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Marination

Marinating is the process of soaking foods, especially meats, in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. This liquid, called the marinade, typically includes acidic components such as vinegar, lemon juice, or wine; enzymatic agents like pineapple, papaya, yogurt, or ginger; or neutral-pH mixtures. It commonly contains oil, salt, herbs, and spices to enhance flavor.^[1] The primary purposes of marination are to add flavor to the food and to tenderize tougher cuts of meat by breaking down proteins.^[2] The process can last from seconds to several days, depending on the food and desired effect. Marinating is similar to brining, which uses a salty solution primarily for moisture retention, and pickling, which preserves food for longer periods, but marination is generally shorter-term for flavoring and tenderizing.^[3] The term "marinade" originates from the French word "mariner," meaning to pickle in sea brine, derived from the Latin "mare" for sea, indicating roots in ancient preservation techniques involving seawater.^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition

Marination is the culinary process of soaking foods, primarily meats, poultry, fish, or vegetables, in a seasoned liquid mixture prior to cooking to enhance flavor and texture.^[5]^[6] The mixture, referred to as a marinade, typically comprises acidic components such as vinegar or citrus juice, oils, salts, and various flavorings like herbs and spices, which work together to penetrate the food and impart taste while potentially tenderizing it.^[7] This process differs from related techniques such as brining, which involves soaking foods in a saltwater solution primarily to retain moisture and improve juiciness, and pickling, a method focused on long-term preservation through immersion in a strong acidic or brined environment, often for storage rather than immediate cooking.^[8] While marination emphasizes flavor infusion and short-term preparation, these distinctions highlight its specific role in pre-cooking enhancement without extending to preservation.^[8] The term "marination" derives from the French verb mariner, meaning "to pickle in sea brine," which itself stems from the Latin marinus ("of the sea"), reflecting early associations with salting and preserving in seawater-like solutions; it entered English usage in the 17th century, with the noun "marinade" first recorded around 1725.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Purposes and Benefits

Marination primarily aims to enhance the sensory qualities of food, particularly meats, by infusing flavors more deeply than surface seasoning methods alone, resulting in a richer taste profile.^[12] This penetration of seasonings allows for uniform distribution of aromas and tastes throughout the food structure.^[13] A key benefit is tenderization, which breaks down connective tissues and proteins in tougher cuts, improving palatability and making the food easier to chew and digest.^[14] This is especially valuable for budget or less tender meats, transforming them into more enjoyable dishes without compromising texture.^[15] Marination also promotes moisture retention during cooking, which helps prevent dryness and enhances juiciness, particularly in lean proteins that are prone to losing water under heat.^[16] By increasing water-holding capacity, it contributes to higher cooking yields and a more succulent mouthfeel.^[17] Originally developed as a preservation technique, marination extends shelf life by creating an acidic and saline environment that inhibits bacterial growth and spoilage, reducing food waste and supporting food safety.^[18] This antimicrobial effect remains relevant today for prepared foods.^[14]

Historical Background

Etymology and Origins

The term "marinade" derives from the French "marinade," denoting a spiced vinegar or brine for pickling, which traces back to the Latin "marinus" (of the sea) and ultimately to "mare" (sea). This linguistic root underscores the historical reliance on seawater for early preservation techniques.^[4] The word entered English in the 17th century, with the verb "marinate" first recorded in the 1640s to describe pickling fish or meat in brine, often sea-derived, and the noun "marinade" appearing by the early 1700s for the soaking liquid itself. Initially applied to fish and meats, it emphasized brining as a method to extend shelf life.^[9]^[11] Marination's origins extend to ancient practices, with evidence from Roman times documenting the use of vinegar and brine to preserve foods like fried fish—a technique referenced by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia as effective for storage and even medicinal applications. Archaeological evidence indicates salt production for food preservation in early Neolithic sites, such as Poiana Slatinei-Lunca in Romania around 6050 BC, where communities treated meat and fish to prevent spoilage using sea-derived salt.^[19]^[20] In these early contexts, marination served primarily as a preservation method rather than for flavor enhancement, driven by the absence of refrigeration; salting and brining drew out moisture and inhibited microbial growth, enabling longer-term food security in pre-modern societies.

Evolution Across Cultures

In medieval Europe, marination techniques initially focused on preservation using salt brines but gradually shifted toward enhancing flavor with the growing availability of imported spices following the Crusades. Noble kitchens employed herbs, spices, and wine to create complex tastes for roasted meats and game, balancing acidity and aromatics.^[21] In Asia, marination practices diversified during historical dynasties, with Korean bulgogi evolving from earlier grilled meats like maekjeok to marinated thin beef slices in soy sauce and sesame oil during the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), incorporating fermented soy for depth and umami. Similarly, in India during the Mughal era (16th to 19th centuries), yogurt was used in creamy, spiced preparations to tenderize and flavor meats for clay-oven cooking, blending Persian influences with local spices as seen in royal court recipes.^[22]^[23] The arrival of European settlers in the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries introduced basting and saucing techniques to indigenous barbecue methods, transforming slow-roasted meats into vinegar- or wine-infused preparations that preserved moisture while adding tangy profiles suited to colonial palates. British colonists, in particular, adapted these practices in regions like the American South, where marinades evolved to include local ingredients alongside European acids, fostering regional barbecue styles. In the Caribbean, jerk seasoning developed among Maroon communities—escaped enslaved Africans—in the 17th and 18th centuries, refining Arawak dry-rubbing and smoking techniques with pimento and peppers to cure wild game, creating a resilient preservation and flavoring method amid colonial conflicts.^[24]^[25] The 19th and 20th centuries marked a pivotal shift with industrialization, as commercial bottled marinades proliferated in the United States from the 1800s onward, standardizing flavors like soy-based or vinegar mixes for home use and reflecting mass production advances in food preservation. This era saw the rise of branded products, such as early 20th-century barbecue sauces that doubled as marinades, making global techniques accessible beyond elite or regional contexts. In modern cuisine, global fusion has further evolved marination by blending traditions—such as Asian soy infusions with Latin American citrus or Indian yogurt with Mediterranean herbs—driving innovative cross-cultural dishes in international restaurants since the late 20th century.^[26]^[27]^[28]

Components of Marinades

Key Ingredients

Marinades typically consist of acids, oils, salts, flavorings, and sometimes enzymes, each contributing to flavor infusion and texture improvement during the marination process.^[29] Acids form the foundational element of most marinades, serving to tenderize proteins and facilitate flavor penetration; common sources include vinegar, citrus juices such as lemon or lime, and yogurt, which lower the pH to a range of approximately 3.0 to 4.6 for optimal effectiveness.^[29]^[30] Oils act as carriers for fat-soluble flavors and help mitigate excessive tenderization by the acids, with examples like olive oil or sesame oil enhancing juiciness and overall mouthfeel.^[29]^[31] Salts promote osmosis to extract moisture from the food surface initially, enabling deeper flavor absorption, and varieties such as kosher salt or sea salt are preferred for their texture and purity.^[29]^[31] Flavorings provide aromatic and taste balance, encompassing herbs like rosemary or garlic, spices such as paprika or ginger, and sweeteners including honey or sugar to counteract acidity.^[29]^[31] Enzymes, derived from natural sources like pineapple (containing bromelain) or papaya (containing papain), aid in breaking down proteins to support tenderization, particularly for tougher cuts.^[29]

Types of Marinades

Marinades are broadly classified into several categories based on their composition and primary mechanism of action, including wet, dry, enzymatic, brine-based, and dairy-based varieties. These types differ in their ability to penetrate food, tenderize proteins, and impart flavors, with selection depending on the desired outcome for meats, vegetables, or other proteins.^[32]^[33] Wet marinades consist of liquid mixtures, typically combining acids, oils, and seasonings to facilitate deep flavor penetration and surface tenderization. They work by denaturing proteins through acid hydrolysis, loosening connective tissues while the oil prevents drying and aids in flavor transfer. Common examples include teriyaki sauces, which blend soy sauce, ginger, and mirin for Asian-inspired dishes, or vinaigrette-style mixtures using vinegar and herbs for salads and grilled items. However, prolonged exposure can tighten protein structures, potentially toughening the food.^[32]^[34]^[33] Dry marinades, also known as rubs, are powdered blends of spices, herbs, and salts applied directly to the surface of food without liquid. These function primarily through osmosis, where salt draws out moisture to form a flavorful crust during cooking methods like grilling or smoking, enhancing surface flavor without deep penetration. Examples include spice rubs such as those with paprika, garlic powder, and brown sugar for barbecued ribs. They are particularly suited for thicker cuts where liquid penetration is less feasible, though they may draw out juices if salt content is excessive.^[32]^[33] Enzymatic marinades rely on natural proteases from fruits to accelerate protein breakdown, offering faster tenderization than acidic types. Enzymes like bromelain in pineapple or papain in papaya hydrolyze muscle fibers and collagen, converting proteins into softer amino acids. Examples include pineapple juice-based mixtures for tough cuts like flank steak. While effective for quick action, they carry a risk of over-tenderization, resulting in mushy textures if left too long.^[32]^[34]^[33] Brine-based marinades are high-salt aqueous solutions designed to enhance moisture retention rather than primarily tenderize through acids. The salt alters protein structures, creating spaces that trap water and seasonings, which is especially useful for lean proteins like poultry to prevent dryness. Examples include saltwater soaks for chicken or turkey, often incorporating aromatics like herbs. Though sometimes conflated with traditional marination, brines focus more on juiciness than flavor infusion and require careful monitoring to avoid overseasoning.^[32]^[33] Yogurt or dairy-based marinades use creamy, mildly acidic bases like buttermilk or yogurt to tenderize gently without aggressive acidification. The calcium in dairy activates endogenous meat enzymes, breaking down proteins while the fat content coats the surface for even flavor distribution. These are effective for poultry and lamb, providing a tangy profile, and are less likely to over-tenderize compared to fruit enzymes. Examples include yogurt mixtures with garlic and spices, common in various global recipes.^[32]^[34]^[33]

Marination Techniques

Preparation Methods

The preparation of marinades begins with mixing the ingredients to achieve a balanced flavor profile and consistent texture. A common approach involves combining acids, oils, and seasonings in appropriate ratios, such as using approximately 1/2 cup of marinade per pound of food to ensure adequate coverage without waste.^[35] For wet marinades, ingredients like olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, salt, and herbs can be whisked together in a bowl to form an emulsion, which helps distribute flavors evenly; alternatively, a blender can be used for smoother integration, particularly with thicker components like yogurt or miso.^[36] Dry rubs, another type of marinade, are mixed by combining spices, salts, and sugars before application.^[37] Once prepared, the marinade should be placed in a non-reactive container to prevent unwanted chemical reactions that could impart off-flavors. Suitable options include glass bowls or dishes, food-grade plastic containers, ceramic vessels, or resealable plastic bags like ziplock bags, as these materials do not interact with acidic components such as vinegar or citrus juice.^[38] Avoid reactive metals like aluminum or copper, which can leach into the mixture.^[39] Application techniques focus on maximizing contact between the marinade and food for optimal flavor penetration. For liquids, fully submerge the food item in the marinade, ensuring it is arranged in a single layer if possible; for denser meats, pierce the surface several times with a fork to create channels for better absorption.^[40] With dry rubs or in bag-based methods, massage the mixture onto the food's surface to promote even coating and adhesion.^[36] During the marination process, store the container in the refrigerator to maintain safety and quality, periodically stirring liquid marinades or flipping solid foods to ensure uniform exposure.^[37] This step helps distribute the marinade evenly across all surfaces. After marination, remove the food and, if necessary—such as with thick or salty mixtures like miso—rinse briefly under cold water to remove excess.^[41] Regardless, always pat the food dry with paper towels to eliminate surface moisture, which promotes better browning and searing during cooking.^[36]

Timing and Temperature

The duration of marination varies depending on the type of food, with shorter times recommended for delicate items to prevent over-tenderizing. For fish and vegetables, marination typically lasts 15 to 30 minutes, allowing sufficient flavor infusion without compromising texture. Meats such as chicken or pork generally require 2 to 24 hours, while larger or denser cuts like beef roasts can extend up to 48 hours for optimal penetration.^[42]^[43] Temperature control is essential during marination to maintain food quality and safety. All marination should occur in the refrigerator at 40°F (4°C) or below to slow enzymatic activity and preserve integrity. Exposure to room temperature should be limited to no more than 1 to 2 hours to minimize risks associated with warmer conditions.^[44]^[45] Several factors influence the appropriate marination time, including food thickness, marinade acidity, and the presence of enzymes. Thicker pieces require longer durations for the marinade to penetrate evenly, while stronger acids like those from citrus or vinegar accelerate tenderizing and thus shorten the needed time. Enzymatic ingredients, such as those from pineapple or papaya, promote faster protein breakdown, necessitating reduced marination periods to avoid excessive softening.^[42]^[46] Over-marination can lead to a mushy texture due to excessive degradation of proteins, particularly in acidic or enzymatic marinades. Conversely, under-marination results in insufficient flavor absorption and tenderizing, leaving the food underdeveloped in taste and consistency.^[42]

Scientific Aspects

Chemical Reactions

Marination involves several key chemical reactions that alter the molecular structure of food, primarily proteins and water content, to enhance tenderness and flavor penetration. Acid hydrolysis occurs when acidic components, such as citric or acetic acid from lemon juice or vinegar, lower the pH of the meat below 5.2–5.3, denaturing myofibrillar proteins by protonating amino acid side chains and disrupting hydrogen bonds that maintain their tertiary structure. This process expands the protein network through increased electrostatic repulsion between filaments, solubilizing connective tissues and improving water-holding capacity, as evidenced by cooking losses ranging from 22.4–33.3% in meat treated with acidic marinades such as citric acid and grapefruit juice. The general reaction can be represented as:

\text{Protein} + \text{H}^+ \rightarrow \text{Denatured protein}

This denaturation facilitates subsequent enzymatic activity but is limited to surface layers unless enhanced by techniques like tumbling.^[29] Enzymatic proteolysis complements acid effects through proteases like bromelain from pineapple, which cleave peptide bonds in muscle proteins such as myosin heavy chain and troponin T. As cysteine proteases, these enzymes activate via nucleophilic attack by cysteine and histidine residues, hydrolyzing myofibrillar and connective tissues into smaller peptides and free amino acids, thereby tenderizing the meat without excessive degradation if controlled (e.g., within 24 hours). The reaction proceeds as:

\text{Protein} \rightarrow \text{Smaller peptides} + \text{[Amino acids](/page/Amino_acid)}

Studies show bromelain reduces shear force by up to 36–40% in treated samples, targeting specific sites like aromatic residues while preserving overall structure.^[47] Salt in marinades induces osmosis, where sodium chloride creates a hypertonic environment that initially draws water out of muscle cells via diffusion gradients, concentrating solutes and partially denaturing proteins. This exosmosis is followed by endosmosis as the equilibrated meat reabsorbs the flavored brine, incorporating ions and compounds deeper into the tissue and enhancing juiciness upon cooking. Salt penetration occurs gradually over several days, as in storage at 4°C, leading to distribution through osmosis.^[48] Flavor infusion during marination depends on the solubility of compounds: lipophilic molecules like terpenes from spices dissolve in oils, penetrating fatty tissues via lipid bilayers, while hydrophilic ones such as organic acids and phenolics integrate into aqueous phases, targeting protein matrices for balanced aroma distribution. Flavor infusion is aided by low pH and osmotic flow, enhancing the integration of compounds into the meat and improving sensory profiles.^[49] Post-marination surface drying prepares the food for the Maillard reaction by concentrating amino acids and reducing sugars on the exterior through evaporation and proteolysis-induced moisture loss. This enhances non-enzymatic browning during high-heat cooking, as the dehydrated surface promotes rapid formation of melanoidins via Amadori rearrangement, yielding complex flavors while minimizing uneven reactions in moist interiors. Ultrasonic-assisted marination, for instance, boosts free amino acid release, amplifying Maillard precursors and resulting in intensified roasted notes.^[50]

Effects on Food Texture

Marination significantly influences the texture of foods, primarily through the tenderization of muscle tissues and connective elements. During the process, acids and enzymes in the marinade facilitate the hydrolysis of collagen into gelatin, which breaks down tough connective tissues and muscle fibers, thereby reducing overall chewiness and improving palatability. This tenderization is particularly evident in red meats, where the structural integrity of the perimysial and endomysial layers is compromised, leading to a more succulent and less fibrous mouthfeel upon cooking. The moisture dynamics in marinated foods involve an initial phase of juice expulsion due to osmotic pressure from the marinade's solutes, followed by reabsorption that enhances juiciness in the final product. This biphasic process results in improved water-holding capacity, preventing excessive dryness during thermal processing and contributing to a moist, tender texture. For instance, marinated poultry can exhibit enhanced hydration levels, making the cooked product less prone to toughness from protein denaturation. However, prolonged exposure can lead to over-tenderization, resulting in a mushy or mealy consistency as excessive proteolysis disrupts the protein matrix. Surface-level effects of marination further refine texture by etching the exterior of the food, which promotes better char formation and crust development during grilling or roasting, while also allowing for more uniform softening throughout. Enzymatic action contributes to this evenness, particularly in denser cuts, ensuring consistent tenderness without localized toughness. Variations in efficacy are notable across food types; marination proves highly effective for tough beef cuts like flank steak, reducing shear force compared to unmarinated controls, but it offers minimal benefits—and potential drawbacks—for inherently tender poultry like chicken breast. These chemical reactions underpin the textural transformations, enabling measurable improvements in sensory attributes.

Safety and Best Practices

Potential Risks

Improper marination poses several health and quality risks, primarily stemming from microbial proliferation, chemical interactions, and physical alterations to the food. One significant concern is bacterial growth, as pathogens such as Salmonella can thrive in protein-rich marinades, especially when left at room temperature for more than 2 hours, allowing rapid multiplication in the temperature danger zone of 40°F to 140°F.^[51]^[52] This risk is heightened with raw meats, where juices containing harmful bacteria contaminate the marinade, potentially leading to foodborne illnesses if not handled correctly.^[53] Chemical hazards arise from the acidic components in many marinades, such as vinegar or citrus juices, which can erode tooth enamel if the uncooked marinade is consumed directly due to the demineralizing effects of acetic or citric acid.^[54]^[55] Additionally, ingredients like citrus can trigger allergic reactions in sensitized individuals, manifesting as oral itching, swelling, or more severe symptoms like abdominal pain and respiratory issues from cross-reactivity with pollen-related allergens.^[56] Over-tenderization represents a key quality hazard, particularly with enzymatic marinades containing plant proteases like papain or bromelain, which can excessively break down muscle proteins if exposure is prolonged, resulting in a mushy, unpalatable texture and structural weakening of the food.^[47] This enzymatic degradation indiscriminately hydrolyzes proteins, diminishing the meat's integrity beyond desirable tenderness. Contamination risks are amplified through cross-contamination, such as reusing marinade that has contacted raw meat without proper treatment, as raw juices introduce pathogens like E. coli or Salmonella that survive and transfer to cooked foods.^[44]^[57]

Guidelines for Safe Marination

To ensure safe marination, adhere to strict hygiene protocols to prevent cross-contamination. Use separate utensils, cutting boards, and containers for raw meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs compared to ready-to-eat foods, as raw proteins can harbor pathogens like Salmonella and E. coli that transfer through contact.^[58] Additionally, discard any marinade that has contacted raw food, or boil it vigorously for at least one minute before using it as a basting sauce or glaze on cooked items, which kills bacteria without compromising flavor.^[59]^[42] Time limits are essential to inhibit bacterial growth in the "danger zone" of 40°F to 140°F (4°C to 60°C). At room temperature, marinate perishable foods for no more than two hours (or one hour if the ambient temperature exceeds 90°F/32°C), after which bacteria multiply rapidly and pose a foodborne illness risk.^[60] In the refrigerator (at or below 40°F/4°C), limit marination to 24-48 hours depending on the food type, as prolonged exposure can lead to off-flavors or texture breakdown even if safe.^[61] For portion control, prepare only the amount of marinade needed to fully coat the food—typically enough to submerge it by about half an inch—while ensuring the food fits snugly in a food-safe, non-reactive container like glass or plastic to minimize excess liquid that could dilute acids or foster bacterial growth if not discarded promptly.^[42] This approach reduces waste and limits unnecessary exposure time for the ingredients. Special considerations apply to seafood susceptible to scombrotoxin formation, such as tuna or mackerel. Maintain marination at or below 40°F (4°C) to prevent histamine development during handling, leading to allergic-like reactions that cooking cannot eliminate.^[62] Always label containers with the start date and refrigerate immediately to track limits and maintain the cold chain.^[63] Regulatory guidelines from the USDA emphasize refrigeration throughout marination and prohibit reusing marinades from raw meat or poultry due to contamination risks, aligning with broader federal standards to protect public health.^[59]^[61]

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Oct 10, 2023 · The pH value in the cooked marinade for control with 6.65 was highest, while in T2, it was 5.24, in T3, it was 5.32, and in T4, it was 5.17. ...
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Effects of Marinades Prepared from Food Industry By-Products ... - NIH
This study aimed to develop marinade formulas based on by-products from the dairy, berry, and fruit industries and apply them to lamb meat (LM) treatments
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33297831/
[55]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9683876/
[56]
[PDF] PERSISTENCE OF SALMONELLA SPP. ON CHICKEN SKIN AFTER ...
Marinades contain organic acids (acetic, lactic) that decrease meat pH and help to reduce or eliminate pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella, from the ...
[57]
Meat, Poultry & Seafood (Food Safety for Moms-to-Be) | FDA
Sep 27, 2018 · Marinade that's been used on raw meat, poultry, and seafood contains raw juices, which may contain harmful bacteria. And, bacteria grow rapidly ...
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Evidence That Daily Vinegar Ingestion May Contribute to Erosive ...
Evidence That Daily Vinegar Ingestion May Contribute to Erosive Tooth Wear in Adults · Authors · Affiliation.Missing: risks | Show results with:risks
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Erosive Effect of Acidic Beverages and Dietary Preservatives on ...
Individuals consuming apple cider vinegar remain exposed to erosive damage to the enamel, greater damage is inflicted when consumed at night as the buffering ...
[60]
Citrus Allergy from Pollen to Clinical Symptoms - PMC
Jan 4, 2013 · Allergy to citrus fruits is often associated with pollinosis and sensitization to other plants due to a phenomenon of cross-reactivity.Missing: credible | Show results with:credible
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Safety - Happy Healthy - Mississippi State University
If you marinate on the counter, harmful germs can multiply rapidly when in the danger zone—between 40°F and 140°F. In addition, if you use the same marinade on ...
[62]
The Effects of Processing and Preservation Technologies on Meat ...
This review describes the effects of processing and preservation technologies on sensory and nutritional quality of meat products.
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How Cooking Affects the Nutrient Content of Foods - Healthline
Although cooking improves digestion and the absorption of many nutrients, it may reduce levels of some vitamins and minerals.Missing: prolonged marination
[64]
About Four Steps to Food Safety - CDC
Apr 29, 2024 · Refrigerate perishable food (meat, seafood, dairy, cut fruit, some vegetables, and cooked leftovers) within 2 hours. If the food is exposed to ...Educational Materials and... · Chicken and Food Poisoning · Safer Food ChoicesMissing: optimal | Show results with:optimal
[65]
Poultry: Basting, Brining, and Marinating
For best results, refrigerate at least overnight. Poultry may be left in the refrigerator up to 2 days after thawed or purchased fresh. Remove poultry from ...Missing: early lack
[66]
What is the "2 Hour Rule" with leaving food out? - Ask USDA
Never leave food out of refrigeration over 2 hours. If the temperature is above 90 °F, food should not be left out more than 1 hour.
[67]
How to Marinate Safely - Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics
Jul 10, 2020 · Use food-safe containers, refrigerate at or below 40°F, avoid metal, and boil marinade before reusing on cooked food. Use a food thermometer to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[68]
FDA Issues Final Compliance Policy Guide for Scombrotoxin ...
Nov 1, 2024 · Unless fish are properly chilled, histamine can accumulate and once formed, cannot be removed by washing, freezing, or heating. However, ...
[69]
Prevent Cross-Contamination - MN Dept. of Health
Sep 2, 2025 · Always marinate food in the refrigerator, not on the counter. · Sauce that is used to marinate raw meat, poultry, or seafood should not be used ...