Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is a robotic spacecraft launched on June 18, 2009, aboard an rocket from , designed to conduct high-resolution mapping of the Moon's surface, characterize its , , and environment, and identify potential resources and safe sites to support future human and robotic exploration. Weighing approximately 1,850 kg (4,000 lbs) at launch, LRO entered a circular around the Moon at an initial altitude of 50 km (31 mi), enabling detailed observations over its more than 15 years of operation as of November 2025. LRO's primary mission objectives, divided into an initial one-year reconnaissance phase followed by extended science operations under NASA's Science Mission Directorate since September 2010, include creating a near-global topographic model of the , measuring day-night variations, assessing concentrations at the poles to detect water ice, and evaluating the lunar environment for safety. The spacecraft carries seven instruments: the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) for high-resolution imaging; the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter () for topographic mapping; the Lyman Alpha Mapping Project () for ; the Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) for measurements; the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (Diviner) for mapping; the Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER) for dosimetry; and the Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini-RF) instrument for radar imaging. These tools have enabled LRO to produce the highest-resolution comprehensive map of the lunar surface to date, released in 2011, and continue to support ongoing data collection, including imaging of recent impacts as late as June 2025. Among LRO's notable achievements are the confirmation of water ice in permanently shadowed craters at the in 2018 through combined LEND and LROC data, the first demonstration of one-way communication from in 2013, received by , and the provision of critical site characterization for NASA's , including detailed views of Apollo landing sites and potential habitats. In 2025, LRO underwent senior review for mission extension and contributed to new discoveries, including potential subsurface access points identified from high-resolution images. As the longest-operating lunar orbiter, LRO remains active as of November 2025, following mission extensions and ongoing proposals for further operations, delivering over 3 million images and petabytes of data that have advanced lunar and exploration planning worldwide.

Background and Objectives

Development and Launch

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) was developed as part of NASA's Lunar Precursor and Robotic Program (LPRP), established in mid-2004 to conduct robotic missions that would scout the and lay the groundwork for future human exploration, including what would later evolve into the . This initiative aligned with President George W. Bush's , announced in January 2004, which aimed to return humans to the lunar surface by 2020 and prepare for missions to Mars. LRO was selected as the program's flagship mission to map the 's surface, assess resources, and identify safe landing sites for subsequent manned expeditions. Development began shortly after LRO's announcement in December 2004, when NASA selected principal investigators and instruments for the spacecraft through a competitive process. The project was managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, Maryland, with Lockheed Martin Space Systems serving as the prime contractor responsible for spacecraft assembly, integration, and testing at its facility in Denver, Colorado. Key partnerships included contributions from U.S. universities such as Arizona State University and the University of New Hampshire for instrument development, as well as international collaborators like the Russian Space Research Institute for specific components. The total development cost for LRO was approximately $504 million, covering design, construction, and pre-launch preparations. LRO launched on June 18, 2009, at 5:32 p.m. EDT from Air Force Station in aboard an 401 rocket provided by . The mission shared its ride with the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), which later impacted the to search for water ice. After a five-day journey, LRO successfully inserted into an initial elliptical on June 23, 2009, at 11:27 UT, following a lunar orbit insertion burn on the Moon's far side. The initial commissioning phase, spanning July to September 2009, focused on activating and checking out the spacecraft's systems and instruments while in a quasi-stable elliptical . During this period, engineers conducted thermal, power, and propulsion tests, calibrated sensors, and verified communications links with NASA's Deep Space Network. Commissioning concluded successfully on September 15, 2009, transitioning LRO to its primary science at approximately 50 km altitude.

Scientific Goals

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) mission's primary scientific objectives focus on preparing for safe human and robotic by addressing key knowledge gaps in surface characteristics, environmental hazards, and potential. These include producing high-resolution mapping of potential sites to evaluate hazards such as slopes, boulders, and craters, enabling the selection of safe locations for future missions. Another core goal is the assessment of illumination conditions in the lunar polar regions to identify areas with prolonged sunlight for generation and shadowed craters that may harbor volatiles, supporting viable sites. Additionally, LRO aims to characterize the lunar radiation environment, including measurements of energetic particles and their biological impacts, to inform shielding requirements for astronauts. Finally, the mission seeks to quantify concentrations of in the polar , particularly in permanently shadowed regions, to detect potential water ice deposits as in-situ resources. To achieve these objectives, LRO targeted specific performance metrics during its one-year primary phase, such as imaging the entire lunar surface with 99% coverage at 100-meter in and visible wavelengths for global context, while providing 1-meter imagery of polar regions and select sites for detailed . The polar hydrogen mapping was planned at scales of 10 kilometers for upper layers and 25 meters for neutron-derived ice signatures. Radiation data collection was designed to span varying solar conditions, ultimately covering multiple solar cycles through the mission's longevity. These efforts align with NASA's broader goals under the (later evolving into ) by enabling a safe human return to the Moon, identifying in-situ resources like for and , and contributing to understanding the Moon's bombardment history as a for solar system evolution. Following the successful primary phase ending in September 2010, LRO transitioned to extended missions starting in September 2010, shifting from exploration scouting to broader scientific investigations while continuing to support human exploration planning. Extended goals encompass global topographic mapping at high resolution to refine digital models for traverse planning and geologic analysis, alongside refined surveys of polar resources through repeated observations of volatile stability and distribution. The mission also includes long-term monitoring of lunar surface changes, such as impacts, seismic activity, and , to assess dynamic processes over time. Furthermore, LRO provides data support for international missions, including imaging landing sites and environmental assessments for China's program, enhancing global lunar exploration coordination. These extended objectives build on primary data to deepen insights into lunar and , with ongoing operations as of 2025 ensuring comprehensive coverage across solar cycles for radiation studies.

Spacecraft and Operations

Design and Specifications

The (LRO) features a modular, 3-axis stabilized designed to support extended operations in the , with nadir-pointing for continuous surface observation. The main structure consists of an module, module, and module, built by NASA's using standard interfaces for reliability and testability. Stowed dimensions for launch are approximately 3.9 m in height, 2.6 m in width, and 2.7 m in depth, with deployed arrays spanning 4.3 m by 3.2 m. The spacecraft's launch mass was 1,916 kg, including 898 kg of propellant for orbit maintenance, while the dry mass is 1,018 kg. The power subsystem relies on two articulated solar arrays with a total area of about 10 m², generating an orbit-average power of 685 W at the beginning of life, sufficient for all bus and operations. A single 80 Ah provides energy during the approximately 60-minute lunar eclipses every orbit, with redundant charging circuits to ensure reliability over the mission's multi-year duration. Communication is handled through a unified supporting both S-band and X-band frequencies for command uplink and downlink, with low-rate S-band returns up to 256 kbps and high-rate Ka-band downlinks reaching 100 Mbps to the s. The system includes a gimbaled high-gain for efficient , enabling daily volumes of up to 461 Gb. The thermal control system employs passive and active elements to maintain component temperatures within operational limits amid lunar day-night cycles, where surface extremes reach -150°C to +120°C. Key features include an isothermal panel with embedded heat pipes for heat distribution, zenith-facing OSR-coated radiators for rejection, blankets, and redundant electric heaters powered by the main bus, ensuring survival temperatures as low as -40°C and operational ranges up to +50°C for critical electronics. Avionics are centered on a radiation-hardened running at 133 MHz for command and handling, supported by 400 of solid-state mass for buffering. Attitude determination uses two trackers providing knowledge accuracy better than 60 arcseconds (0.017°), while four reaction wheels enable precise control torques for pointing stability of approximately 0.05° (3 arcminutes) during acquisitions, with thrusters available for momentum dumping.

Mission Phases and Timeline

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) launched on June 18, 2009, aboard an rocket from , and achieved lunar orbit insertion on June 23, 2009. Following a commissioning phase with initial orbital parameters of approximately 30 km by 200 km, LRO transitioned to its primary one-year science mission on September 15, 2009, operating in a nearly circular at an altitude of 50 km. This phase focused on high-resolution data acquisition to certify potential sites for future human missions, with an of 90° and a period of about 113 minutes. During this period, LRO observed the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) impact into Cabeus crater on October 9, 2009, capturing data on the resulting plume to assess water ice presence. The primary mission concluded in September 2010, after which NASA approved the first Extended Science Mission (ESM1) from October 2010 to September 2012, extending operations for two additional years. To conserve fuel and enable broader coverage, LRO's orbit was adjusted in March 2011 to an elliptical 50 km by 200 km configuration, maintaining the 90° inclination while allowing altitude variations to optimize instrument observations over diverse lunar terrains. Subsequent extensions followed: ESM2 (October 2012–September 2014), ESM3 (October 2014–September 2016), and ESM4 (October 2016–September 2019), each building on prior data collection with periodic orbital maneuvers to adjust apoapsis and periapsis for fuel efficiency and targeted polar observations. ESM5 commenced in October 2019 and extended through October 2025, featuring focused campaigns on polar regions amid increasing lunar mission traffic, including relay support for the mission from 2013 to 2014 and imaging of the landing site in September 2019. During ESM5, the orbit evolved gradually due to lunar gravity perturbations, with periapsis raised to around 78 km and apoapsis to 110 km by 2022, while maintaining the ~113-minute period and 90° inclination for continued global mapping. Key altitude adjustments were performed to balance power constraints and enhance data quality across instruments. As of November 2025, following the conclusion of ESM5, NASA's 2025 Planetary Mission Senior Review approved ESM6, running from October 2025 to September 2028, to support objectives with emphasis on polar volatiles and landing site characterization. Ongoing data releases continue, including Release 62 in June 2025, which incorporated new imaging and ancillary data from early 2025 acquisitions. This extension ensures LRO's role in providing contextual data for commercial lunar payloads and international missions through nearly two decades of orbital operations.

Scientific Instruments

Imaging and Optical Instruments

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) carries several imaging and optical instruments optimized for high-resolution surface mapping and compositional analysis of the . These include the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC), the Mapping Project (LAMP), and the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment, which collectively provide visible, , and observations to support site selection for future missions and characterization of . The LROC system comprises two Narrow Angle Cameras (NAC) and a Wide Angle Camera (WAC), enabling detailed monochrome and . The NACs are monochrome line-scan imagers with a of 0.5 meters per , capturing images in the 400-750 visible range over a 2.85° field of view, with a maximum swath width of 5 km at the spacecraft's nominal 50 km orbit altitude. These cameras focus on high-priority sites such as potential landing areas and geological features. In contrast, the WAC is a push-frame camera providing 7-color at approximately 75 meters per in the visible bands (filters at 321, 360, 415, 566, 604, 643, and 689 ) and 385 meters per in , with a 61° in visible mode. The WAC supports global mosaics by acquiring near-complete monthly coverage of the lunar surface under varying illumination conditions, facilitating photometric and morphologic studies. The is a far-ultraviolet spectrograph operating in the 58-118 nm range, designed to permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) and the lunar night side where sunlight is absent. It utilizes ambient sky-glow (121.6 nm) and as illumination sources to map surface composition, particularly detecting water frost through its characteristic features in the FUV spectrum. LAMP's night-side observations enable spectral fingerprinting of volatiles in PSRs, revealing hydration states and compositional variations on and in polar craters. The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment is a nine-channel measuring emitted across wavelengths from 3 to 400 micrometers, with sensitivity to surface temperatures between 40 and 400 . It maps diurnal and seasonal temperature variations globally, identifying thermal anomalies such as cold traps in PSRs and heat retention in rocky terrains. Additionally, Diviner derives rock abundance by analyzing nighttime radiometric data, correlating thermal inertia with the presence of rocks larger than 1-2 meters in diameter, which helps assess surface hazards for landers.

Altimetry, Radar, and Neutron Instruments

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) carries a suite of active sensing instruments designed to probe the Moon's , subsurface structure, and distribution, providing critical data for understanding lunar surface features and resource potential. These tools, including the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA), Miniature Radio-Frequency instrument (Mini-RF), and Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND), operate through laser ranging, radar imaging, and neutron , respectively, enabling high-resolution mapping independent of solar illumination. The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter () is a five-beam Nd:YAG operating at a 1064 nm , firing at 28 Hz to measure the time-of-flight of reflected pulses from the lunar surface. This configuration allows to achieve a vertical resolution of approximately 10 and horizontal resolutions down to 1 in targeted areas, while assessing surface slopes and roughness through pulse spreading and energy return analysis. enables precise topographic profiling across diverse lunar terrains from its nominal 50 km . By splitting a single pulse into five beams separated by 5 km at the , facilitates along-track and cross-track slope measurements, which are essential for identifying safe landing sites and characterizing geologic features like craters and basins. The Miniature Radio-Frequency instrument (Mini-RF) functions as a () operating at S-band frequency of 2.38 GHz, with a corresponding 12.6 cm wavelength, to image the lunar surface and subsurface. It employs hybrid polarimetric capabilities, transmitting circularly polarized waves and receiving in multiple polarizations to discern properties and at resolutions of 15-30 m per . This allows Mini-RF to penetrate the up to several meters, detecting potential deposits in permanently shadowed regions by analyzing backscattered signals that vary with material composition and structure. In addition to monostatic imaging from the , Mini-RF conducted experiments using Earth's radio telescopes as receivers, revealing insights into blockiness and cohesion through forward-scattered signals. The Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) is an epithermal neutron spectrometer equipped with collimated and uncollimated detectors to map abundance by measuring neutrons emitted from cosmic-ray interactions with the lunar . Its nine independent channels, including three 3He proportional counters with collimators providing a 5 km , detect neutrons in energy bands from thermal to fast (>0.5 MeV), with particular to epithermal neutrons (0.5 to 100 keV) moderated by . LEND's design goal was about 100 ppm (0.01%) water-equivalent at 5 km using collimated detectors, but due to higher-than-expected instrument background and ineffective collimation, uncollimated detectors with ~30-50 km are primarily used for mapping enhanced concentrations in polar regions without direct surface imaging. LEND data have been subject to scientific controversies, particularly regarding early claims of enhancements in permanently shadowed regions, which were later attributed partly to instrument artifacts rather than widespread volatiles; revised analyses confirm elevated at poles but with lower and than initially anticipated. Key data products from these instruments include LOLA's global (DEM) at 20 m horizontal resolution, which integrates billions of altimetry points to form a unified lunar geodetic framework with 1 m absolute vertical accuracy. Mini-RF contributes polarimetric mosaics at 30 m resolution covering over 90% of the lunar surface, including bistatic datasets that quantify dielectric constants for material property assessments. LEND produces flux maps at 5-10 km resolution, highlighting regional variations in neutron suppression indicative of volatile enrichment. These products, archived through NASA's Planetary , support overlay analyses with optical imagery for comprehensive 3D .

Radiation and Thermal Instruments

The Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation () on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is designed to measure the effects of () and () on human-equivalent tissue in the lunar environment. The features six ion-implanted silicon solid-state detectors arranged in three thin-thick pairs, with sections of tissue-equivalent plastic (TEP) simulating muscle tissue between the pairs to assess deposition depth. This configuration provides an effective shielding depth of approximately 7.5 g/cm², enabling direct simulation of biological dose responses to charged particles. CRaTER detects energy deposits from ionizing particles exceeding predefined thresholds across its detectors, using coincidence events to determine particle direction and . The thin detectors (140 μm thick) capture high-LET events from heavier ions, while thick detectors (1000 μm) resolve lower-energy protons, covering LET ranges from 0.09 to 85 keV/μm. For SEPs, the focuses on protons above 10 MeV, deriving spectra through multi-detector analysis during solar particle events. The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment complements radiation studies by mapping the Moon's thermal environment, which influences surface radiation interactions and habitability assessments. Operating in nine infrared channels, Diviner measures emitted thermal radiation to produce global surface temperature maps, revealing extreme day-night cycles where equatorial noon temperatures reach ~400 K and nighttime lows drop below 100 K. These observations serve as proxies for subsurface heat flow, with data indicating minimal day-night variation at depths of ~80 cm, consistent with low regolith thermal conductivity measured during Apollo missions. CRaTER's measurements have characterized proton spectra in the 10-200 MeV range during solar energetic particle events, with dose rates varying from 0.1 to 1 mGy/day depending on event intensity and solar activity. Over the mission span from 2009 to 2025, observations document solar cycle modulation of GCR flux, showing reduced intensities during solar maximum (e.g., cycle 24 peak ~2014) compared to minima, with dose rates increasing by up to 20-30% from maximum to minimum phases. These variations highlight the heliosphere's influence on deep-space radiation at the Moon. In-flight calibration of relies on known solar events to validate detector responses, including adjustments during major solar flares such as the X5.4 event in March 2012 and the X8.7 flare in May 2024, which provided high-flux benchmarks for energy scale and efficiency corrections. These calibrations ensure accurate LET spectra by cross-referencing with ground-based simulations and concurrent observations from other assets like GOES satellites.

Key Discoveries and Results

Surface Mapping and Geology

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter's instruments have provided unprecedented detail on the Moon's surface and geological features, enabling a comprehensive understanding of its evolutionary history. The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter () generated high-resolution global elevation models that reveal the Moon's hemispheric , characterized by the near side's lower elevations dominated by mare basalts and 's higher, cratered highlands. These models highlight stark contrasts, with the near side averaging about 2 km lower than due to thinner crust and extensive volcanism. A prominent feature in these datasets is the South Pole-Aitken basin, the largest in the solar system, spanning over 2,000 km and reaching depths of approximately 8 km below the mean lunar radius, exposing deep crustal materials and influencing global . Crater studies using the Narrow Angle Camera () have identified hundreds of new small impact craters formed during the LRO mission (over 220 as of 2016, with ongoing detections through 2025), with diameters ranging from 1.4 to 43 meters, detected through temporal image pairs showing fresh ejecta and ray patterns. Ages of these and older craters are determined via superposition analysis, where the density of overlying craters provides , refining the lunar cratering chronology and supporting the timeline of the around 3.8-4.1 billion years ago as a period of intense impacts that shaped much of the visible surface. These findings confirm that impact rates have declined steadily since then, with modern rates producing observable new features over decades. Volcanic history insights derive from Wide Angle Camera (WAC) , which detected young basaltic flows in , including irregular patches with model ages less than 100 million years—some as young as 18-58 million years—indicating prolonged volcanism far later than previously thought. These flows exhibit sharp contacts and low densities, suggesting recent emplacement. Complementary observations from the Diviner Lunar Experiment reveal thermal signatures consistent with fresh basaltic compositions, such as higher abundance and olivine-rich surfaces in these regions, further evidencing late-stage magmatic activity. Regolith properties are mapped through Mini-RF , producing global roughness datasets that quantify surface texture at scales from centimeters to meters, revealing blocky layers 10-20 meters thick around fresh craters. These maps show increased backscatter in rough, blocky terrains, distinguishing them from smoother, mature , and indicate that blankets preserve underlying geological units while contributing to the Moon's dynamic surface evolution.

Polar Resources and Volatiles

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter's (LRO) instruments provided key evidence for water ice in the lunar polar regions, particularly through neutron spectroscopy and impact observations. The Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) identified suppressed epithermal neutron fluxes in Shackleton crater at the south pole, indicating elevated hydrogen concentrations consistent with water ice deposits in permanently shadowed regions (PSRs). A 2024 analysis of LEND data further revealed widespread evidence of water ice in PSRs extending to at least 77° south latitude and near both poles, including craters like Cabeus, Haworth, Shoemaker, and Faustini, with highest concentrations in the coldest areas below 75 K; this suggests at least 5 liters of ice per square meter in the top 3.3 feet (1 meter) of regolith, enhancing resource prospects for future missions. Complementing this, the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) impact into Cabeus crater in October 2009 ejected material analyzed by LRO's Lyman Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP) and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC), revealing hydroxyl (OH) signatures in fresh ejecta plumes and confirming water content of approximately 5.6% by mass. LROC images captured the bright, fresh ejecta blankets from this and a subsequent 2010 impact, highlighting disturbed regolith rich in volatiles that had been preserved in the cold shadows. LRO's Wide Angle Camera (WAC) generated detailed polar illumination maps, revealing extreme conditions in PSRs that enable volatile retention. For instance, the floor of Cabeus crater receives less than 1% annual sunlight, maintaining temperatures as low as 40-50 and acting as efficient cold traps for ice and other volatiles. These maps, derived from multi-year observations, underscore how topographic features like crater rims and walls—briefly, high-relief structures mapped by LRO's Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA)—create persistent shadows essential for resource accumulation. Beyond , LRO detected other volatiles informing polar resource potential. LAMP's ultraviolet spectroscopy observed in the lunar , with enhanced signals over polar regions suggesting release from subsurface reservoirs or impacts, varying diurnally and indicating dynamic volatile transport. Meanwhile, the Miniature (Mini-RF) instrument's polarity observations of shadowed showed anomalous ratios, consistent with up to 5-10% ice by weight mixed in the upper meter of polar floors like Shackleton. Integrating these findings, LRO data estimate substantial water ice resources in polar PSRs, with up to 600 million metric tons accessible for in-situ utilization, as refined by extended mission analyses through 2025 incorporating Mini-RF and LEND updates. These volatiles, preserved in cold traps, support concepts for extracting water for , , and , highlighting the poles' strategic value for sustained lunar presence.

Radiation Environment and Space Weather

The (CRaTER) on the (LRO) has provided direct measurements of the lunar , revealing an average dose equivalent from galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) of approximately 1.1 mSv per day in during periods of , such as the extended low-activity phase from 2009 to 2019. This baseline exposure arises primarily from high-energy protons and heavier ions, accounting for over 90% of the total near the , with protons contributing about 43% and alpha particles around 30%. Dose rates exhibit variability tied to , peaking during solar minima when GCR fluxes are unmodulated by the , and spiking dramatically during solar energetic particle (SEP) events associated with flares; for instance, CRaTER recorded elevated doses exceeding 15 mSv over short durations during select SEP episodes, underscoring the intermittent hazards beyond steady GCR contributions. Secondary radiation, particularly neutrons generated by GCR interactions with the lunar , has been mapped globally using LRO's Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND), which detects , epithermal, and fast neutrons escaping the surface. These neutrons result from nuclear and processes in the , with fluxes varying regionally due to compositional differences; epithermal and fast neutron intensities are notably higher in the lunar highlands compared to the basaltic , by up to 25%, owing to lower content that reduces neutron moderation and absorption. LEND data indicate that these secondary fluxes probe the top ~1-2 meters of , providing a proxy for subsurface distribution while highlighting elevated radiation risks in highland terrains where neutron leakage is enhanced. Space weather dynamics, including SEP impacts and eclipse periods, influence the lunar thermal and electrostatic environment, as observed by LRO's Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment through measurements of surface temperature responses. During SEP events, energetic particles deposit heat into the , causing transient temperature anomalies detectable in Diviner's multispectral data, which model particle-induced heating alongside . Eclipse-induced charging further complicates this, as the absence of illumination reduces photoelectron emission, leading to negative surface potentials up to several kilovolts; LRO observations and models derived from Diviner's eclipse thermal profiles (e.g., the June 2011 event) reveal rapid cooling rates that inform electrostatic charging simulations, with potentials correlating to electron temperatures and particle fluxes. These LRO findings have critical implications for human exploration under NASA's , where radiation exposure limits are set to prevent acute effects, such as 250 mGy-Eq to blood-forming organs over 30 days. and LEND data enable modeling of site-specific risks, identifying potential "safe haven" locations or structures—such as regolith-shielded habitats—that could reduce effective doses below 0.5 mSv per day during through 5-7 meters of overburden, aligning with career limits of 600-1000 mSv while prioritizing always-habitable volumes. By quantifying GCR baselines and SEP variabilities, LRO supports the design of radiation-resilient infrastructure for sustained lunar presence.

Legacy and Extensions

Public Engagement Initiatives

One of the flagship public engagement efforts for the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) was the "Send Your Name to the Moon" campaign, launched by in 2008 to foster widespread involvement in lunar exploration. Participants from around the world submitted their names via an online portal, receiving digital boarding passes as souvenirs. By the campaign's close, over 1.6 million names had been collected, etched onto silicon microchips encased in a radiation-hardened container, and affixed to the spacecraft's propulsion module. These names launched aboard LRO on June 18, 2009, and continue to orbit the , representing a between humanity and the lunar surface. LRO's outreach also emphasized educational resources to inspire learning about the , particularly through the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) image gallery, which releases high-resolution photographs for public viewing and analysis. Interactive tools like Lunar QuickMap provide virtual exploration capabilities, allowing users to zoom into detailed mosaics, overlay topography from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (), and simulate lunar navigation. School programs integrate LRO data milestones, such as annual image releases, with curricula like the LRO Educator Resource Kit, which includes lesson plans, posters, and activities on topics from lunar to effects for grades 6-8. Complementary materials, including the Exploring the Moon Teacher's Guide and hands-on challenges in the On the Moon Activity Guide, support grades 3-12 by connecting mission data to concepts like and surface mapping. Public access to LRO's scientific output forms a cornerstone of its engagement strategy, with more than 1.6 petabytes of data archived in NASA's Planetary (PDS) for open use by researchers, educators, and enthusiasts. This vast repository includes raw and processed , altimetry, and datasets, accessible via user-friendly search tools on PDS nodes. To encourage , LRO supports initiatives like crater counting using LROC images, where volunteers identify and measure impact features to aid in dating lunar surfaces. Studies have validated these efforts, finding that aggregated citizen counts match professional results in accuracy and scale, demonstrating the value of crowdsourced contributions to . LRO's data has further enabled public involvement in lunar nomenclature, supporting the (IAU) in approving official names for surface features based on mission imagery, often honoring scientists and explorers who advanced lunar studies.

Ongoing Operations and Future Prospects

As of November 2025, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is executing Extended Science Mission 6 (ESM6), which commenced in October 2025 and is scheduled to continue through September 2028, focusing on ongoing observations of lunar volatiles, evolution, and interactions with the space environment. The remains in a eccentric , delivering data consistently to the Planetary Data System (PDS), with monthly releases such as the August 2025 LROC dataset containing over 15,000 images acquired between July and August. Propellant reserves stand at approximately 10 kg of usable as measured in late 2024, providing margins sufficient for station-keeping and full operations through at least 2032 and potentially extending to 2037 with optimized maneuvers. Despite its longevity, LRO faces challenges from component aging, including battery degradation that is closely monitored yet maintains a 100% capacity margin, and solar arrays that have declined in efficiency but continue to generate power exceeding mission requirements. Instruments like the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter () exhibit graceful performance degradation over time, though they remain functional for topographic mapping and laser ranging tasks. Looking ahead, LRO plays a pivotal role in NASA's by supplying high-resolution imagery and thermal data for south polar landing site selection, including support for (CLPS) missions. It also provides essential contextual data for the revived Volatiles Investigating Rover (VIPER) mission, set for launch in 2027, aiding in the identification of water ice deposits and resource utilization strategies. With adequate resources, a seventh extended mission (ESM7) could commence around 2028, potentially sustaining operations into the 2030s to bridge to next-generation lunar orbiters. LRO's data archive, exceeding 1.6 petabytes and comprising over 60% of the PDS lunar holdings, underpins advanced analyses, including AI-enhanced processing for predictive modeling in future human and robotic explorations. This legacy ensures LRO's continued relevance in enabling sustainable lunar presence.

References

  1. [1]
    About LRO - NASA Science
    The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) launched to the Moon with the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) in 2009.
  2. [2]
    Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera
    By combining LROC imagery, data, and historical data, we've created detailed, interactive maps of the Apollo Landing Sites and many more. Control the sun angle ...Images · LROC Team · About · Lunar Videos
  3. [3]
    Spacecraft and Instruments - NASA Science
    Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC). LROC retrieves high resolution black-and-white images of the lunar surface. These images provide knowledge of polar ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  4. [4]
    NASA Spots Fresh Lunar Impact From Crashed Moon Mission
    Jun 24, 2025 · RESILIENCE lunar lander impact site, as seen by NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) on June 11, 2025.
  5. [5]
    NASA probe has been revealing the moon for 14 years. How long ...
    Jul 6, 2023 · "LRO is currently funded to operate through September 2025, the end of our current extended mission. We anticipate proposing for a 6th extension ...
  6. [6]
    [PDF] NASA's Lunar Robotic Architecture Study Final Report
    NASA established the Lunar Precursor and Robotic Program (LPRP) in mid-2004 to conduct the robotic lunar campaign, and established the Lunar Reconnaissance ...
  7. [7]
    [PDF] National Aeronautics and Space Administration President's FY 2005 ...
    Dec 8, 2023 · On January 14, 2004, President Bush established a new vision for U.S. space exploration that is bold and forward-thinking yet practical and ...
  8. [8]
    [PDF] Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Overview: The Instrument Suite and ...
    The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is the first mission to be implemented in NASA's ... In December 2004 NASA announced the selection of six ...
  9. [9]
    NASA Selects Investigations for Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
    Dec 22, 2004 · NASA Selects Investigations for Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. ... Opportunity released in June 2004. Instrumentation provided by these
  10. [10]
    Goddard Space Flight Center's Flight Projects Directorate - NASA
    The Flight Projects Directorate (FPD) is responsible for overall management and implementation of the flight projects at Goddard Space Flight Center.
  11. [11]
    LRO (Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter) - eoPortal
    LRO is a NASA mission to the moon within the Lunar Precursor and Robotic Program (LPRP) in preparation for future manned missions to the moon and beyond (Mars).
  12. [12]
    NASA heads back to the moon - CSMonitor.com
    Jun 18, 2009 · The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and a companion spacecraft are set for launch Thursday aboard an Atlas 5 rocket. The $504-million ...
  13. [13]
    LRO and LCROSS Launch on Lunar Journey - NASA
    Jun 18, 2009 · An United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket blasts off with NASA's LRO/LRCOSS mission from Space Launch Complex-41, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Fla.
  14. [14]
    LCROSS - NASA Science
    Launch Vehicle, Atlas V 401 (no. AV-020). Launch Date and Time, June 18, 2009 / 21:32:00 UT. Launch Site, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida / SLC-41.
  15. [15]
    [PDF] LAUNCH AND COMMISSIONING OF THE LUNAR ...
    On the fifth day after launch, June 23, 2009 at 6:26:26am EDT, LRO completed a flawless LOI maneuver to place itself in an elliptical orbit about the Moon ( ...
  16. [16]
    Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Begins Moon Mapping Mission - NASA
    Jun 18, 2024 · On Sept. 15, 2009, LRO began its primary one-year mission to map the lunar surface from its science orbit 31 miles above the Moon.
  17. [17]
    [PDF] Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Spacecraft & Objectives
    On-board propulsion system used to capture at the moon, insert into and maintain 50 km mean altitude circular polar reconnaissance orbit. • 1 year mission with ...
  18. [18]
    None
    ### Summary of LRO Extended Science Mission Plans
  19. [19]
    None
    ### Summary of LRO Extended Mission Scientific Objectives
  20. [20]
    NASA's LRO Spots China's Chang'e 6 Spacecraft on Lunar Far Side
    Jun 14, 2024 · This image from NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter shows China's Chang'e 6 lander in the Apollo basin on the far side of the Moon on June 7, 2024.
  21. [21]
    [PDF] Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)
    Jun 17, 2009 · The dry mass is 1,018 kilograms (2,244 pounds), and fuel is 898 kilograms (1,980 pounds). Power: Spacecraft power is 685 watts. Dimensions ...
  22. [22]
    LRO Spacecraft Description - PDS Geosciences Node
    The Thermal Control system basic design contains four major elements: the spacecraft bus (avionics, reaction wheels, and battery), instrument module, propulsion ...
  23. [23]
    [PDF] Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Rapid Thermal Design ...
    The orbiter design located most of the avionics on an isothermalized heat pipe panel called the. IsoThermal Panel (ITP). The ITP was coupled by dual bore heat ...
  24. [24]
    [PDF] aas 19-108 testing of the lunar reconnaissance orbiter attitude ...
    LRO attitude control system (ACS) has two star trackers and a gyro for attitude estimation in an extended Kalman filter (EKF) and four reaction wheels used in a ...Missing: accuracy | Show results with:accuracy
  25. [25]
    [PDF] Orbit determination of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
    Oct 5, 2017 · Figure 1: The evolution of key parameters describing the LRO orbital geometry is shown for years 2009 to 2016: apoapsis altitude (red); ...
  26. [26]
    Results from the NMSU‐NASA Marshall Space Flight Center ...
    Aug 16, 2011 · The LCROSS mission involved crashing the LRO upper stage into a shaded polar region of the Moon on 9 October 2009, throwing up lunar regolith ...<|separator|>
  27. [27]
    [PDF] long-term orbit operations for the lunar reconnaissance orbiter
    Originally, the ESM proposals covered two-year extensions but in 2018, NASA Headquarters (HQ) changed to awarding three-year extended mission periods. As such,.
  28. [28]
    LADEE - NASA Science
    Sep 6, 2013 · LADEE, pronounced like "laddie") was a robotic mission that orbited Earth's Moon to gather detailed information about the lunar atmosphere.LADEE Team · LADEE Spacecraft · LADEE Multimedia · LADEE In DepthMissing: Reconnaissance relay
  29. [29]
    [PDF] 2025 NASA Planetary Mission Senior Review (PMSR)
    Jun 9, 2025 · Six proposed mission extensions were reviewed: Juno at the Jupiter system, the Lunar Reconnaissance. Orbiter (LRO), Mars Odyssey (ODY), the Mars ...Missing: ESM6 | Show results with:ESM6
  30. [30]
    Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) - PDS Geosciences Node
    This PDS Geosciences Node page provides links to Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter planetary science data, tools, and documentation.
  31. [31]
    Specifications - About | Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera
    Volume (width × length × height), 15.8 cm x 23.2 cm x 32.3 cm (incl. radiator) ... NASA Moon Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ShadowCam Intuitive Machines ...
  32. [32]
    Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) instrument overview
    The WAC is a 7-color push-frame camera (100 and 400 m/pixel visible and UV, respectively), while the two NACs are monochrome narrow-angle linescan imagers (0.5 ...
  33. [33]
    Global Lunar Boulder Map From LRO NAC Optical Images Using ...
    Jul 13, 2025 · Due to its long operational time since 2009, more than three million high-resolution images of the lunar surface are available, allowing the ...
  34. [34]
    [PDF] LUNAR RECONNAISSANCE ORBITER CAMERA GLOBAL ...
    Each month, the WAC provides near complete coverage of the Moon. These images are mosaicked to create global maps under different lighting conditions. One of.
  35. [35]
    LAMP: The Lyman Alpha Mapping Project on NASA's Lunar ...
    Dec 12, 2009 · The Lyman Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP) is a far-ultraviolet (FUV) imaging spectrograph on NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) mission.
  36. [36]
    [PDF] LRO Lyman Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP) Far-UV Maps
    The LRO-LAMP UV imaging spectrograph is studying how water is formed on the. Moon, transported through the lunar exosphere, and deposited in permanently shaded ...
  37. [37]
    The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Diviner Lunar Radiometer ...
    Jun 26, 2009 · Diviner will measure reflected solar and emitted infrared radiation in nine spectral channels with wavelengths ranging from 0.3 to 400 microns.Missing: specifications | Show results with:specifications
  38. [38]
    Instrument Specs - Diviner
    Diviner is a nine channel infrared filter radiometer based on the design of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Mars Climate Sounder (MCS).
  39. [39]
    Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment
    The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment is designed to measure surface temperatures on the moon, providing key information for future lunar surface operations ...
  40. [40]
    High‐Resolution Nighttime Temperature and Rock Abundance ...
    Jan 19, 2023 · The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has been mapping the surface temperatures of the Moon ...Abstract · Introduction · Data and Methods · Results and Discussion
  41. [41]
    [PDF] The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter Investigation on ... - NASA Science
    LOLA has 5 beams and operates at 28 Hz, with a nominal accuracy of 10 cm. Its primary objective is to produce a global geodetic grid for the Moon to which ...Missing: vertical | Show results with:vertical
  42. [42]
    High-resolution Lunar Topography (SLDEM2015) - PGDA - NASA
    The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) aboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ... After step (2), the 90th percentile further decreases from ~5.0 m to 3.4 m ...
  43. [43]
    A new lunar digital elevation model from the Lunar Orbiter Laser ...
    Jul 15, 2016 · The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) onboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has collected over 6.5 × 10 9 measurements of global ...
  44. [44]
    LOLA - Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter - NASA Science
    Nov 5, 2024 · The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) aids future missions by providing topographical data for safe landings and enhance exploration-driven mobility on the ...
  45. [45]
    The Miniature Radio Frequency Instruments (Mini-RF) Global ...
    Aug 21, 2014 · Mini-RF has accumulated 67% coverage of the lunar surface in S-band (12.6 cm) radar with a resolution of 30 m/pixel.Missing: specifications | Show results with:specifications
  46. [46]
    A Comparison of Radar Polarimetry Data of the Moon from the LRO ...
    The Mini-RF radar operates at 2.38 GHz, which was also the frequency used by ... The NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter's (LRO) Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini ...
  47. [47]
    Mini-RF - NASA Science
    Mar 20, 2024 · The primary goal of the Mini-RF is to search for subsurface water ice deposits. In addition to taking high-resolution imagery of permanently-shadowed regions.
  48. [48]
    [PDF] Availability of LRO Mini-RF Data for Artemis Landing Zone ...
    Available Data (Mini-RF): Mini-RF monostatic data includes both 150 m (baseline) and 30 m (zoom) resolution modes. Most of these data were collected at. S-band ...Missing: specifications | Show results with:specifications
  49. [49]
    LRO-L-LEND-4/5-RDR-V1.0 - PDS: Data Set Information
    The LRO LUNAR EXPLORATION NEUTRON DETECTOR 4/5 RDR data set is a time series collection of rectified science data (RSCI), converted housekeeping data (CHK), ...
  50. [50]
    Global maps of lunar neutron fluxes from the LEND instrument - Litvak
    Jun 5, 2012 · We have created global maps showing regional variations in the flux of thermal (energy range < 0.015 eV) and fast neutrons (>0.5 MeV).
  51. [51]
    LRO Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND)
    The Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) is designed to detect the neutron flux from orbit which will be used to make neutron albedo maps and estimates ...
  52. [52]
    Lunar South Pole Atlas
    The map is centered on the south pole and shows the LOLA 20-m elevation product between 80°S and the pole (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; Smith et al., 2010; ...
  53. [53]
    [PDF] LUNAR EXPLORATION NEUTRON DETECTOR (LEND) FOR NASA ...
    The Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) has been selected for Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mission to provide the global search of hydrogen dis- tribution ...
  54. [54]
    LRO LOLA - PDS Geosciences Node Data and Services
    LOLA is the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter, which determines the global topography of the lunar surface at high resolution. LOLA data sets are produced by ...
  55. [55]
    CRaTER: The Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation ...
    Jan 6, 2010 · CRaTER measures the effects of ionizing energy loss in matter due to penetrating solar energetic protons (SEP) and galactic cosmic rays (GCR).
  56. [56]
    CRaTER Instrument Overview
    CRaTER consists of six silicon detectors in thin/thick pairs separated by sections of Tissue Equivalent Plastic (TEP).Missing: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
  57. [57]
    Science | Diviner
    Data from Diviner has helped identify potential ice deposits in the polar regions, map compositional variations on the surface and derive subsurface ...
  58. [58]
    Solar modulation of the deep space galactic cosmic ray lineal ...
    Mar 1, 2016 · The lineal energy spectrum of galactic cosmic rays is affected by solar modulation The CRaTER instrument on LRO has measured GCRs from 2009 ...
  59. [59]
    Proceeding toward the maximum of solar cycle 25 with a radiation ...
    Dec 1, 2024 · In this paper, we report on CRaTER observations of the dose rates to compare with our predictions (4 A radiation environment similar to the ...
  60. [60]
    Comparison of Solar Energetic Particle Flux Measurements by ...
    Apr 15, 2025 · Solar particle event data from the CRaTER instrument in lunar orbit are compared to data from GOES satellites in geostationary orbit ...
  61. [61]
    Initial observations from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA)
    Sep 18, 2010 · The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter, an instrument on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, has collected over 2.0 × 10 9 measurements of elevation.
  62. [62]
    LOLA: Lunar Topography in Natural Color - NASA SVS
    Jun 21, 2010 · The South Pole-Aitken basin, roughly 2100 kilometers (1300 miles) wide and 10 kilometers (6 miles) deep, is one of the largest impact features ...Missing: depth | Show results with:depth
  63. [63]
    B: Scientific Discoveries of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter and ...
    More than 220 new resolved impact craters were discovered as of March 2016 (Figure B.1), having diameters of 1.4 to 43 m. The number of new craters shows ...
  64. [64]
    The Lunar Cratering Chronology - GeoScienceWorld
    Dec 1, 2023 · (2012) concluded that the Late Heavy Bombardment came from the entire Main Asteroid Belt and not just a specific region, although Ćuk et al.
  65. [65]
    Evidence for basaltic volcanism on the Moon within the past 100 ...
    Aug 7, 2025 · The bulk of basaltic magmatism on the Moon occurred from 3.9 to 3.1 billion years ago on the ancient lunar mare plains(1).
  66. [66]
    Lunar crater ejecta: Physical properties revealed by radar and ...
    We investigate the physical properties, and changes through time, of lunar impact ejecta using radar and thermal infrared data.Missing: 20m | Show results with:20m
  67. [67]
    The Miniature Radio Frequency instrument's (Mini-RF) global ...
    Here we present new Mini-RF global orthorectified uncontrolled S-band maps of the Moon and use them for analysis of lunar surface physical properties.Introduction · Mini-Rf Derived Data... · Global Surface Scattering...Missing: 20m layers
  68. [68]
    Hydrogen Mapping of the Lunar South Pole Using the LRO Neutron ...
    Oct 22, 2010 · The LCROSS impact site inside the Cabeus crater demonstrates the highest hydrogen concentration in the lunar south polar region.
  69. [69]
    LRO Observes the LCROSS Impact - NASA SVS
    Oct 21, 2010 · The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, by observing the impact of the LCROSS spacecraft, helped contribute to these new findings.Missing: fresh ejecta OH signatures
  70. [70]
    Illumination conditions at the lunar south pole using high resolution ...
    Nov 15, 2014 · We identified locations receiving sunlight for 92.27% of the time at 2 m above ground and 95.65% of the time at 10 m above ground. At these ...
  71. [71]
    [PDF] Illumination conditions at the lunar poles: Implications for future ...
    Jun 29, 2017 · Evidence for water ice on the moon: Results for anomalous polar craters from the LRO Mini-RF imaging radar. Journal of. Geophysical Research ( ...
  72. [72]
    [PDF] POSSIBLE DETECTION OF ARGON IN THE LUNAR ATMOSPHERE ...
    In September 2009, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. (LRO) entered a polar orbit around the Moon. On board. LRO is the sensitive UV-spectrograph, LAMP (the Ly-.
  73. [73]
    An upper limit for ice in Shackleton crater as revealed by LRO Mini ...
    Jul 28, 2012 · An upper limit of ∼5–10 wt% H 2 O ice (up to 30 vol.%) present in the uppermost meter of regolith is also consistent with the observations.
  74. [74]
    [PDF] Launch Press Kit - Lunar Trailblazer - Caltech
    Jul 6, 2025 · Some data collected by prior missions suggest that there may be up to 1.3 trillion pounds. (600 million metric tons) of water ice in the ...Missing: estimate | Show results with:estimate
  75. [75]
    Relative contributions of galactic cosmic rays and lunar proton ...
    Nov 1, 2013 · Near the Moon, we show that GCR accounts for ~91.4% of the total absorbed dose, with GCR protons accounting for ~42.8%, GCR alpha particles for ...
  76. [76]
    Observation of the radiation environment and solar energetic ...
    The dose equivalent both from SEPs and GCR during this event is 15±3 mSv. Subtracting the background GCR dose equivalent of 5.5 ± 1.1 mSv from the total dose ...
  77. [77]
    The global surface temperatures of the Moon as measured by the ...
    The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment onboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has been acquiring solar reflectance and mid-infrared radiance ...
  78. [78]
    Diviner infrared observations of a total lunar eclipse - ResearchGate
    This result suggests the lunar regolith is extremely insulating within millimeters of the surface, with thermal inertia perhaps approaching a theoretical lower ...Missing: energetic | Show results with:energetic
  79. [79]
    Lunar surface charging during solar energetic particle events
    For eight of eleven event periods, surface potentials correlate with electron temperature and with the ratio of energetic electron flux to both energetic proton ...Missing: LRO Diviner responses eclipse- induced
  80. [80]
    None
    ### Summary of Lunar Safe Haven Concepts and Radiation Dose Limits for Artemis
  81. [81]
    Messages from Earth | The Planetary Society
    ... LRO microchip containing 1.6 million names, including member names of The Planetary Society. The microchip is encased in a radiation hardened container and ...
  82. [82]
    Images - Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera
    The Firefly Blue Ghost lunar lander set down on 2nd March 2025. The landing site (arrow) is about 4000 meters from the center of Mons Latreille, a large ...Curated Downloads · Gigapan · Lunar VideosMissing: count | Show results with:count
  83. [83]
    [PDF] LRO Educator Resource Kit (PDF) - NASA Science
    created from data collected by instruments aboard the LRO (LROC and LOLA images) with occasional images from the Apollo program and other lunar missions.Missing: gallery tours
  84. [84]
    https://iro.uiowa.edu/esploro/outputs/journalArticle/Lunar-surface-charging-during-solar-energetic/9984199930502771
  85. [85]
    New study shows citizens count lunar craters on par with professionals
    Mar 17, 2014 · A new study led by LASP research scientist Stuart Robbins indicates that volunteer “citizen scientists” counted lunar craters at rates comparable to ...
  86. [86]
    1:1 Million-Scale Maps of the Moon - Planetary Names - USGS.gov
    The purpose of the lunar maps presented here is to provide an up-to-date and comprehensive depiction of lunar nomenclature. As new names are approved, they are ...
  87. [87]
    LRO Publications by Others - NASA Science
    Jan 29, 2025 · Lunar surface model age derivation: Comparisons between automatic and human crater counting using LRO-NAC and Kaguya TC images. ... The Moon Zoo ...
  88. [88]
    NASA Selects Blue Origin to Deliver VIPER Rover to Moon's South ...
    Sep 19, 2025 · “Our rover will explore the extreme environment of the lunar South Pole, traveling to small, permanently shadowed regions to help inform future ...Missing: LRO | Show results with:LRO
  89. [89]
    https://pbskids.org/designsquad/parentseducators/guides/activity_guide_moon.html