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Mantis shrimp

Mantis shrimp, scientifically known as stomatopods, are marine crustaceans belonging to the order Stomatopoda within the class Malacostraca, encompassing over 450 species that diverged from other malacostracans around 400 million years ago.^[1]^[2] These colorful predators inhabit shallow tropical and subtropical marine environments worldwide, including coral reefs, sandy bottoms, and seagrass beds, where they construct burrows for shelter and ambush hunting.^[3] Typically measuring about 10 cm in length, some species can grow up to 30 cm or more, featuring a segmented exoskeleton and specialized appendages that enable them to spear soft-bodied prey or smash hard-shelled organisms with remarkable force.^[4]^[5] One of the most striking features of mantis shrimp is their extraordinary visual system, with compound eyes containing up to 16 types of photoreceptor cells that detect ultraviolet light, a broad spectrum of colors across 12 channels, and both linear and circular polarized light—capabilities unmatched by any other animal.^[6]^[7] This advanced vision aids in navigation, communication through fluorescence and polarization signals, and precise prey detection in complex underwater habitats.^[8] Their raptorial forelimbs, evolved for ultrafast strikes reaching speeds of 12–23 m/s and forces up to 1,500 N, employ a spring-loaded mechanism involving latches and linkages, often generating cavitation bubbles that stun or damage targets.^[1] Mantis shrimp are broadly classified into "spearers," which impale prey with barbed dactyl clubs, and "smashers," which use hammer-like clubs to crack shells, reflecting adaptations to diverse diets of fish, mollusks, and fellow crustaceans.^[9] Behaviorally, mantis shrimp are highly aggressive territorial animals that defend burrows vigorously, sometimes engaging in lethal intraspecific combat, yet many species form long-term monogamous pairs that cohabit and share parental duties for up to 20 years.^[10]^[5] Mating involves elaborate courtship displays, including waving appendages and fluorescent signaling tuned to their visual sensitivities, with females carrying eggs until hatching.^[6] As key predators in reef ecosystems, they influence community structure by controlling populations of smaller invertebrates, though their cryptic habits and rapid movements make them challenging to study in the wild.^[3]

Taxonomy and Systematics

Classification

Mantis shrimp, also known as stomatopods, are classified within the phylum Arthropoda, subphylum Crustacea, class Malacostraca, and order Stomatopoda. All extant species belong to the suborder Unipeltata.^[11] The order encompasses approximately 500 described species distributed across 7 superfamilies, 17 families, and over 100 genera.^[12] This taxonomic framework reflects the group's marine predominance, with most species inhabiting tropical and subtropical waters, though some extend to temperate regions.^[11] Key diagnostic traits of Stomatopoda include the specialized raptorial second maxillipeds, which are modified into powerful claws for smashing or spearing prey, distinguishing them from other malacostracans.^[12] Additional defining features encompass complex compound eyes mounted on movable stalks, enabling panoramic vision and polarization sensitivity, as well as a telson armed with uropods that form a fan-like structure for rapid swimming and burrowing.^[12] These morphological adaptations underscore the order's predatory lifestyle and monophyly.^[13] The order Stomatopoda was originally described by Latreille in 1817, building on earlier species-level accounts such as those by Fabricius in 1798 for taxa like Squilla mantis.^[11] Modern revisions, informed by morphological and molecular data, affirm the monophyly of Stomatopoda through shared appendage structures, including the raptorial dactylus and propodus configurations unique to the group.^[12] The crown group of extant stomatopods diverged from other malacostracans approximately 340 million years ago (95% credible interval: 313–401 million years ago).^[12]

Diversity and Selected Species

Mantis shrimps belong to the order Stomatopoda, which encompasses approximately 500 described species worldwide. These species are predominantly marine and occur in tropical and subtropical waters, though a few extend into temperate regions; the highest diversity is concentrated in the Indo-Pacific, where patterns of species richness peak in coral reef-associated habitats.^[14]^[15]^[16] Morphological variation among mantis shrimps is pronounced, with body lengths spanning from about 2 cm in smaller species to more than 40 cm in the largest, exemplified by Lysiosquillina maculata. Color patterns exhibit remarkable diversity, featuring iridescent blues, greens, reds, and bold stripes or spots that facilitate camouflage in varied substrates like coral or sand, as well as signaling for courtship, aggression, or species recognition.^[17]^[18]^[19] Among the diverse species, the peacock mantis shrimp (Odontodactylus scyllarus) stands out as a representative of the smasher morphotype, distinguished by its vibrant, multicolored exoskeleton reminiscent of a peacock's tail and robust, club-like raptorial appendages adapted for delivering high-impact strikes to hard-shelled prey. Native to Indo-Pacific reefs, it typically measures 3–18 cm in length and is often observed in burrows within coral crevices.^[18]^[20] The zebra mantis shrimp (Lysiosquillina maculata), a spearer type, exemplifies burrowing adaptations with its elongated, spear-tipped raptorial claws suited for impaling soft-bodied prey like fish and crustaceans. This species, marked by alternating black and white bands, inhabits soft-sediment bottoms across the Indo-Pacific and represents the upper end of size variation at up to 40 cm.^[21]^[17]^[22] Gonodactylus smithii serves as a key model organism in research on mantis shrimp vision, particularly for studies of polarization sensitivity and eye movement dynamics that enable detection of environmental cues invisible to humans. This Indo-Pacific species, typically around 7 cm long, features independently rotating stalked eyes with midband regions specialized for advanced spectral and polarization analysis.^[23]^[24]

Evolutionary History

Fossil Record

The fossil record of mantis shrimp (Stomatopoda) extends back to the Carboniferous period, with the earliest known specimens dating to approximately 307 million years ago from the Mazon Creek Lagerstätte in Illinois, USA. Recent discoveries include a new archaeostomatopod from the Pennsylvanian Wea Shale Member in Nebraska, USA, providing further insights into Carboniferous diversity.^[25] These primitive archaeostomatopods, such as Tyrannophontes and Archaeocaris, exhibited a more generalized body plan resembling modern shrimp, featuring grasping appendages but lacking the highly specialized, folded raptorial claws characteristic of later forms.^[26] Their preservation in ironstone concretions reveals details of thoracic segmentation and basic appendage structure, indicating an early diversification within the hoplocaridan lineage.^[27] Following a significant gap in the record after the Paleozoic, the Unipeltata clade—the suborder encompassing all extant mantis shrimp—emerged in the Triassic period around 250 million years ago. Recent discoveries, such as Triassosculda ahyongi from the Early Triassic Paris Biota in Idaho, USA, represent the first confirmed stomatopod fossils from this era, bridging a roughly 100-million-year temporal hiatus and showing transitional features toward modern raptorial morphology.^[28] By the Cretaceous period, approximately 100 million years ago, more derived stomatopods appeared, including genera like Pseudosculda from Lebanese lagerstätten, which display differentiated raptorial dactyli and uropodal scales akin to those in living species.^[29] Exceptional preservation in Mesozoic lagerstätten has provided insights into stomatopod morphology, particularly the stalk-eyed condition that persists in crown-group forms. The Solnhofen Limestone in Germany, a Late Jurassic deposit, yields specimens of Sculda and associated larvae, preserving fine details of antennal scales and eye stalks that highlight early adaptations for visual acuity.^[30] These sites, alongside Mazon Creek, underscore the role of Konservat-Lagerstätten in documenting stomatopod evolution, with fossils often revealing soft-tissue impressions and appendage articulations otherwise lost in typical sedimentary records.^[31]

Phylogenetic Relationships

Molecular studies utilizing 18S rRNA and mitochondrial DNA sequences have confirmed the monophyly of Stomatopoda as an order within the subclass Hoplocarida, a clade comprising stomatopods and their extinct relatives.^[32] These analyses, including concatenated datasets from 13 mitochondrial protein-coding genes, 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, and nuclear 18S rRNA, consistently place Stomatopoda as a well-supported monophyletic group, often as the sister taxon to other eumalacostracans or within Hoplocarida depending on the rooting and outgroup selection.^[33] Earlier investigations with three mitochondrial markers (12S, 16S, COI) and two nuclear genes (18S, 28S) further corroborated this monophyly, resolving deep divergences among stomatopod lineages.^[33] Within Stomatopoda, the phylogeny divides into stem groups of extinct lineages and the crown group Unipeltata, which encompasses all extant species across seven superfamilies.^[32] Unipeltata represents the modern radiation of mantis shrimp, characterized by advanced raptorial appendages and diverse predatory adaptations. Key superfamilies include Gonodactyloidea, predominantly "smashers" with club-like dactyls for striking prey, and Lysiosquilloidea, featuring "spearers" with spined dactyls for impaling soft-bodied organisms.^[33] However, Gonodactyloidea appears polyphyletic in molecular phylogenies, with some lineages nesting within other clades, while Lysiosquilloidea and Squilloidea maintain monophyly.^[32] Phylogenomic analyses from the 2020s, incorporating whole mitogenomes and multi-locus datasets, have refined intra-order relationships, revealing a crown-group Unipeltata origin around 143 million years ago (95% credible interval 199–98 Ma).^[34] These studies highlight rapid cladogenesis within superfamilies during the Cenozoic era, including the Miocene, aligning with fossil transitions that support branching patterns among extant clades.^[32]

Anatomy and Physiology

Body Plan and Morphology

Mantis shrimp possess a body plan characteristic of the malacostracan crustaceans, consisting of 19 somites organized into three tagmata: a head with five somites, a thorax with eight somites, and an abdomen with six somites. The head and thorax fuse to form a cephalothorax, which is partially enclosed by a carapace that covers the first four thoracic somites, leaving the posterior four thoracic somites exposed and free for movement. This segmentation supports a streamlined form adapted for burrowing and rapid locomotion in marine environments.^[35] Body sizes vary widely across the approximately 450 species of stomatopods, ranging from 1 cm in length for diminutive forms to up to 30 cm for larger species. The exoskeleton, composed primarily of chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, often displays striking iridescence due to structural coloration arising from multilayered chitin nanostructures that interfere with light reflection, producing vibrant hues without relying on pigments. These colors serve roles in camouflage, signaling, and species recognition.^[36]^[37] Locomotion in mantis shrimp involves specialized abdominal appendages: biramous pleopods on somites 2 through 5 facilitate sustained swimming via coordinated metachronal waving, which generates thrust while also aiding respiration by circulating water over the gills. The uropods on the sixth abdominal somite, paired with the telson, form a broad tail fan that enables explosive backward escapes through sudden abdominal flexion, allowing speeds sufficient to evade predators.^[38]^[39]

Specialized Appendages and Claws

Mantis shrimp possess specialized raptorial appendages, primarily the second maxillipeds modified into powerful claws used for capturing prey or defense. These appendages are categorized into two main types based on morphology and function: smashers, which feature a robust, hammer-like dactyl club for striking hard-shelled prey, and spearers, which have elongate, barbed dactyls equipped with sharp spines for impaling soft-bodied organisms. Some species exhibit hybrid forms, combining elements of both, allowing versatility in hunting strategies.^[40] In smasher species, such as Odontodactylus scyllarus, the dactyl club is propelled by a spring-loaded mechanism involving the exoskeleton of the merus segment, which compresses to store elastic energy before rapid release. Key structural components include the saddle—a bilayered, complex spring with a stiff outer layer of calcified cuticle and a more compliant inner layer—and the dactyl itself, a multilayered composite of chitin and minerals that withstands repeated impacts. During a strike, the club accelerates to speeds of up to 23 m/s, generating peak forces of approximately 1,500 Newtons, with accelerations reaching around 10,400 g due to the explosive release of stored energy. At these velocities, the strike induces cavitation in the surrounding water, forming vapor bubbles that collapse violently, producing secondary shock waves, temperatures up to 4,700 K, and additional impact forces equivalent to several hundred Newtons. These dactyl clubs enable mantis shrimp to fracture mollusk shells or even damage aquarium glass during predation.^[41]^[42] Recent research has elucidated how smasher mantis shrimp mitigate self-inflicted damage from these extreme strikes. A 2025 study revealed that the dactyl club's periodic microstructure functions as a phononic crystal, selectively filtering high-frequency stress waves (above 100 kHz) while transmitting lower-frequency ones, thereby damping vibrations that could propagate to underlying tissues and cause injury—a form of microstructural damping that enhances impact resistance without compromising strike power. This phononic shielding allows repeated strikes with minimal structural fatigue. Additionally, investigations into agonistic encounters, where mantis shrimp exchange strikes during territorial disputes, have shown that they scale strike kinematics and energetics contextually; for instance, competitors dissipate up to 90% of incoming strike energy by elevating their impact-resistant telson, reducing injury risk while assessing opponent strength through controlled energy exchanges.^[43]^[44]

Eyes and Visual System

Mantis shrimp possess stalked compound eyes that can move independently, providing a wide field of view and the ability to scan the environment separately with each eye. These apposition compound eyes consist of thousands of ommatidia, with a distinctive midband region containing six rows of specialized ommatidia that divide the eye into dorsal and ventral hemispheres. The midband's rows 1–4 house tiered photoreceptors dedicated to color vision, while rows 5–6 are adapted for polarization sensitivity. Overall, mantis shrimp have 12–16 distinct photoreceptor types, enabling detection across a broad spectrum from ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths around 300 nm to far-red light up to approximately 700 nm, far exceeding the trichromatic capabilities of human vision.^[45]^[46]^[47] A key feature of their visual system is polarization vision, facilitated by the orthogonal arrangement of microvilli in the photoreceptors of midband rows 5 and 6, which create independent channels for detecting horizontal and vertical electric field vector (e-vector) orientations of linearly polarized light. This setup allows mantis shrimp to perceive the degree and angle of polarization with high acuity, a capability rare among animals. Additionally, the spatial arrangement of the midband relative to the dorsal and ventral eye regions forms a trinocular configuration within each eye, enabling monocular depth perception and true polarization ranging without requiring binocular input from both eyes. Some species can also detect circularly polarized light through quarter-wave plate-like structures in their R8 photoreceptors, converting circular to linear polarization for analysis.^[48]^[23]^[49] The advanced visual system provides significant advantages, such as hyperspectral and polarimetric imaging that enhances prey detection in complex marine environments. By analyzing polarization contrasts, mantis shrimp can identify otherwise transparent or camouflaged prey, like larval fish or jellyfish, against scattered light in water, improving foraging efficiency in coral reefs. Recent research has refined models of their color vision, proposing a "barcode" mechanism where individual photoreceptor activations are compared directly rather than through chromatic opponent processing, emphasizing the primacy of polarization cues over fine hue discrimination in behavioral contexts. A 2022 review highlighted their limited color resolution (around 15–25 nm in the visible spectrum) but confirmed robust UV and polarization integration for ecological tasks. Furthermore, the 2025 Animal Behavior Society symposium featured discussions on visual cognition in mantis shrimp, underscoring the role of these sensory capabilities in agonistic displays and territorial interactions.^[23]^[50]^[51]^[52]

Behavior and Ecology

Habitat and Distribution

Mantis shrimp, belonging to the order Stomatopoda, exhibit a global distribution primarily concentrated in tropical and subtropical marine waters, with the greatest species diversity in the Indo-West Pacific region. Approximately 500 species are recognized worldwide, of which around 250 occur in the Indo-West Pacific, and more than half of these are found in Australian waters alone, including ongoing discoveries off the New South Wales coast. While most species favor warm waters, some extend into temperate zones, such as Squilla mantis in the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern Atlantic, particularly the Gulf of Cádiz.^[53]^[54]^[55]^[16] These crustaceans predominantly inhabit coastal environments, burrowing into soft substrates like sand and mud or seeking shelter in coral crevices and rocky outcrops. They are commonly associated with coral reefs and seagrass beds, where species such as the zebra mantis shrimp (Lysiosquillina maculata) construct burrows that correlate with seagrass density for protection and foraging access. Associations with mangroves and estuaries are also noted, particularly in tropical settings where burrowing facilitates sediment turnover and oxygenation. Depth preferences span from intertidal zones to abyssal depths exceeding 1,500 meters, though most species occupy shallow to moderate depths up to 100 meters.^[53]^[56]^[57]^[58] Abiotic conditions play a key role in their distribution, with optimal temperatures ranging from 20 to 30°C in tropical and subtropical realms. Studies on intertidal species demonstrate physiological tolerance to elevated temperatures and reduced pH levels projected under ocean warming and acidification scenarios, showing no significant oxidative stress or degradation in raptorial appendage function after prolonged exposure. Nonetheless, habitat degradation from these changes, such as coral bleaching or seagrass loss, poses indirect risks to population viability. Species diversity gradients align with these environmental preferences, peaking in biodiverse Indo-Pacific hotspots.^[59]^[60]^[61]

Foraging and Predation Strategies

Mantis shrimp are primarily carnivorous predators with diets consisting of hard-shelled crustaceans such as crabs and snails, mollusks like bivalves, and soft-bodied organisms including fish, shrimp, and worms.^[62] Species classified as smashers, such as Neogonodactylus bredini, preferentially target shelled prey like clams and hermit crabs, using their robust raptorial appendages to access the soft tissues within.^[62] In contrast, spearers like Lysiosquillina maculata focus on evasive soft prey such as fish and alpheid shrimp, which their barbed dactyls can impale more effectively.^[62] They also engage in opportunistic scavenging, consuming carrion or discarded remains when available, particularly in disturbed habitats.^[63] Hunting strategies revolve around ambush tactics, with mantis shrimp concealing themselves in burrows or crevices on coral reefs or sandy bottoms before launching rapid strikes.^[64] Smashers employ high-impact blows from their club-like appendages to fracture exoskeletons of crabs or snails, generating forces sufficient to crack hard shells in milliseconds.^[62] Spearers, meanwhile, extend their spear-shaped appendages at speeds up to 5.72 m/s to pierce and retract soft prey like fish before it can escape, often at night to exploit reduced visibility.^[64] These strikes integrate briefly with their advanced visual system, which detects polarization cues to enhance contrast and spot camouflaged or transparent prey in turbid waters.^[3] As apex predators in shallow tropical reef ecosystems, mantis shrimp regulate populations of smaller crustaceans and mollusks, maintaining biodiversity by preventing overgrazing on algae or sessile organisms.^[65] Their predatory activities link benthic food webs, serving as prey for larger fish like snappers while controlling intermediate consumers.^[62] Recent studies highlight their pursuit capabilities through hybrid metachronal swimming, where coordinated pleopod beats enable burst speeds of up to 0.28 m/s for chasing evasive prey during foraging excursions.^[39] This locomotion combines paddling and stroking motions, allowing efficient transitions from ambush to active hunting in complex reef environments.^[39] Mantis shrimp exhibit diverse reproductive strategies across species, predominantly gonochoristic with separate sexes, though some display sequential mating patterns. Females typically carry eggs in a brood pouch or under the abdomen, protecting them until hatching into planktonic larvae that facilitate wide dispersal in ocean currents.^[54] Over their lifespan, females can produce up to 20-30 broods, with clutch sizes varying from hundreds to thousands of eggs depending on species and body size.^[55] In species like Gonodactylus bredini, brooding lasts about 4-6 weeks at tropical temperatures, after which larvae enter a pelagic phase lasting weeks to months before settling.^[66] Social structures in mantis shrimp range from solitary individuals to long-term monogamous pairs, with the latter common in species inhabiting stable burrows. Monogamous pairs, such as in Pullosquilla litoralis and Pullosquilla thomassini, share burrows and cooperate in defense and brood care, potentially lasting up to 20 years.^[67] Territorial disputes often involve ritualized fights where opponents exchange strikes to the telson (tail plate), allowing mutual assessment of fighting ability through strike force and endurance without lethal injury.^[68] Courtship displays are elaborate, featuring synchronized dances with waving appendages, color changes, and acoustic signals to attract mates and synchronize spawning.^[69]^[70] Life history traits reflect adaptation to tropical and subtropical environments, with individuals reaching sexual maturity in 6-12 months under optimal conditions, though this varies by species and temperature. Growth involves multiple molts, transitioning from post-larval settlers to juveniles and adults, with longevity spanning 3-20 years. Recent studies on heat stress, including a 2025 investigation of two stomatopod species, reveal that acute warming reduces agonistic behaviors such as territorial strikes and displays, potentially disrupting social hierarchies and reproductive success in warming oceans.^[71]^[72]

Human Interactions

Culinary and Commercial Uses

Mantis shrimp are consumed in various culinary traditions worldwide, particularly in regions where they are abundant. In Japan, the species Oratosquilla oratoria, known as shako, is a prized ingredient in sushi and sashimi, often briefly boiled and then roasted to enhance its sweet, firm texture before being served with soy-based dips.^[73] In the Mediterranean, particularly Spain, mantis shrimp such as Squilla mantis are referred to as galeras or squilla and feature in dishes like sopa de galeras, a flavorful soup, or arroz con galeras, a rice preparation incorporating onions, peppers, and garlic for a savory profile. In Southeast Asia, including Thailand and Malaysia, they are commonly deep-fried with garlic or cooked in spicy soy sauces, such as kung pao-style preparations, highlighting their crispy exterior and juicy interior when stir-fried alive.^[74] Commercial fisheries for mantis shrimp operate primarily in the Indo-Pacific and Mediterranean regions, targeting species like Oratosquilla oratoria in East Asian waters and Squilla mantis in European seas. These fisheries employ trawls, gill nets, and set nets, with significant harvests supporting local economies; for instance, in the 1990s, annual catches of S. mantis off Spain's Ebro Delta were approximately 700 tons, and Spain's total Mediterranean landings exceeded 1,200 tons in 1999.^[75] Recent data indicate total Mediterranean landings for S. mantis fluctuated from 4,751 tons in 2012 to 4,011 tons in 2021.^[76] In Japan, O. oratoria fisheries yield substantial volumes through inshore operations, contributing to its status as a widely accepted seafood. Nutritionally, mantis shrimp offer high protein content, typically around 13-20 grams per 100 grams of edible portion, along with bioactive omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that support health benefits like reduced inflammation.^[77]^[78]^[79] Preparation techniques emphasize freshness, with mantis shrimp often sold live in markets to preserve quality, requiring careful handling due to their sharp spines and powerful claws that pose injury risks to preparers. Common methods include boiling for short durations to avoid toughening the meat or deep-frying for a crisp coating, followed by seasoning with salt, garlic, or citrus. Sustainability concerns surround these fisheries, as stocks like O. oratoria in Chinese and Japanese waters show signs of overexploitation from unregulated inshore harvesting, prompting calls for better management to ensure long-term viability without diminishing populations.^[80]^[81]

Maintenance in Aquaria

Mantis shrimp, also known as stomatopods, are increasingly popular among experienced aquarists due to their vibrant colors, active behavior, and unique predatory displays, though they pose significant challenges as pets owing to their aggression and specific habitat needs.^[82]^[83] Common species kept in captivity include the peacock mantis shrimp (Odontodactylus scyllarus), prized for its iridescent blue and green hues, and smaller species like Gonodactylus chiragra.^[82]^[84] These crustaceans require species-only tanks, as they will aggressively attack and consume fish, snails, crabs, or other invertebrates, necessitating complete isolation to prevent fatalities.^[85]^[83] Tank setup for mantis shrimp demands careful consideration of their burrowing instincts and physical strength. A minimum of 10 gallons is suitable for small species under 3 inches, while individuals exceeding 8 inches require at least 20 gallons to allow adequate space for movement and retreat construction.^[85]^[84] A deep sand substrate, ideally 1.5 times the shrimp's body length, is essential for burrowing spearers like O. scyllarus, whereas smashers such as G. chiragra can utilize coarse gravel, coral rubble, small rocks, or PVC pipes for shelters.^[82]^[84] Secure, tight-fitting lids are mandatory to contain these powerful jumpers, and acrylic tanks are preferable over glass to withstand potential impacts from their club-like appendages, which can occasionally crack enclosures.^[85]^[82] Standard marine filtration, such as undergravel or canister systems, suffices, paired with low-output LED lighting to mimic dim natural habitats and reduce stress; water parameters should maintain a temperature of 74–80°F (23–27°C), salinity of 1.020–1.025, and stable chemistry through regular testing and 10–20% weekly changes.^[83]^[84] Species-specific needs vary, with spearers generally more reef-compatible if provided sandy burrows, allowing selective placement of soft corals like mushrooms or Xenia that can withstand minor rearrangements.^[82]^[83] Feeding mimics their carnivorous wild diet, focusing on live or frozen prey to engage their hunting instincts while minimizing injury risks to the keeper. Offer thawed mussels, prawns, small crabs, fish, or snails via long tongs, as direct hand-feeding invites strikes that can cause lacerations requiring stitches.^[85]^[84] Smashers prefer hard-shelled items like clams or crayfish to exercise their clubs, while spearers favor softer prey such as worms or shrimp; feed every 2–3 days, adjusting based on acceptance to avoid overfeeding and water fouling.^[82]^[83] Daily monitoring for molting is crucial, during which the shrimp are vulnerable—dim lights and undisturbed retreats aid shell hardening over 24–48 hours.^[85] In captivity, mantis shrimp can live 3–6 years for smaller species or up to 20 years for larger ones with consistent care, though high nutrient levels or airborne chemicals like aerosols can induce shell rot or toxicity.^[84]^[86]

Conservation and Research Applications

Mantis shrimp populations face several anthropogenic threats, including overfishing and habitat degradation. In regions like the Indo-Pacific, incidental capture in trawl fisheries contributes to population declines, while coral reef destruction from bleaching events—exacerbated by climate change—reduces available burrowing sites essential for their survival.^[5]^[18]^[87] Most species have not been evaluated by the IUCN, though those assessed are generally of Least Concern due to their wide distribution; however, some in heavily fished areas exhibit vulnerability from overexploitation and pollution.^[88] A 2024 study on the spottail mantis shrimp (Squilla mantis) in the North Aegean Sea revealed population dynamics with an exploitation rate of 0.54 (below sustainable limits) and fishing mortality of 0.4, indicating no overfishing but a need for localized assessments and continuous monitoring.^[89] Conservation efforts for mantis shrimp emphasize habitat protection and sustainable practices in key regions. Marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Indo-Pacific, such as those around Indonesia's Makassar Strait, help preserve biodiversity hotspots by restricting trawling and promoting reef recovery, indirectly benefiting mantis shrimp populations.^[90]^[91] Aquaculture trials are underway to support sustainable harvesting, with initiatives in Southeast Asia exploring captive breeding techniques to reduce reliance on wild stocks and prevent overexploitation of species like Oratosquilla oratoria.^[92] These measures aim to balance ecological roles with commercial interests, though challenges persist in enforcement and climate adaptation. Mantis shrimp adaptations inspire diverse research applications in biomimicry. Their advanced visual system, capable of detecting circular polarization, has influenced optical technologies, such as multispectral sensors for underwater imaging and environmental monitoring.^[93] The dactyl club's multilayered structure motivates material science innovations, including impact-resistant composites for body armor and prosthetics that mimic its energy absorption.^[94]^[95] In 2025, studies on the club's phononic properties demonstrated sound-damping mechanisms that filter high-frequency stress waves, paving the way for advanced prosthetic designs like quasi-passive ankle-foot devices that enhance shock mitigation during locomotion.^[96]^[97]^[98]

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Dynamic polarization vision in mantis shrimps - Nature
Jul 12, 2016 · We have shown that two species of stomatopod, G. smithii and O. scyllarus exhibit torsional rotations of their eyes in response to linearly ...
[24]
Mantis shrimp eye movements. (a) Side view of a Gonodactylus...
[38] Figure 1a shows a schematic of the mantis shrimp's eye, which is divided into three sections: the ventral hemisphere (VH), dorsal hemisphere (DH), and six ...
[25]
PALEOZOIC PROTO-MANTIS SHRIMP REVISITED
ABSTRACT—A review and revision of the Paleozoic proto-stomatopods results in the recognition of a new species of Tyrannophontes Schram,.
[26]
A New Archaeostomatopod from the Pennsylvanian Wea Shale ...
Nov 6, 2024 · Mantis shrimp have also been documented from fossil deposits extending back to the Mississippian (Schram, 2007; Schram and Koenemann, 2021).
[27]
[PDF] Closing a major gap in mantis shrimp evolution – first fossils of ...
Mar 31, 2023 · The fossil record of Stomatopoda is relatively more complete after the Jurassic and documents a rather gradual evolution towards modern forms ( ...
[28]
Evolution of mantis shrimps (Stomatopoda, Malacostraca) in the light ...
Sep 21, 2010 · The endopod is also paddle-shaped, its distal margin carries at least twelve setae. Exopod and endopod are about the same size. Smaller ...
[29]
Evolution of mantis shrimps (Stomatopoda, Malacostraca) in the light ...
Sep 21, 2010 · We describe new specimens of Mesozoic mantis shrimps (Stomatopoda, Malacostraca) that exhibit morphological and developmental information previously unknown.
[30]
Another piece in the puzzle of mantis shrimp evolution – fossils from ...
Jan 23, 2023 · Here we introduce a new species of fossil mantis shrimps, Ostenosculda teruzzii n. gen., n. sp. from the Early Jurassic (Sinemurian) limestone ...Missing: earliest | Show results with:earliest
[31]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367375858_Another_piece_in_the_puzzle_of_mantis_shrimp_evolution_-_fossils_from_the_Early_Jurassic_Osteno_Lagerstatte_of_Northern_Italy
[32]
https://doi.org/10.3390/d13120647
[33]
Tagmatization in Stomatopoda – reconsidering functional units of ...
Nov 14, 2012 · ... Stomatopoda. ... In the ground pattern of Eucrustacea five appendage-bearing anterior body segments are incorporated into the head shield [47].
[34]
Stomatopoda - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
There are about 254 species of crabs belonging to 120 genera under 24 families recorded along the west coast of India. Among these, the names of 100 species ...
[35]
Understanding the structural diversity of chitins as a versatile ... - NIH
Aug 2, 2021 · For the mantis shrimp the stiffness and hardness of the exoskeleton is optimized via the mineral matter to chitin ratio as well as chitin's ...
[36]
Stomatopoda: More on Morphology
The tailfan is used to hold the abdomen and gills above the bottom, to block the burrow entrance, and to signal other stomatopods. Visit the UCMP special ...
[37]
Mantis Shrimp Locomotion: Coordination and Variation of Hybrid ...
Jun 27, 2023 · Mantis shrimp use abdominal appendages, called pleopods, for swimming and breathing. They swim using hybrid metachrony, consisting of an ...
[38]
Comparative spring mechanics in mantis shrimp
Smashers, e.g. Gonodactylaceus falcatus (C), use a hammer-shaped dactyl (D) to smash hard-shelled prey.Missing: claw | Show results with:claw
[39]
Article Biomechanical Design of the Mantis Shrimp Saddle
Oct 26, 2018 · This study reveals a refined picture of the mechanical design of the mantis shrimp saddle, a bilayer complex spring and the stiffest element in ...
[40]
Extreme impact and cavitation forces of a biological hammer: strike ...
Oct 1, 2005 · Peacock mantis shrimp use a pair of large raptorial appendages (A, white arrow) to strike hard objects with such high speeds that cavitation ...
[41]
Does the mantis shrimp pack a phononic shield? - Science
Feb 6, 2025 · In this work, we explored the phononic properties of the mantis shrimp's dactyl club using laser ultrasonic techniques and numerical simulations.
[42]
Behavior and morphology combine to influence energy dissipation ...
May 9, 2024 · Highlighted Article: Freely competing mantis shrimp dissipate 90% of the energy of high-force strikes by raising their impact-resistant ...
[43]
Filtering and polychromatic vision in mantis shrimps - NIH
Species with six ommatidial rows in the midbands of their compound eyes create 16 functional classes of photoreceptors using unusual receptor arrangements, ...
[44]
Stomatopod eye structure and function: a review - PubMed
Stomatopods (mantis shrimps) possess apposition compound eyes that contain more photoreceptor types than any other animal described.
[45]
Biomimetic nanocluster photoreceptors for adaptative circular ...
Mar 16, 2024 · Mantis shrimps have incredibly structured eyes comprising thousands of closely packed and parallelly arranged ommatidia. A six-row midband (MB) ...
[46]
Stomatopod eye structure and function: A review - ScienceDirect.com
This review summarises more than 20 years work on the remarkably complex visual system of stomatopod crustaceans (mantis shrimps).
[47]
[PDF] Mantis Shrimp Eye Structure and Function - scubageek.com
The eye's optical arsenal includes monocular range finding capability, 12-channel colour vision, 2-channel linear polarization detection, and, in some species, ...<|separator|>
[48]
Design of Mantis-Shrimp-Inspired Multifunctional Imaging Sensors ...
Mar 6, 2024 · As an adept underwater predator, the mantis shrimp uses polarization information to help identify prey in complex underwater environments.
[49]
Colour vision in stomatopod crustaceans - Journals
Sep 5, 2022 · Mantis shrimps can discriminate both human-visible and UV colours, but with limited precision compared to other colour-vision systems.
[50]
ABS 2025 - The Animal Behavior Society
Presentation Details. Amazing eyes, amazing minds: The role of vision in mantis shrimp behavior. Thomas Cronin. University of Maryland Baltimore County, , ,
[51]
Mantis Shrimp - The Australian Museum
About 400 species of mantis shrimp are known worldwide. Close to 250 species occur in the Indo-West Pacific region and more than half of these occur around ...
[52]
Reproductive Dynamics of Spot Tail Mantis Shrimp (Squilla mantis)
Biological Information on the Mantis Shrimp, Harpiosquilla raphidea (Fabricius 1798) (Stomatopoda, Crustacea) in Indonesia with a Highlight of Its ...
[53]
Mantis Shrimp Facts (Stomatopoda) - ThoughtCo
Jan 3, 2019 · Over 500 species of mantis shrimps have been described, but relatively little is known about the creatures because they spend most of their time ...
[54]
Seagrass density correlates with burrow abundance and size in the ...
Larger (diameter and/or depth) mantis shrimp burrows were more common in the denser seagrass beds and smaller burrows were more common in sparse seagrass beds.
[55]
[PDF] Vulnerability of mangroves, seagrasses and intertidal flats in the ...
Furthermore, the harvest of some species (e.g. mantis shrimp) relies on first identifying and marking burrows at low ... Seagrass depth range and water ...
[56]
[PDF] Mantis Shrimps (Crustacea: Stomatopoda)
mantis shrimp from the western Pacific (Stomatopoda: Gonodactyloidea: Protosquillidae). Journal of Crustacean. Biology 30: 141–145. AHYONG, S.T. 2010b. New ...
[57]
Peacock Mantis Shrimp - Akron Zoo
Peacock mantis shrimp are found in the Indo-Pacific Ocean, south of Japan, north of Australia, and between eastern Africa and Guam. Diet. Mantis shrimp usually ...
[58]
Stress physiology and weapon integrity of intertidal mantis shrimp ...
Dec 15, 2016 · Animals that molted twice ranged in carapace length from 7.95–11.60 mm, which spanned most of the animal size range (7.95–12.27 mm) and ...
[59]
Mantis Shrimp Tolerate Ocean Acidification and Warming
Apr 13, 2017 · Contrary to their initial thinking, the mantis shrimp exhibited an "apparently large tolerance range for changes in environmental pH and ...
[60]
[PDF] The Feeding Morphology and Ecology of Stomatopod Crustaceans
These studies indicate that spearers do not solely exhibit a sit-and-wait predation strategy, because most species also consume prey that requires active.
[61]
(PDF) The role of feeding morphology and competition in governing ...
Apr 27, 2017 · Competition for food drives divergence and specialization in feeding morphology. Stomatopod crustaceans have two kinds of highly specialized feeding appendages.
[62]
Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp
Dec 15, 2012 · To achieve these goals, ambush predators use three strategies to capture prey: (1) concealment through burrows or camouflage, (2) quick traverse ...Missing: diet | Show results with:diet
[63]
Ecological role of stomatopods (mantis shrimps) and potential ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Stomatopods (mantis shrimps) are common and ecologically important predatory crustaceans in tropical marine waters.
[64]
(PDF) Reproduction and Larval Development of the Mantis Shrimp ...
At 28°C developmental times were as follows: approximately 29-30 days from mating to the pelagic larval stage when brooding is no longer required, 20-21 days ...Missing: hermaphroditism | Show results with:hermaphroditism
[65]
Monogamy in the sea social monogamy in two mantis shrimp ...
Jan 4, 2022 · This research suggests that the heterogeneity of the coral backreef affects the distributions of P. litoralis and P. thomassini, but further ...Missing: systems solitary territorial fights
[66]
Mutual assessment during ritualized fighting in mantis shrimp ... - NIH
Jan 17, 2018 · Abstract. Safe and effective conflict resolution is critical for survival and reproduction. Theoretical models describe how animals resolve ...Missing: solitary monogamous
[67]
Sea Wonder: Peacock Mantis Shrimp
Nov 7, 2023 · Peacock mantis shrimp live in the warm waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Their preferred habitats include coral reefs and sand flats at ...
[68]
Comparative Studies of Reproductive Behavior in Mantis Shrimps ...
To protect their larger, exposed clutches, BF females usually stop feeding and remain in burrows for about two weeks until their eggs hatch. BF males usually ( ...
[69]
Heat stress affects ecologically-relevant behaviors in two species of ...
Sep 12, 2025 · We studied the effects of acute heat stress on ecologically relevant behaviors in two species of mantis shrimp from disparate regions: the Indo- ...
[70]
Heat stress affects ecologically-relevant behaviors in two species of ...
Our data show how heat stress leads to complex behavioral variation in ways that may affect the role mantis shrimp play in marine ecosystems. We suggest future ...Missing: agonistic warming
[71]
Cryptic diversity in the Japanese mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria ...
May 16, 2017 · O. oratoria is subjected to intense and unregulated inshore fisheries in the NW Pacific because of its abundance and wide consumer acceptance, ...
[72]
Mantis Prawns in Spicy Dark Soy Sauce - Southeast Asian Recipes
Rating 5.0 (684) · 40 minsFeb 20, 2016 · Mantis prawns cooked in tangy 'kung pao' or 'kung pou' sauce is a popular dish on the menu in Chinese restaurants in Malaysia and Singapore.
[73]
Fishery dynamics of the mantis shrimp Squilla mantis (Crustacea
Aug 9, 2025 · Present annual catches are around 700 t. It is fished throughout the year and catches have a marked seasonality, with highest values occurring ...
[74]
Population dynamics of Japanese mantis shrimp (Oratosquilla ...
Trawl and gill nets are the main fishing operation modes of O. oratoria fisheries. As traditional fishery resources decline, resilient low-trophic-level ...
[75]
Bioactive fatty acids in mantis shrimp, crab and caramote prawn
Most of these positive health effects are mainly attributed to the presence of bioactive long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n–3 PUFAs).
[76]
[PDF] A study on fatty acid profile and some mineral contents of mantis ...
According to the results of our study mantis shrimp consists of 13.10±0.1% protein and 2.06±0.5% fat, respectively. Table 1. The quantity of the crude protein ...
[77]
[PDF] POTENTIAL OF COMMERCIAL AQUACULTURE OF MANTIS ...
This project plans to test the possibility of building a cost-efficient way to breeding and culture mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria in idle ponds and ...
[78]
Exploitation pattern assessment of the Japanese mantis shrimp ...
Oratosquilla oratoria stock was generally over-exploited in the coastal waters of the Shandong Peninsula. Abstract. The exploitation pattern of the invertebrate ...
[79]
How to Set Up a Mantis Shrimp Tank
### Mantis Shrimp Tank Setup and Care Summary
[80]
Through the Eyes of a Mantis Shrimp | TFH Magazine
Mantis shrimp thrive under standard reef aquarium conditions and need optimal water chemistry. High nutrient levels are toxic to them, and the aquarium should ...<|separator|>
[81]
Mantis Shrimp as an Aquarium Pet. Care Guide
Although water quality is easier to manage in large aquariums, small Mantis shrimp (1 – 3 inches or 2.5 – 7 cm) do quite well in 10-gallon (~40 liters) ...
[82]
Mantis Shrimp - That Pet Place
Depending upon the species, mantis shrimp catch their food using either of two distinct methods. ... Mantis shrimp have lived for over 20 years in captivity.Aquarium Size & Physical Set... · Temperature & Water Quality · Feeding<|separator|>
[83]
Mantis Shrimp (Order: Stomatopoda) – Breaking Research and Care ...
Jul 3, 2008 · Mantis shrimp are among the most interesting crustaceans that one might keep in a marine aquarium. Longevities in excess of 20 years are known, ...
[84]
The Shrimp That Punches Like a Bullet - NewsBreak
Despite their formidable natural defenses, mantis shrimps face numerous anthropogenic threats. While most species haven't been formally assessed by conservation ...
[85]
12 Mantis Shrimp Facts: A Closer Look at this Marine Marvel - TRVST
Nov 4, 2023 · Interestingly, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has classified them as species of "least concern." This classification ...12 Mantis Shrimp Facts · 1. Mantis Shrimp Are Not... · 6. Mantis Shrimp Can Punch...
[86]
Population Dynamics and Stock Assessment of the Spottail Mantis ...
Dec 6, 2024 · This study investigates the population dynamics and stock assessment of the species in the north Aegean Sea. A total of 856 individuals were ...
[87]
Marine protected areas for dive tourism | Scientific Reports - Nature
Feb 11, 2025 · Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) help restore biodiversity and enhance nearby fisheries, but their direct tourism benefits are not well understood.
[88]
Diversity and Spatial Distribution of Spearer Mantis Shrimp ...
This study aimed to address this knowledge gap by integrating and reviewing data on species variation in spearer-type mantis shrimp (Stomatopoda) recorded from ...
[89]
First description of mantis shrimp, Miyakella nepa (Latreille, 1828 ...
Initially, mantis shrimps were reported as by-catch and trash fish of trawling activities, but now have become a substantially caught species and are recorded ...
[90]
The mantis shrimp: From ocean predator to optical inspiration - SPIE
Sep 1, 2024 · Mantis shrimp possess 12 color- channels, dwarfing the three (red, blue, green) found in humans, allowing them to sample wavelengths beyond ...
[91]
Bioinspired Materials Can Take a Punch | NIST
Jun 24, 2025 · Scientists develop new impact-resistant material based on the exoskeleton of the mantis shrimp. June 24, 2025Missing: claw filtering damping
[92]
Innovative Biomaterials Inspired by Mantis Shrimp Armor
Feb 10, 2025 · Researchers from Northwestern University have studied the structure of mantis shrimp clubs, which are capable of withstanding extreme high-impact forces.Missing: optics polarization
[93]
Mantis Shrimp Clubs Filter Sound to Mitigate Damage | News
Feb 6, 2025 · Mantis Shrimp Clubs Filter Sound to Mitigate Damage. Patterned armor selectively blocks high-frequency stress waves. Feb 6, 2025Amanda Morris.Missing: claw | Show results with:claw
[94]
Mantis Shrimp's Shock-Absorbing Phononic Shields: USF ...
Mar 15, 2025 · The study, titled “Does the Mantis Shrimp Pack a Phononic Shield?” explores the impact-resistant properties of the peacock mantis shrimp's ...
[95]
Mantis Shrimp-Inspired Quasi Passive Ankle-Foot Prosthesis
Aug 19, 2025 · Our prosthesis shows a promising ability to provide prompt user-specific stiffness in daily living while maintaining compact, lightweight, and ...Missing: sound- | Show results with:sound-