawks
Jan 1, 1974 · As shown in tables 1 and 2 and by Caccamise. (1971), flying ants often make up a large proportion of the diet of both nighthawks and are ...
[27]
Lesser Nighthawk Sounds, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Lesser Nighthawks give a toadlike, somewhat eerie trill that lasts for around 7-13 seconds. In flight, they make a bleating whinny that almost sounds like a ...Missing: vocalizations | Show results with:vocalizations
[28]
https://search.macaulaylibrary.org/catalog?featured=0&mediaType=audio&searchField=all&taxonFamilyId=&taxonId=11968&view=list
[29]
Chordeiles acutipennis - Lesser Nighthawk - Xeno-Canto
Lesser Nighthawk · Chordeiles acutipennis · (Hermann, 1783). Order: CAPRIMULGIFORMES. Family: Caprimulgidae (Nightjars). Genus: Chordeiles. Species: acutipennis ...Missing: size | Show results with:size<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
Behavior - Lesser Nighthawk - Chordeiles acutipennis
Recommended Citation. Latta, S. C. and M. E. Baltz (2020). Lesser Nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole, Editor) ...
[31]
Non-breeding ecology of a Neotropical-Nearctic migrant, the ...
Our aim is not to explain why Common Nighthawks or other aerial insectivores are declining, but to fill critical gaps that currently prevent in-depth studies ...
[32]
Breeding - Lesser Nighthawk - Chordeiles acutipennis
Lesser Nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https ...
[33]
[PDF] A Cooling Mechanism of the Texas Nighthawk
The fluttering was resumed and continued until the body temperature had dropped to 42.2”, some six minutes after the bill had been released to permit gular ...
[34]
https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/220/19/3488/18800/Avian-thermoregulation-in-the-heat-evaporative
[35]
Avian thermoregulation in the heat: evaporative cooling capacity of ...
Oct 1, 2017 · For the ground-nesting/roosting common poorwill and the lesser nighthawk, we observed HTLs of Ta≈62–64°C and 60–62°C, respectively.
[36]
Population Estimates Database – Partners in Flight Databases
Estimates for any species or region of interest can be viewed online or downloaded as Excel files from each page.<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
**Summary of Habitat and Elevation for Lesser Nighthawk:**
[38]
Nightjar nonsense - Burton - 2015 - ESA Journals - Wiley
Oct 1, 2015 · It was once widely believed that they fed by latching onto the teats of goats to drink their milk – hence their other name of “goatsucker” and their family ...
[39]
Aristotle's History Of Animals — Chapter XXI. - TEXT BASE
The goatsucker, as it is called, is a mountain bird, larger than the blackbird, and less than the cuckoo. It lays two, or not more than three eggs, and is ...Missing: nightjar | Show results with:nightjar
[40]
Was the Nightjar an Early Chupacabra? - Center for Inquiry
Jun 1, 2017 · Originally, the goatsucker was so named not because the creature sucked blood like a vampire but because it sucked milk directly from the teat.
[41]
Common Nighthawk, Life Histories of North American Birds, A.C. Bent
The commonly accepted name nighthawk probably originated because of the bird's resemblance to the smaller hawks when observed in flight. However, it has ...
[42]
Lesser Nighthawk - Smithsonian Libraries
Lawrence Atlas (1860), Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott & Co. Supplied Caption: Lesser Nighthawk. Original Caption: Birds--Pl VI (44). Taxonomic: Chordeiles ...
[43]
Lesser Nighthawk - Short Documentary - YouTube
Oct 10, 2020 · Instagram: @matthewbrownbird Website: matthewfalcon.com Short documentary highlighting the nesting period of Lesser Nighthawks.
[44]
Lesser Nighthawk Chordeiles acutipennis - eBird
The Lesser Nighthawk is a long-winged nocturnal bird with brown, buffy, and gray patterning, white patches near wingtips, and is paler than Common Nighthawk.
[45]
Lesser Nighthawk Release! : r/birding - Reddit
Oct 14, 2025 · 684 votes, 14 comments. Our lesser nighthawk patient has been released back home! After 64 days in care, this tiny bird made an incredible…Missing: documentary | Show results with:documentary