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MaxDiff

MaxDiff, short for Maximum Difference scaling, is a quantitative survey methodology used in market research to measure and rank the relative preferences or importance of a set of items, such as product features, attributes, or messaging options.^[1] Developed by Jordan Louviere in 1987 while he was on the faculty at the University of Alberta, it is also known as Best-Worst Scaling (BWS) and involves presenting respondents with subsets of items and asking them to select the most and least preferred options from each subset.^[2] This approach generates preference scores through statistical modeling, typically using hierarchical Bayes or multinomial logit estimation, to produce a ranked list where higher scores indicate greater relative value.^[3] The technique addresses limitations of traditional rating or ranking methods by forcing trade-offs, which reduces biases such as leniency or central tendency in responses and allows for the analysis of larger item sets—often 12 to 50 items—without overwhelming participants.^[1] In a typical MaxDiff exercise, respondents evaluate multiple choice sets (usually 3 to 6 items per set), with each item appearing in 2 to 3 sets across the survey to ensure balanced exposure; the process is repeated until sufficient data is collected for reliable scoring.^[4] Unlike conjoint analysis, which evaluates trade-offs among multi-attribute profiles, MaxDiff focuses on a single dimension of preference for discrete items, making it simpler, faster, and more suitable for prioritization tasks.^[1] MaxDiff has become widely adopted in industries like consumer goods, healthcare, and technology for applications including feature prioritization, brand positioning, and pricing research, where understanding nuanced preferences can inform strategic decisions.^[5] Its scores provide interpretable ratios—such as one item being twice as preferred as another—facilitating clear communication of insights to stakeholders.^[6] Since its inception, refinements by Louviere and collaborators, including integration with choice modeling theory, have enhanced its theoretical foundation, drawing from random utility theory to model respondent choices probabilistically.^[7]

Introduction

Definition

MaxDiff, also known as best-worst scaling or maximum difference scaling, is a survey-based research technique designed to measure the relative preferences or importance of a set of items by eliciting respondents' choices for the most and least preferred options within subsets.^[8]^[6] This method operates on the core principle of forcing respondents to make trade-offs among competing items, thereby revealing nuanced relative rankings without relying on absolute rating scales that can suffer from issues like leniency bias or inconsistent scaling.^[3] By presenting balanced subsets rather than requiring a complete ranking of all items at once, MaxDiff reduces cognitive burden and enhances the reliability of preference data across diverse applications such as attribute prioritization.^[9] In a typical MaxDiff exercise, a larger pool of 10 to 30 items—such as product features, policy options, or brand attributes—is divided into multiple smaller choice sets, each containing 4 to 6 items.^[10]^[11] Respondents are then asked to select the single best and single worst item from each set, generating a series of binary choices that collectively build a hierarchical preference structure through statistical modeling.^[12] This approach distinguishes MaxDiff from simpler ranking methods, which often overwhelm participants with full lists, by distributing the evaluation across numerous targeted subsets to capture more granular and consistent insights into comparative value.^[13] The technique's emphasis on relative rather than absolute judgments aligns it closely with real-world decision-making scenarios, where individuals inherently compare options rather than assigning isolated scores.^[14] Overall, MaxDiff provides a robust framework for uncovering latent preferences, making it particularly valuable in fields requiring precise ordinal data without the pitfalls of traditional survey formats.^[15]

Historical Development

Maximum difference scaling, commonly known as MaxDiff, was invented by Jordan Louviere in 1987 while he was on the faculty at the University of Alberta.^[2] This method emerged as an extension of earlier psychophysical scaling techniques, particularly L.L. Thurstone's law of comparative judgment from 1927, which modeled pairwise comparisons to derive interval scales from ordinal data.^[7] Louviere's innovation adapted these principles to multi-item sets, requiring respondents to identify the best and worst options from subsets, thereby enhancing the efficiency and reliability of preference measurement beyond traditional rating scales.^[7] The technique saw its initial publications in the early 1990s, with key works including Louviere's 1991 working paper and the seminal article by Finn and Louviere in 1992, which formalized the approach and demonstrated its application in marketing contexts.^[7] Adoption in market research accelerated during this decade, facilitated by Sawtooth Software—founded by Rich Johnson in 1983—which began incorporating MaxDiff into its conjoint analysis tools to handle larger sets of attributes more effectively than full-profile methods. By the late 1990s, MaxDiff had become a practical tool for prioritizing consumer preferences, with early implementations showing superior discrimination in importance rankings compared to Likert scales.^[16] A major milestone occurred in the 2000s with the integration of hierarchical Bayes (HB) estimation for analyzing MaxDiff data, enabling robust individual-level utility scores from choice-based responses.^[17] Sawtooth Software released its dedicated MaxDiff module in 2004, making the method accessible via user-friendly survey design and analysis software, which spurred broader use in commercial research.^[7] By the 2010s, widespread software implementations from multiple vendors had solidified MaxDiff's role in market research, with applications expanding due to its scalability and compatibility with advanced statistical models.^[18] In academic literature, the terminology shifted from "maximum difference scaling" to "best-worst scaling" around the mid-2000s, reflecting a focus on the task's forced-choice nature; this was prominently advanced in Louviere, Flynn, and Marley's 2010 book, which systematized the theory and extended it to diverse fields.^[19] Louviere passed away on May 7, 2022.^[20]

Methodology

Questionnaire Design

In designing a MaxDiff questionnaire, the initial step involves selecting a set of 10 to 30 items, such as attributes, features, or statements, that are directly relevant to the research objectives and representative of the domain being studied.^[9] These items must be carefully curated to ensure balance, avoiding redundancy or bias, as the choice of items fundamentally constrains the scope and interpretability of the resulting preference data.^[4] For instance, in a product feature prioritization study, items might include descriptors like "high battery life" or "sleek design," selected based on stakeholder input and preliminary qualitative research to maintain relevance and comprehensiveness without overwhelming respondents.^[4] The core of the questionnaire structure lies in set construction, where the full list of items is divided into smaller subsets using a balanced incomplete block design (BIBD).^[9] This experimental design ensures that each item appears an equal number of times across all sets, co-occurs equally often with every other item, and is positioned equally in the display (e.g., top, middle, bottom) to minimize order effects and respondent fatigue.^[21] Typically, each subset contains 4 to 6 items—ideally 3 to 5 to optimize response quality—presented in a randomized order within the set.^[21] This approach balances statistical efficiency with cognitive load, as larger subsets can increase error rates, while BIBD principles promote connectivity across the design, allowing robust estimation of relative preferences.^[9] The number of tasks, or choice sets, assigned to each respondent is calculated to achieve adequate exposure for reliable analysis, generally ranging from 8 to 16 per individual.^[9] This is often determined using the guideline of approximately 3K/k, where K is the total number of items and k is the number per set, ensuring each item is evaluated sufficiently for hierarchical Bayes (HB) modeling while keeping the survey duration manageable (around 10-15 minutes).^[9] Design efficiency is further enhanced by generating multiple versions (e.g., 300) of the questionnaire, with respondents randomly assigned to one, to distribute the full set of combinations across the sample.^[9] Question wording plays a critical role in eliciting unbiased responses, employing neutral phrasing such as "Please select the option that is MOST important" for the best choice and "LEAST important" for the worst, tailored to the context (e.g., appealing, preferred).^[22] This binary selection format avoids scalar judgments, promoting forced trade-offs that reveal relative utilities more accurately than traditional ratings.^[4] To facilitate validation, holdout sets—additional subsets not used in the main estimation—are incorporated, allowing researchers to test model predictions against independent data for reliability checks.^[9] Specialized software tools automate much of this design process, ensuring adherence to BIBD principles and optimization. Platforms like Sawtooth Software's Lighthouse Studio generate efficient designs through iterative algorithms (e.g., 1,000 runs for balance), handle randomization, and support custom constraints such as item prohibitions.^[9] Similarly, Qualtrics CoreXM provides built-in MaxDiff modules for item setup, set creation, and wording customization, streamlining implementation for non-experts.^[4] These tools also calculate task numbers and version requirements based on sample size goals, typically aiming for each item to be seen 500 to 1,000 times across the dataset.^[9]

Respondent Task and Data Collection

In a MaxDiff survey, respondents are tasked with evaluating a series of subsets containing 3 to 5 items each, typically drawn from a larger list of attributes, features, or options relevant to the research objectives. For every subset, participants must select the single item they perceive as the best (most preferred, important, or appealing) and the single item they perceive as the worst (least preferred, important, or appealing), thereby expressing relative trade-offs without relying on absolute ratings. This process repeats across 10 to 16 subsets per respondent, with each item appearing in approximately 3 to 5 subsets to ensure balanced exposure. The task leverages respondents' natural ability to discriminate extremes, providing richer preference data than traditional ranking or rating methods.^[3]^[23]^[24] Surveys are most commonly administered online through specialized platforms, though formats can include phone interviews or in-person sessions via computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI). To maintain engagement and prevent fatigue, the entire MaxDiff exercise is designed to last 10 to 15 minutes, often integrated into a broader questionnaire with introductory explanations, screeners for eligibility, and demographic questions at the end. Clear instructions, visual aids like radio buttons for selections, and progress indicators (e.g., "You have completed 5 of 12 sets") help guide respondents and sustain attention. While the questionnaire structure determines the subsets (as detailed in prior design phases), administration emphasizes accessibility for target populations, such as consumers or healthcare decision-makers.^[3]^[7]^[25] Recommended sample sizes range from 100 to 300 respondents for achieving stable preference estimates, though larger samples of 400 or more are advised when analyzing subgroups or segments to ensure at least 150 participants per group. Data collection captures each best-worst selection directly within the survey software, encoding responses as binary indicators: +1 for the chosen best item, -1 for the chosen worst item, and 0 for all other items in the subset (with missing values for items not presented). This format facilitates efficient storage and subsequent processing while preserving the raw trade-off information from each task.^[3]^[7]^[25] Quality controls are essential to mitigate biases and ensure reliable data. Randomization of subset order and item positions across multiple questionnaire versions (often 200 to 300 unique versions) minimizes order effects and context influences. Attention checks, such as embedded validation questions or consistency probes, help identify and exclude inattentive or straight-lining respondents, while pretesting the survey on a small pilot group verifies clarity and flow. These measures, combined with targeting relevant samples through screeners, enhance the validity of collected responses.^[23]^[3]^[24]

Data Analysis

Utility Score Calculation

MaxDiff data analysis treats each choice set as a discrete choice experiment modeled using the multinomial logit (MNL) framework, where respondents select the best and worst items from a subset of alternatives based on underlying utilities.^[26]^[3] The individual utility for item i is denoted as u_i = \beta_i, where the \beta parameters represent preference weights estimated via maximum likelihood estimation in the basic MNL model, capturing the relative attractiveness of each item.^[26] To account for individual differences and improve estimation stability, especially with limited data per respondent, a hierarchical Bayes (HB) approach is commonly employed, incorporating prior distributions on the utilities—typically a multivariate normal prior for individual \beta vectors centered on population means. The posterior means of these individual utilities serve as the final preference scores, derived through Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling.^[26]^[3] In the HB-MNL model, the likelihood for selecting item j as the best in a choice set is given by the softmax function:

P(\text{best}_j) = \frac{e^{\beta_j}}{\sum_{k \in S} e^{\beta_k}}

where S is the set of items presented. Similarly, the probability of selecting item j as the worst is:

P(\text{worst}_j) = \frac{e^{-\beta_j}}{\sum_{k \in S} e^{-\beta_k}},

reflecting that the worst choice corresponds to the item with the lowest utility; the joint likelihood across all tasks combines these probabilities for each respondent.^[26]^[3] Aggregate utility scores are obtained by averaging the individual posterior mean utilities across all respondents, providing a population-level ranking of item preferences; these raw scores are typically centered around zero.^[26]^[27] For enhanced interpretability, the aggregate scores are often rescaled to a 0-100 range, where the rescaled value for each item is proportional to e^{\bar{\beta}_i} / \sum e^{\bar{\beta}_k} multiplied by 100, ensuring the scores sum to 100 and allowing direct comparison of relative importance (e.g., a score of 20 indicates twice the preference of a score of 10).^[27] Software implementations of HB estimation for MaxDiff, such as those in Sawtooth Software's Lighthouse Studio or Qualtrics, use MCMC algorithms that run thousands of iterations—often 10,000 or more—to achieve convergence, with burn-in periods discarded to mitigate initial transients. Convergence is assessed via diagnostics like the Gelman-Rubin statistic (targeting values below 1.1), root likelihood (RLH) values indicating model fit, and trace plots for chain stability, ensuring reliable posterior estimates.^[26]^[3]^[28]

Reliability and Validation

Holdout validation in MaxDiff involves reserving a subset of choice tasks from the experimental design to assess the predictive accuracy of the estimated utility scores on unseen data. These holdout tasks, typically consisting of small sets of items where respondents select the best and worst options, allow researchers to compute hit rates—the percentage of times the model correctly predicts the respondent's top-ranked item. For instance, hierarchical Bayes (HB) estimates from MaxDiff data have demonstrated hit rates of 78% on holdout tasks, surpassing the baseline expectation of 58% derived from aggregate utilities and approaching the upper limit informed by respondent consistency.^[29] Reliability indices for MaxDiff results include test-retest correlations, which measure the stability of preferences over repeated administrations of similar tasks, and internal consistency checks using simulated datasets to evaluate the coherence of utility estimates. Test-retest reliability for holdout tasks in MaxDiff studies has been reported at 81%, indicating strong temporal stability when each item appears at least three times per respondent. Internal consistency is often assessed through HB simulations that generate synthetic choice data based on known utilities, confirming the model's ability to recover true preferences with minimal bias, such as estimating a true utility mean of -5.50 as -5.49 in controlled tests.^[29] Simulation methods play a crucial role in assessing design efficiency and estimating standard errors for utilities in MaxDiff. Researchers simulate respondent choices using probabilistic models like Gumbel-distributed errors to evaluate how design parameters—such as the number of items per task (optimally 4-5) and total tasks (at least 10-20)—affect precision; for example, simulations show that designs with balanced item exposure yield standard errors that support reliable 95% confidence intervals via HB outputs. These HB simulations borrow strength across the sample to stabilize individual-level estimates, particularly when data is sparse, and highlight that precision diminishes for mid-ranked items if more than five options are shown per task.^[29] Segment stability is evaluated by examining the consistency of utility rankings across respondent subgroups, often through latent class analysis that partitions the sample into classes based on preference patterns and assesses model fit using metrics like Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC). Stable segments exhibit distinct yet internally consistent rankings, with improved fit (e.g., lower BIC values) when incorporating scale factors to account for response variability; for instance, an 8-class model with scale adjustments can reveal subgroups where 73% of respondents show higher consistency in preferences. This approach ensures that subgroup-specific utilities maintain robust rankings without excessive overlap.^[30] Common pitfalls in MaxDiff validation include overfitting in small samples, where noisy data leads to unstable utilities, and insufficient data volume that widens confidence intervals. Guidelines recommend a minimum of 300 respondents overall, with at least 200 per subgroup for reliable subgroup analysis, and doubling the sample for studies exceeding 30 items to maintain statistical power (e.g., 80% power to detect utility differences of 0.223 at 95% confidence requires 1,600 respondents). Small samples increase the risk of false negatives in significance testing and reduce the precision of HB estimates, underscoring the need for adequate exposures per item to avoid these issues.^[31]

Applications

Market Research and Consumer Preferences

MaxDiff has become a cornerstone in market research for eliciting consumer preferences, particularly in commercial settings where understanding relative importance among multiple attributes is crucial for decision-making. By forcing respondents to select the most and least preferred options from subsets of items, MaxDiff generates utility scores that rank features, benefits, or brands on a common scale, enabling businesses to prioritize elements that drive consumer choice. This approach is especially valuable for handling large sets of items—typically 12 to 50—without overwhelming respondents, making it suitable for dynamic markets where preferences evolve rapidly.^[32] In brand and product feature prioritization, MaxDiff excels at ranking attributes such as price versus quality in consumer goods, helping companies allocate resources effectively. For instance, a software firm used MaxDiff to evaluate customer-requested features, balancing inputs from executives, engineers, and users to guide product development. Similarly, in the consumer packaged goods (CPG) sector, Procter & Gamble applies MaxDiff for screening product benefits and package designs, identifying top preferences like flavor profiles in ice cream to inform formulation and marketing strategies. In automotive research, Volvo employed MaxDiff to assess perceived quality attributes among car drivers, ranking factors such as design and reliability to refine premium segment offerings. These applications demonstrate how MaxDiff utilities provide actionable hierarchies, often revealing counterintuitive insights, such as the outsized importance of niche features in competitive categories.^[1]^[33]^[34] Segmentation is another key application, where MaxDiff identifies preference clusters to support targeted marketing efforts. By analyzing response patterns, researchers can group consumers into distinct segments based on shared priorities, facilitating personalized strategies. For example, the Polynesian Cultural Center used MaxDiff on 27 travel-related statements to segment visitors into three types—explorers, relaxers, and socializers—enabling tailored enhancements to gift bags and marketplace offerings. In the automotive insurance sector, a provider applied MaxDiff to segment drivers by benefit preferences, uncovering groups prioritizing coverage breadth over cost, which informed go-to-market adjustments. Such segmentation leverages MaxDiff's scalability, often processing data from hundreds of respondents to yield robust clusters without assuming normal distributions.^[35]^[36] Case studies illustrate MaxDiff's practical impact in preference elicitation. Riot Games, for instance, surveyed players across regions like the USA and China to rank game features, linking frustrations to retention metrics and prioritizing updates that boosted engagement by highlighting universal appeals like gameplay smoothness over cosmetic elements. In a hypothetical yet representative scenario adapted from similar studies, a smartphone manufacturer might survey 200 respondents to rank 20 features—from battery life to camera quality—revealing that durability trumps aesthetics for 60% of the sample, guiding R&D focus. These examples underscore MaxDiff's role in iterative research, where results inform subsequent testing and launch decisions.^[35] MaxDiff often integrates with conjoint analysis, using its utility scores as inputs for more complex pricing simulations. This hybrid approach first identifies key attributes via MaxDiff, then feeds those rankings into conjoint models to simulate trade-offs, including price levels, for realistic market forecasts. For example, after MaxDiff prioritization of features, a CPG brand can employ conjoint to test willingness-to-pay bundles, optimizing pricing for high-utility items like eco-friendly packaging. This integration enhances predictive validity, particularly in volatile sectors where standalone methods may overlook interactions.^[1] Since the early 2000s, MaxDiff has seen widespread adoption in CPG, automotive, and retail sectors, driven by its efficiency in handling preference data for fast-paced innovation. A transdisciplinary review of 526 academic articles confirms its proliferation in marketing applications, with commercial use surging post-2010 due to accessible software like Sawtooth's platform. In CPG, firms like Procter & Gamble have embedded it in routine screening; automotive players such as Volvo integrate it for quality assessments; and retail contexts, including insurance and tourism, leverage it for benefit ranking. This uptake reflects MaxDiff's alignment with agile research needs, supported by over two decades of validation in high-stakes commercial environments.^[37]^[33]^[34]

Other Fields and Examples

In healthcare, MaxDiff has been applied to rank patient priorities and trade-offs in treatment options, providing insights into preferences that inform clinical decision-making and resource allocation. For instance, a study on cancer pain management used MaxDiff to evaluate analgesic treatment beliefs among patients, revealing that concerns about addiction and side effects ranked highest in trade-offs, ahead of efficacy and cost. Similarly, in rheumatoid arthritis research, MaxDiff ranked attributes like pain relief and joint function as most important to patients, outperforming traditional rating scales in eliciting nuanced preferences. These applications highlight MaxDiff's utility in capturing relative importance without the biases common in direct rating methods. In public policy, MaxDiff gauges citizen preferences for environmental and energy policies, aiding policymakers in prioritizing initiatives based on societal values. A study in Pakistan employed best-worst scaling to assess trade-offs in energy reforms, finding that employment impacts and affordability were prioritized over CO₂ reductions, with respondents willing to pay 0.47% of energy bills for a 1% emissions cut but valuing job preservation far higher (trading 274 jobs per 1% reduction). In African contexts, best-worst scaling has informed policies on health resource allocation and agricultural innovations, such as prioritizing vaccination trust factors in Nigeria or crop variety attributes in Sierra Leone to align interventions with stakeholder needs. In academic research, particularly psychology, MaxDiff facilitates value scaling by ranking ethical considerations and personal priorities, offering a robust alternative to traditional surveys. A 2021 study used best-worst scaling to prioritize ethical issues in citizen science, identifying power imbalances and data quality as top concerns among 108 participants, with latent class analysis revealing heterogeneity: 38% emphasized exploitation and diversity, while 62% focused on result dissemination and accuracy. This approach extends earlier work adapting best-worst scaling to Schwartz's value theory, as seen in a 2018 validation study that confirmed the method's reliability for measuring refined values like benevolence and achievement across diverse samples. In education, MaxDiff evaluates preferences for course features and teaching methods, helping institutions refine curricula and assessment strategies. A 2022 study among 218 business students used best-worst scaling to rank 13 assessment formats, with lab practices (33.6% preference score) and case studies (27.9%) emerging as most favored for experiential learning, while proctored exams ranked lowest (0.9%); attributes like "driving" (41.1%) and "realistic" (27.3%) were deemed most essential. A detailed example of a MaxDiff application in public policy is a 2024 best-worst scaling survey on agroecological interventions in Western Kenya's mixed crop-livestock systems, which began with an initial set of 20 attributes derived from literature, reports, and key informant interviews to capture private and public benefits of adopting sustainable practices. Step 1: Attribute selection and refinement involved pilot workshops with 20 farmers (10 per county) to eliminate four less relevant items, resulting in 16 final attributes such as "improved health of household members," "increased soil fertility," and "enhanced community resilience." Step 2: Survey design used a balanced incomplete block design to create 16 tasks, each presenting six attributes for respondents to select the best and worst, ensuring each attribute appeared equally often across sets to minimize bias. Step 3: Data collection occurred via structured face-to-face interviews in November 2022 with 94 purposively selected smallholder farmers (58 from Vihiga, 36 from Kisumu), supplemented by open-ended questions to explain choices. Step 4: Analysis applied a rank-ordered logit model to compute standardized utility scores, revealing private benefits like health improvements (highest score) and production reliability as top priorities, while public benefits like forest quality ranked lower; the least important was "no increase in labor requirement" (82% less preferred than the top attribute). This interpretation guided policy recommendations, emphasizing health-focused incentives to boost adoption rates in environmentally sensitive regions.

Advantages and Limitations

Key Benefits

MaxDiff scaling offers several distinct advantages that enhance its utility in preference measurement, particularly in scenarios involving numerous options or the need for nuanced respondent insights. One key strength is its ability to efficiently handle a large number of items, typically accommodating 15 to 40 options—and up to hundreds in advanced setups—without overwhelming respondents, as it employs balanced incomplete block designs to present only subsets of 4 to 5 items per task.^[32] This scalability contrasts with full ranking methods, which become exhaustive and error-prone beyond a handful of items, allowing researchers to evaluate extensive lists of attributes, such as product features or brand elements, in a manageable survey length.^[1] By forcing respondents to select both the best and worst options from each subset, MaxDiff reveals more authentic relative preferences, mitigating common biases like central tendency or scale use, where participants in traditional rating scales avoid extremes and cluster responses toward the middle.^[7] This differentiation yields robust, ratio-scaled importance scores that better reflect true hierarchies of value, free from yea-saying or nay-saying tendencies, and proves especially valuable in cross-cultural studies where response styles vary.^[1]^[7] The method's use of hierarchical Bayes (HB) modeling further enables the derivation of personalized utility scores at the individual respondent level, even from sparse data, facilitating advanced applications like market segmentation based on preference patterns.^[7] These individual-level estimates borrow strength across the sample for stability, providing actionable insights into subgroup differences without requiring large sample sizes per segment.^[28] Additionally, the intuitive best-worst task reduces cognitive burden compared to complex alternatives, leading to higher respondent engagement, increased completion rates, and lower dropout, as participants make straightforward relative judgments rather than absolute ratings.^[1] This simplicity contributes to MaxDiff's cost-effectiveness, as surveys are generally shorter and quicker to field than those using conjoint analysis for comparable preference insights, making it a practical choice for resource-constrained projects.^[1]

Potential Drawbacks

One significant drawback of MaxDiff is the cognitive burden it places on respondents, as the method requires completing multiple choice sets—often 15 to 30 or more—each involving the selection of the best and worst options from a subset of items. This repetitive task can lead to respondent fatigue, particularly among those with low motivation or in surveys with large item lists, potentially reducing data quality and increasing dropout rates.^[38]^[39] MaxDiff relies on the assumption of transitivity in preferences, meaning if option A is preferred to B and B to C, then A should be preferred to C, which underpins the random utility model used for analysis. However, this assumption may not hold in practice, with studies showing transitivity violations in 7% to 12% of respondents across various designs, limiting the method's ability to accurately capture non-compensatory or inconsistent preferences where decision-making involves thresholds or non-linear trade-offs.^[40] The method's reliance on hierarchical Bayes (HB) estimation for individual-level utilities demands larger sample sizes to achieve reliable results, especially in heterogeneous populations where preferences vary significantly across segments. Guidelines recommend a minimum of 300 respondents overall, with at least 200 per segment, which can be challenging and resource-intensive for studies targeting niche groups or with limited budgets.^[31]^[3] Interpreting MaxDiff results presents complexity because the derived utility scores are inherently relative rather than absolute, providing rankings of importance within the tested set but complicating direct comparisons to external benchmarks or standalone evaluations of an item's overall value. This relativity requires careful contextualization, as scores do not indicate whether attributes are important in an absolute sense, potentially leading to misinterpretation without additional anchoring techniques.^[41]^[42] Finally, MaxDiff often depends on proprietary software for design, data collection, and advanced HB analysis, which can increase costs for smaller studies; for instance, leading platforms like Sawtooth Software charge annual fees starting at $4,500 per user, limiting accessibility for organizations without dedicated research budgets.^[43]

Comparisons to Other Methods

Versus Traditional Rating Scales

Traditional rating scales, such as Likert-type or numerical scales (e.g., 1-10), require respondents to assign absolute scores to individual items, often leading to biases like leniency (tending to assign higher scores) and acquiescence (agreement bias). These methods assume respondents can accurately gauge intensity on a fixed scale, but in practice, they frequently result in low variance, as participants may rate most items similarly or cluster responses at scale endpoints. In contrast, MaxDiff elicits relative judgments by asking respondents to select the best and worst options from subsets of items, forcing trade-offs that enhance differentiation and reduce scale use biases inherent in absolute ratings. This approach yields greater variance in preference estimates, enabling clearer identification of item hierarchies. Empirical studies demonstrate MaxDiff's superiority; for instance, Cohen and Orme (2004) found that MaxDiff outperformed monadic rating scales in discriminating among items, segmenting respondents, and predicting held-out choice data, with higher correlation coefficients for predictive validity. Rating scales are preferable for quick, independent evaluations of attributes where trade-offs are not central, such as standalone satisfaction measures. Regarding data output, traditional ratings produce ordinal data often treated as interval-level, while MaxDiff generates choice-based ordinal responses that are converted to interval-scale utilities through hierarchical Bayes or multinomial logit modeling, providing more robust preference scores.

Versus Ranking and Paired Comparisons

Full ranking methods require respondents to order all items from most to least preferred, which imposes significant cognitive load, particularly when the number of options exceeds 10, as the task becomes exhausting and prone to respondent fatigue and errors in relative positioning.^[44] This approach preserves the exact ordinal relationships among items but is often infeasible for larger sets due to the mental effort involved in comparing and sequencing numerous elements simultaneously.^[7] In contrast, paired comparison methods evaluate preferences by presenting every possible pair of items and asking respondents to select the preferred one, resulting in a quadratic increase in the number of tasks, calculated as n(n-1)/2 for n items—for instance, 21 comparisons are needed for just 7 options.^[45] While this yields precise pairwise judgments that can be aggregated into overall rankings, the volume of questions grows rapidly, making it impractical for sets beyond a handful of items and increasing respondent burden.^[25] MaxDiff addresses these limitations by presenting subsets of 4–5 items per task and asking respondents to identify the best and worst, using balanced incomplete block designs to ensure each item appears multiple times across tasks; this reduces the total number of questions significantly—for example, only 7 tasks are required for 7 items, compared to 21 in paired comparisons—while modeling (typically via hierarchical Bayes or multinomial logit) estimates utilities that enable derivation of a full preference ranking.^[25]^[7] Each MaxDiff task provides more information than a single pairwise judgment, as it captures both positive and negative extremes, enhancing efficiency without sacrificing depth.^[46] The trade-offs among these methods highlight distinct strengths: full ranking directly captures ordinal preferences but exhausts respondents on larger lists, paired comparisons offer high precision for direct head-to-head evaluations yet generate excessive tasks, and MaxDiff strikes a balance by minimizing cognitive demands through partial sets while approximating comprehensive rankings via statistical modeling.^[37]^[7] Suitability varies by set size: full ranking works well for small lists of 5–10 items where direct ordering is manageable, paired comparisons suit even fewer critical options (e.g., 4–6) needing granular pairwise data, and MaxDiff excels with larger sets of 30 or more, handling up to thousands of items efficiently in applications like market research.^[7]^[47]

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Best-Worst Scaling - Cambridge University Press & Assessment
Best-Worst Scaling. Best-Worst Scaling. Best-Worst Scaling. Theory, Methods and ... maximum difference scaling. Paper presented at ESOMAR Latin America ...
[20]
MaxDiff design settings - Sawtooth Software
Number of items per task must be [#] (the total number of items) or less. You cannot display more items in a task than are present in the MaxDiff list.
[21]
Creating a MaxDiff - Sawtooth Software
MaxDiff (Best-Worst Scaling) is a method for estimating preference or importance scores for a set of items, such as brands, product features, or claims.Creating A Maxdiff Exercise · Advanced Settings · Maxdiff TypeMissing: principles | Show results with:principles
[22]
MaxDiff Tutorial and Example - Sawtooth Software
Let's turn our attention to a more powerful and accurate method of analysis: hierarchical Bayes (HB). A typical data set may take about 10 to 15 minutes to ...
[23]
Experimental measurement of preferences in health and healthcare ...
Jan 8, 2016 · Best-worst scaling (BWS), also known as maximum-difference scaling, is a multiattribute approach to measuring preferences.
[24]
Best–Worst Scaling and the Prioritization of Objects in Health
Jul 15, 2022 · Using best–worst scaling to prioritize objects is now commonly used around the world to assess the priorities of patients and other stakeholders ...
[25]
MaxDiff Analysis: Simple Counting, Individual-Level Logit, and HB ...
This paper compares different methods of obtaining individual-level scores for MaxDiff surveys at the individual level: Simple counting, individual-level ...
[26]
MaxDiff scores - Sawtooth Software
MaxDiff scores (importance scores) are estimated using Hierarchical Bayesian (HB) utility estimation. These scores provide powerful insights by ranking items.
[27]
Individual-Level Score Estimation - Sawtooth Software
The recommended statistical technique used to estimate scores for each respondent is called HB (hierarchical Bayes estimation). This is a well-documented ...
[28]
https://sawtoothsoftware.com/help/lighthouse-studio/manual/maxdiff-individual-level-score-estimation.html
[29]
[PDF] Analyzing MaxDiff Data with Scale Factors: - Statistical Innovations
Oct 6, 2015 · However, similar to BestWorst models, it is possible to estimate MaxDiff models with different scale factors for subgroups of respondents, where.
[30]
MaxDiff Sample Size Calculation Best Practices - Sawtooth Software
Sep 30, 2024 · In this article, we will explore how to determine the right sample size for a MaxDiff survey to ensure your results are both valid and cost-effective.What Is Sample Size? · Sample Size For Maxdiff... · Considerations For...Missing: principles | Show results with:principles
[31]
MaxDiff - Sawtooth Software
MaxDiff is ideal for obtaining preference/importance scores for multiple items such as brands, product features, ad claims, side effects, etc.Why Use Maxdiff? · List Items Are Shown To... · Use Cases For MaxdiffMissing: principles | Show results with:principles
[32]
The Peaks and Pitfalls of MaxDiff at Procter & Gamble | CR4
This easy yet powerful research method is just the ticket for product benefit/claim screening and package designs in the CPG industry. See how we use MaxDiff in ...
[33]
[PDF] Case studies on Volvo Car Group and Volvo Group Truck Technology
MaxDiff is used along with questions using the more common semantic-differential scaling, which is one way to avoid lack of discrimination and confounding among.
[34]
5 Real-World Examples of MaxDiff Analysis - Sawtooth Software
Feb 25, 2025 · MaxDiff Analysis is a choice-based survey approach for estimating the relative preference (or importance) of a list of items.Introduction To Maxdiff · What Is Maxdiff Analysis? · Using Maxdiff To Prioritize...Missing: criteria | Show results with:criteria
[35]
Segmentation Research for a Car Insurance Go-to-Market Strategy
Jul 9, 2021 · An auto insurance company wanted to understand the target market better and determine if the insurance concept resonated among drivers.
[36]
The rise of best-worst scaling for prioritization: A transdisciplinary ...
Best-worst scaling (BWS) is a choice experiment where respondents identify the best and worst options from a list for prioritization.3. Methods · 5. Comparative Analyses · Bws Data Extraction Form
[37]
How to Use MaxDiff Survey Analysis for Feature Prioritization
Max-Diff surveys are a useful UX research tool because they allow us to quantify a user's top priorities. You'll walk away with concrete numbers that prove ...Missing: neutral holdout
[38]
What Is MaxDiff Analysis? When to and Not to Use Them
MaxDiff analysis is a survey method that asks people to pick their favorite and least favorite options from a list. It's used to identify and rank the most and ...
[39]
Employing a transitivity violation detection algorithm to assess best ...
This work investigates differences between two case 1 (object) BWS choice experiment designs that varied in choice set size and number of questions.
[40]
MaxDiff - What's the score? - SKIM
MaxDiff: What it is. MaxDiff is short for Maximum Difference scaling, invented by Jordan Louviere in 1987. In simple terms a MaxDiff exercise uses a list ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[41]
The Problem with MaxDiff - Versta Research
Nov 3, 2011 · The problem with MaxDiff is that it only tells you the importance of attributes relative to each other, but it won't tell you whether the ...
[42]
Comparing The 10 Most Popular Tools For MaxDiff Analysis
Jul 4, 2025 · Sawtooth Software costs $4500/user/year, with no monthly subscription available. You can create MaxDiff surveys on Sawtooth Software for free ...
[43]
Rating versus ranking in a Delphi survey: a randomized controlled trial
Aug 18, 2023 · Research in survey methodology has shown that the cognitive burden associated with ranking increases with the number of items to rank and as ...
[44]
Models for Paired Comparison Data: A Review with Emphasis on ...
If each possible paired comparison is per- formed, they number N = n(n − 1)/2, and SN = Sn(n − 1)/2 in a multiple judgment sampling scheme, that is, when ...
[45]
https://projecteuclid.org/journals/statistical-science/volume-27/issue-3/Models-for-Paired-Comparison-Data--A-Review-with-Emphasis/10.1214/12-STS396.pdf
[46]
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40273-022-01167-1