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Memory B cell

Memory B cells are long-lived, antigen-experienced lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system that provide rapid and enhanced humoral responses upon re-exposure to previously encountered pathogens or antigens, forming a cornerstone of immunological memory.^[1] They originate primarily from germinal center (GC) reactions in secondary lymphoid organs during primary immune responses, where B cells undergo somatic hypermutation, affinity maturation, and class-switch recombination with the aid of T follicular helper cells, although GC-independent pathways also contribute to their generation, particularly for T cell-independent antigens.^[2] In humans, memory B cells are typically identified by surface markers such as CD27, alongside heterogeneous subsets including unswitched (IgM+) and switched (IgG+ or IgA+) cells that differ in longevity, localization, and reactivation potential; for instance, IgG+ memory B cells often differentiate swiftly into plasma cells for immediate antibody production, while IgM+ cells may re-enter GCs for further maturation.^[3] These cells play a pivotal role in long-term protective immunity by persisting in quiescent states within lymphoid tissues, bone marrow, or even peripheral sites like mucosal surfaces, enabling accelerated recall responses that are more potent and versatile than primary responses, including adaptation to pathogen variants through broadly neutralizing antibodies.^[1] Studies on SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination demonstrate their durability, with memory B cells remaining detectable and functional for over two years, exhibiting ongoing evolution through somatic hypermutation to counter viral mutations.^[4]^[5] Furthermore, memory B cells contribute to vaccine efficacy by serving as precursors for high-affinity antibody production, underscoring their importance in strategies aimed at eliciting broad-spectrum protection against evolving threats like influenza or coronaviruses.^[6]

Overview

Definition and characteristics

Memory B cells are long-lived B lymphocytes generated following initial exposure to an antigen, persisting in the immune system to facilitate rapid and enhanced antibody responses upon re-exposure to the same antigen.^[7] These cells represent a cornerstone of humoral immunity, contributing to long-term protection by enabling quicker pathogen clearance compared to primary responses.^[8] A defining feature of memory B cells is their antigen specificity, mediated by the B cell receptor (BCR), which typically bears mutations from somatic hypermutation and has undergone class-switch recombination to produce isotypes such as IgG or IgA with higher affinity.^[7] They maintain a quiescent state, residing primarily in secondary lymphoid tissues, with some also found in the bone marrow, without ongoing division or antibody secretion until reactivation.^[8] Morphologically, memory B cells are small, non-proliferating lymphocytes that express high levels of CD27 in humans, distinguishing their phenotype from other B cell populations.^[7] In comparison to naive B cells, which are antigen-inexperienced and express unmutated BCRs of lower affinity, memory B cells are primed for superior responsiveness due to prior antigen encounter.^[8] Unlike plasma cells, which function as short-lived, terminally differentiated effectors focused on continuous antibody production, memory B cells serve as dormant sentinels that can differentiate into plasma cells or re-enter germinal centers upon stimulation.^[7]

Role in adaptive immunity

Memory B cells play a central role in establishing immunological memory within the adaptive immune system, enabling a swift and amplified humoral response to reinfection by previously encountered pathogens. Upon secondary antigen exposure, these long-lived, antigen-specific cells rapidly differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells or re-enter germinal centers, producing antibodies at higher titers and with greater efficiency compared to the primary response. This reactive humoral memory forms a critical component of long-term protection, complementing the constitutive antibody production by long-lived plasma cells.^[7] Through their involvement in affinity maturation, memory B cells contribute to the generation of high-affinity antibodies via somatic hypermutation and antigen-driven selection processes, ensuring more effective pathogen neutralization in subsequent encounters. Additionally, they facilitate isotype switching, transitioning from IgM to class-switched isotypes such as IgG or IgA, which enhance antibody effector functions like opsonization and mucosal immunity. These adaptations optimize the humoral response for diverse pathogenic challenges.^[7] Memory B cells provide protection against variant pathogens by leveraging cross-reactivity, particularly through less mutated IgM-expressing subsets that recognize structurally similar but distinct antigens, thereby broadening immune coverage without requiring exact matches. This mechanism allows for rapid recall responses that mitigate the impact of pathogen evolution, as seen in responses to viral variants.^[9] Furthermore, memory B cells integrate with cellular immunity through cooperative interactions with T follicular helper cells, which deliver essential signals to promote their reactivation and differentiation, thereby coordinating a robust adaptive defense.^[7]

Generation

From naive B cells

Naive B cells, which circulate through peripheral lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes and spleen, originate memory B cells upon initial encounter with antigens. Antigen recognition occurs via the B cell receptor (BCR), leading to BCR signaling that promotes antigen internalization and presentation on major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) molecules. This process directs activated naive B cells to the T-B cell border in secondary lymphoid organs, where they initiate interactions with CD4+ T cells or other immune components.^[7] Following activation, naive B cells undergo rapid proliferation and initial differentiation, often in extrafollicular foci outside of lymphoid follicles. These extrafollicular responses generate early memory B cell precursors within days of antigen exposure, characterized by unmutated BCRs and limited somatic hypermutation. Proliferation in these sites supports the expansion of antigen-specific clones before potential migration into follicles for further maturation. Co-stimulation is essential for this phase, including CD40 ligand (CD40L) provided by T cells or innate signals such as cytokines (e.g., IL-21) and Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands, which enhance survival and prevent apoptosis of activated B cells.^[7]^[10]^[2] Early fate decisions diverge activated naive B cells toward short-lived plasmablasts or memory precursors. High antigen doses or strong co-stimulatory signals favor differentiation into plasmablasts for immediate antibody production, driven by transcription factors like Prdm1 (Blimp-1). In contrast, limited antigen availability or weaker T cell help promotes the formation of memory precursors, marked by higher expression of Bach2 and Foxp1, which inhibit plasma cell differentiation and support long-term survival potential. These decisions occur prior to germinal center entry and lay the foundation for durable humoral immunity.^[7]^[10]^[2]

T cell-dependent pathways

Following activation of naive B cells by antigen, these cells migrate to the T-B cell border in secondary lymphoid organs, where they engage with activated CD4+ T cells that differentiate into T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. This interaction is mediated primarily through the ligation of CD40 on B cells with CD40L on Tfh cells, which delivers essential survival and proliferation signals to the B cells.^[7] Concurrently, Tfh cells secrete cytokines such as IL-21, which synergizes with CD40 signaling to promote B cell expansion and fate decisions toward either germinal center (GC) entry or early memory cell formation.^[11] The strength and duration of this T cell help determine the pathway: brief CD40-CD40L engagement favors GC-independent memory B cell differentiation, while sustained signaling, often with high IL-21 levels, drives GC commitment.^[12] In the early stages of GC formation, affinity-based selection begins to shape memory precursor cells among the proliferating B cell clones. Activated B cells with higher-affinity B cell receptors (BCRs) receive preferential Tfh help, leading to enhanced survival and selection for memory fate even before full GC maturation. This process occurs in nascent GCs shortly after immunization, where memory precursors express markers of early commitment and can exit to form long-lived memory pools.00349-6) Studies in mice show that limited antigen availability during this phase promotes the generation of these early memory B cells by reducing competition and favoring exit from the GC-like structures.^[8] A distinct T cell-dependent but GC-independent route generates unswitched IgM memory B cells, which arise rapidly after initial T-B interactions without entering mature GCs. These cells develop through CD40 signaling and Tfh-derived cytokines, retaining IgM expression and providing broad, low-affinity protection against reinfection. Evidence from mouse models demonstrates that early IgM+ memory B cells emerge within days of immunization via this pathway, distinct from later GC-derived switched memory cells.^[13] B cell-intrinsic factors, particularly the transcription factor Bcl6, play a critical role in committing cells to the memory fate within T-dependent pathways. Bcl6 expression is upregulated in response to CD40 and IL-21 signals, enabling GC entry for affinity maturation while its regulated downregulation in select precursors allows exit and memory differentiation. Quantitative studies indicate that the level of Bcl6 shortly after antigen engagement dictates whether a B cell clone pursues GC residency or memory formation, with intermediate levels favoring memory precursors.^[14] This intrinsic regulation ensures a balanced output of high-affinity memory B cells tailored to the immune challenge.^[7]

Activation and differentiation

T cell-independent pathways

Memory B cells can be activated through T cell-independent (TI) pathways in response to specific antigens that do not require T cell assistance, enabling rapid antibody production primarily against microbial components. TI antigens are classified into two types: TI-1 antigens, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria, which stimulate B cells at high concentrations via both the B cell receptor (BCR) and pattern recognition receptors like Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4); and TI-2 antigens, such as repetitive polysaccharides from encapsulated bacteria (e.g., pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides), which activate B cells through extensive BCR crosslinking due to their multivalent structures. This recognition often occurs in the splenic marginal zone, where innate-like B cells are positioned to encounter blood-borne pathogens efficiently.^[15] Activation in these pathways relies on innate signals that amplify BCR engagement, bypassing the need for T cell-derived cytokines or costimulation. Co-engagement of BCR with TLRs provides a second signal for proliferation and differentiation, while cytokines such as B cell-activating factor (BAFF) and a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL), signaling through the transmembrane activator and CAML interactor (TACI) receptor, promote survival and plasmablast formation. This leads to the rapid differentiation of activated B cells into short-lived plasmablasts that secrete low-affinity IgM antibodies, typically within 1–3 days of antigen exposure, contributing to early humoral defense against blood-borne infections. In contrast to T cell-dependent pathways, these responses are faster but generate less diverse and durable immunity.^[15]^[16] TI pathways predominantly generate unswitched IgM memory B cells in the splenic marginal zone, derived from marginal zone B cells or B1 cells, which express polyreactive BCRs suited for broad microbial recognition. These memory cells enable quicker secondary responses upon re-exposure to the same TI antigen, producing IgM-secreting plasmablasts without the need for initial priming by T cells. However, this process is limited by the absence of class-switch recombination and somatic hypermutation, resulting in memory cells that retain germline-encoded BCRs with inherently lower antigen affinity compared to their T cell-dependent counterparts. Consequently, TI memory provides effective but unrefined protection, particularly against polysaccharide-encapsulated bacteria, and is less efficient at generating high-affinity, isotype-switched antibodies.^[17]^[18]

Germinal center processes

Upon activation by T cell-dependent antigens, naive B cells proliferate and migrate to the borders of lymphoid follicles, where they interact with T follicular helper (Tfh) cells before entering germinal centers (GCs).^[19] Within the GC, these activated B cells further migrate based on chemokine gradients, primarily CXCR4 directing them to the dark zone (DZ) for initial proliferation and somatic hypermutation, while CCR7 and EBI2 guide movement to the light zone (LZ) for antigen-based selection.^[19] This zonal shuttling allows centroblasts in the DZ to undergo rapid divisions every 4-6 hours, expanding clones while preparing for mutational refinement.^[20] Somatic hypermutation in the DZ is driven by activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), which deaminates cytosines in immunoglobulin variable region genes, introducing point mutations at rates up to 10^-3 per base pair per generation to diversify B cell receptors (BCRs).^[19] Approximately 40% of DZ B cells acquire these mutations during early G1 phase, enabling affinity maturation as mutated BCRs are tested in the LZ.^[20] Following mutation, B cells transition to the LZ as centrocytes, where they compete for survival signals; follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) retain native antigen on their surface, allowing high-affinity BCRs to internalize and present peptide-MHC complexes more efficiently to Tfh cells.^[19] Tfh cells deliver CD40L and cytokines like IL-21 to selected B cells, promoting their return to the DZ for further rounds or differentiation.^[20] Memory B cell precursors emerge primarily from the LZ, where lower-affinity clones relative to plasma cell progenitors are favored for exit to maintain broad repertoire diversity.^[8] This process involves asymmetric cell division, in which one daughter cell retains polarized antigen and recycling factors to re-enter the GC, while the other downregulates DZ markers like CXCR4 and exits as a memory precursor. Concurrently, downregulation of the transcription factor Blimp-1 (encoded by Prdm1) in these precursors prevents plasma cell differentiation, sustaining a memory phenotype through sustained Bcl6 expression and metabolic shifts toward quiescence.^[20] Only about 2-3% of GC B cells ultimately exit as memory cells, marked by CCR6 expression and positioned for long-term surveillance.^[19]

Subsets

Classical switched memory B cells

Classical switched memory B cells represent the predominant subset of antigen-experienced B cells in humans, defined by their expression of CD27 and class-switched immunoglobulin isotypes such as IgG or IgA, coupled with somatically hypermutated B cell receptors (BCRs) that confer high antigen affinity.^[21] These cells arise primarily through T cell-dependent germinal center (GC) reactions, where naive B cells activated by antigen and T follicular helper cell assistance undergo proliferation, somatic hypermutation, and class-switch recombination to generate this mature phenotype.^[21] They characteristically express CXCR5 and CD21, enabling homing to lymphoid follicles and complement-mediated enhancement of BCR signaling, respectively.^[7] Upon secondary antigen encounter, classical switched memory B cells exhibit enhanced responsiveness, rapidly proliferating and differentiating into antibody-secreting plasma cells that produce high-affinity, class-switched antibodies to mount a swift and robust recall response.^[21] This subset demonstrates notable cross-reactivity, allowing recognition of antigen variants due to their diversified BCR repertoire shaped by GC affinity maturation, as observed in responses to related viral pathogens like dengue and Zika.^[22] Post-vaccination or infection, classical switched memory B cells expand significantly in peripheral blood and secondary lymphoid tissues, comprising a substantial portion of circulating B cells (up to 20-30% in adults) and serving as a reservoir for long-term humoral protection.^[21]^[7] Their persistence in these compartments underscores their role in maintaining immune memory against reinfection.

Unswitched and atypical memory B cells

Unswitched memory B cells, primarily expressing IgM and retaining IgD, represent a subset of memory B cells that do not undergo class-switch recombination, distinguishing them from classical switched counterparts. These cells can be generated through both germinal center (GC)-dependent and independent pathways, including early responses to T cell-independent (TI) antigens that do not require T cell help, as well as GC reactions that may involve limited T cell interactions.^[7] Unswitched IgM+ memory B cells often exhibit lower levels of somatic hypermutation compared to switched memory B cells, particularly those from extrafollicular or GC-independent origins, though GC-derived ones may show higher mutation levels.^[7] Functionally, unswitched IgM+ memory B cells demonstrate self-renewal capacity and rapid differentiation into antibody-secreting cells upon antigen re-encounter, contributing to early recall responses without requiring class switching. They are often tissue-resident, particularly in mucosal sites such as the gut and lungs, where they provide localized innate-like immunity against recurring pathogens.^[23] This residency is supported by their expression of tissue-homing integrators and distinct transcriptional profiles adapted to barrier environments.^[24] Atypical memory B cells encompass heterogeneous populations, including double-negative (DN) cells characterized by a CD27- IgD- phenotype, which expand prominently under chronic antigenic stimulation such as in malaria or HIV infections. These cells arise via extrafollicular differentiation or early GC exit, influenced by interferon-γ and Toll-like receptor signaling, leading to a hyporesponsive or anergic state with reduced B cell receptor signaling.^[25] Despite this, atypical subsets retain self-renewal potential and can participate in protective recall responses, as evidenced by DN cells producing pathogen-specific antibodies in chronic settings.^[26] Recent studies have identified durable class-switched memory B cell populations with enhanced persistence post-vaccination, as well as T-bet-expressing subsets with specific tissue homing properties.^[27]^[28] Recent studies highlight atypical variants, such as CD45RBlo memory B cells specific to SARS-CoV-2, which dominate circulating antigen-specific responses following infection or mRNA vaccination, expressing markers like CD11c+ and T-bet while showing effector-like functions including plasmablast differentiation. These cells, often lacking CD27 and CD21, contribute to sustained antibody production and correlate with protective IgG levels, underscoring their role in viral immunity without classical switching.^[29]

Phenotypic and functional markers

Surface markers

Memory B cells in humans are primarily identified by the surface expression of CD19, a pan-B cell marker, combined with CD27, a TNF receptor superfamily member upregulated during germinal center reactions, and high levels of CD21, while lacking IgD on switched subsets.^[30]^[31]^[28] Classical switched memory B cells typically display a CD19+ CD27+ CD21hi IgD- phenotype, whereas atypical subsets may express CD11c+ and lower CD21.^[32]^[33] In mice, memory B cells are distinguished using B220 (CD45R), a B cell lineage marker, along with low to absent GL7 (a germinal center-associated glycoform of CD43) and intermediate to high CD38 expression, often in IgD-low or negative populations to denote post-germinal center differentiation.^[30]^[34] These markers differentiate memory B cells from germinal center B cells, which are B220+ GL7+ CD38lo.^[35] Key surface proteins like CD27 in humans provide survival signals through interaction with its ligand CD70, promoting B cell activation, proliferation, and immunoglobulin production essential for memory maintenance.^[31] Similarly, CXCR5, expressed on both human and mouse memory B cells, facilitates homing to lymphoid follicles by binding CXCL13, enabling recirculation and positioning for rapid antigen encounter.^[36]^[30] Flow cytometry protocols for identifying memory B cells typically involve multiparametric staining of peripheral blood mononuclear cells or splenocytes, gating first on viable CD19+ (human) or B220+ (mouse) lymphocytes, followed by exclusion of IgD+ naive cells and inclusion of CD27+ (human) or GL7- CD38+ (mouse) populations, often using fluorescently labeled antibodies against 8-12 markers for subset resolution.^[37]^[38] Variations occur across species, with humans relying on CD27 due to its absence of a direct murine homolog, and tissue-specific differences, such as reduced CD21 on circulating versus splenic human memory B cells or altered CXCR5 levels in inflamed tissues affecting homing efficiency.^[39]^[40]

Transcriptional and functional signatures

Memory B cells exhibit distinct transcriptional profiles that underscore their quiescent identity and potential for rapid differentiation. Key transcription factors such as Bach2 and Pax5 are highly expressed in memory B cells, where they promote quiescence by repressing genes associated with plasma cell differentiation and maintaining B cell lineage commitment.^[41] In contrast, levels of Prdm1 (encoding Blimp-1) remain low in memory B cells compared to plasma cells, as Bach2 directly represses Prdm1 transcription to prevent terminal differentiation and support long-term survival through upregulation of anti-apoptotic factors like Bcl2l1.^[42] Pax5 further reinforces this profile by counteracting plasma cell-promoting signals, such as those from Id2, ensuring memory B cells retain proliferative capacity without immediate effector commitment.^[43] Epigenetic modifications further define memory B cell identity, with open chromatin regions at loci for rapid reactivation distinguishing them from other B cell subsets. Specifically, memory B cells display accessible chromatin architecture around plasma cell-associated genes, including Prdm1, Xbp1, and Irf4, which poises these cells for swift transcriptional activation upon antigen re-exposure without requiring extensive remodeling.^[44] Integrative analyses of transcriptomes and chromatin landscapes in human memory B cells have revealed distinct enhancer and promoter accessibility patterns that correlate with their dormant yet responsive state, such as enriched open regions at metabolic and survival gene clusters. These epigenetic signatures are inherited from germinal center precursors and refined during quiescence, enabling efficient recall responses. Functionally, memory B cells demonstrate enhanced metabolic fitness and resistance to apoptosis, as assessed through in vitro survival and bioenergetic assays. Upon exiting the germinal center, memory B cells undergo metabolic reprogramming toward oxidative phosphorylation and reduced glycolysis, which sustains quiescence and provides a survival advantage via provision of prosurvival signals like BAFF-mediated Akt activation. This metabolic shift enhances their fitness, as evidenced by higher spare respiratory capacity in Seahorse assays compared to germinal center B cells, allowing persistence in lymphoid niches. Regarding apoptosis, memory B cells show greater resistance than naive B cells, with CD27+ populations exhibiting reduced caspase activation and Annexin V staining in response to stress signals, mediated by elevated Bcl-2 family members and Puma regulation. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has illuminated heterogeneity in memory B cell transcriptional and functional signatures, particularly during reactivation. More recent 2025 analyses of activation dynamics via scRNA-seq identified competing gene regulatory networks that drive heterogeneous responses in memory versus naive B cells, highlighting subsets with enhanced metabolic adaptability for faster antibody production.^[45] These insights, often derived from sorted populations using surface markers like CD19 and CD27, underscore the diverse reactivation potentials within memory B cell compartments.

Longevity and maintenance

Lifespan dynamics

Memory B cells display a broad spectrum of lifespans, ranging from weeks for short-lived populations to decades for long-lived clones, enabling sustained humoral immunity against previously encountered antigens. In humans, naive B cells typically survive only a few weeks, while memory B cell clones can persist for decades, contributing to lifelong protection.^[46] Specifically, IgG+ memory B cells generated in response to vaccination, such as smallpox, have been shown to endure for over 50 years in immunized individuals, with similar longevity observed for tetanus-specific memory B cells in cohorts spanning up to 60 years post-vaccination.^[47]^[48] The memory B cell pool consists of short-lived and long-lived subsets, with early attrition favoring the elimination of low-affinity cells during germinal center selection. Initial responses produce a heterogeneous population where low-affinity B cells form short-lived effectors, but subsequent phases prioritize high-affinity variants for long-term persistence through competitive selection processes that prune suboptimal clones.^[8] This dynamic ensures that the enduring memory compartment is enriched for cells capable of mounting robust secondary responses. Lifespan dynamics vary significantly across species, with memory B cells in mice exhibiting shorter persistence of months to a few years due to the animal's compressed lifespan, in contrast to the decades-long durability observed in humans.^[30]^[49] Tracking studies using in vivo isotope labeling, such as deuterium-glucose incorporation, reveal rapid turnover of peripheral blood memory B cells but indicate that long-lived populations establish residency in the bone marrow, where they undergo slower renewal and contribute to sustained immunity.^[49]^[50]

Survival mechanisms

Memory B cells rely on specialized survival niches within lymphoid organs, such as the bone marrow and spleen, where they receive essential prosurvival signals to persist in a quiescent state. In these niches, B cell-activating factor (BAFF) and a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) play key roles in promoting longevity, primarily through binding to their receptors BAFF-R and TACI/BCMA, respectively, which activate anti-apoptotic pathways. For instance, BAFF signaling via BAFF-R is indispensable for maintaining memory B cell populations, as its disruption leads to rapid loss of these cells independent of antigen exposure. Additionally, integrins like VLA-4 (α4β1) facilitate adhesion to stromal cells in the bone marrow, enabling retention and access to niche-derived survival factors, while LFA-1 (αLβ2) supports similar interactions in splenic environments.^[51]^[52] To counteract natural turnover and maintain pool size over time, memory B cells engage in low-level homeostatic proliferation in the absence of antigen, driven by self-renewal signals that prevent population decline without inducing differentiation. This process involves tonic signaling through the B cell receptor (BCR) and associated CD79A, which sustains basal division rates estimated at around 0.02 divisions per cell per day (∼2% of cells dividing daily), ensuring stable numbers for decades.^[49] Unlike antigen-driven expansion, this proliferation is IL-7 independent and occurs primarily in recirculating memory subsets, contributing to the long-term persistence observed in human and murine models.^[51]^[53] Resistance to apoptosis is a cornerstone of memory B cell survival, mediated by upregulated expression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins such as Bcl-2, Mcl-1, and Bcl-xL, which inhibit mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization and caspase activation. These proteins are particularly enriched in long-lived memory B cells compared to short-lived plasmablasts, providing a buffer against intrinsic apoptotic pressures in niche environments. For example, enforced Bcl-2 expression enhances memory B cell recruitment and persistence, underscoring its protective role in steady-state conditions.^[54]^[55] In mucosal tissues, a subset of memory B cells establishes tissue residency, supported by integrin α4β7-mediated homing to gut-associated lymphoid tissues via interaction with MAdCAM-1 on endothelial cells, allowing localized surveillance and rapid response. This residency is influenced by the microbiota, which shapes B cell maturation and selection in the gut through microbial metabolites and antigens that promote α4β7 expression and survival signals. Recent studies highlight how microbiota-driven mechanisms in the intestinal niche sustain these resident memory B cells, enhancing barrier immunity against pathogens.^[52]^[56]

Immune response contributions

Primary response involvement

During the primary immune response, in mouse models approximately 5-10% of germinal center B cells differentiate into memory B cell precursors, primarily identified by CCR6 expression in both mouse and human models.^[57] These precursors emerge early, often through germinal center-dependent pathways where activated B cells exit the cell cycle in the light zone to adopt a quiescent state.^[8] This commitment occurs alongside the generation of antibody-secreting effector cells, setting the foundation for long-term humoral immunity. Memory B cell precursors play a limited role during the acute phase of the primary response, remaining quiescent while short-lived plasma cells dominate antibody production to rapidly control pathogen replication.^[7] Their dormancy ensures preservation for future challenges, as they do not contribute significantly to immediate effector functions like high-titer antibody secretion.^[57] The initial selection of these precursors in germinal centers shapes the quality of subsequent recall responses, with many deriving from low-affinity B cells that receive reduced T follicular helper cell support.^[8] This process favors diversity in the memory pool, including unswitched IgM-expressing cells that provide broad reactivity against evolving antigens.^[7] For example, in primary bacterial infections such as those by Streptococcus pneumoniae, low-affinity IgM memory B cells form via T cell-dependent pathways, enabling persistent protection without extensive somatic hypermutation.^[58]

Secondary response and recall

Upon re-encounter with the same antigen, memory B cells are reactivated primarily through cross-linking of their B cell receptor (BCR), which initiates intracellular signaling cascades that drive their entry into the immune response.^[7] This reactivation occurs in specialized niches such as subcapsular proliferative foci within lymph nodes, where memory B cells rapidly proliferate and expand clonally.^[59] Unlike naive B cells, which require 7 or more days to initiate a robust response, memory B cells begin proliferating within 2–3 days, enabling a swift escalation in cell numbers and effector functions.^[8] This accelerated kinetics stems from their pre-existing affinity-matured BCRs and epigenetic priming, allowing them to outcompete naive cells for antigen and T cell help.^[7] Following reactivation, memory B cells preferentially differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells, often with minimal re-entry into germinal centers, prioritizing immediate effector output over further somatic hypermutation.^[60] Transcriptional regulators such as high levels of IRF4 and repression of BACH2 and BCL-6 facilitate this shift, promoting plasmablast and long-lived plasma cell formation that secrete isotype-switched antibodies, predominantly IgG.^[60] These antibodies exhibit higher affinity due to prior affinity maturation during the primary response, enhancing pathogen neutralization and opsonization efficiency compared to primary response outputs.^[8] In some cases, such as with IgG1 memory B cells, this differentiation is particularly biased toward plasma cell fates, contributing to sustained humoral protection.^[7] The secondary response orchestrated by memory B cells results in an anamnestic reaction, characterized by a dramatic increase in antibody titers—often 100- to 1,000-fold higher than in the primary response—peaking within 4–7 days.^[61] This amplification arises from the rapid deployment of high-affinity plasma cells and is further boosted by cytokines from recalled T follicular helper cells, leading to profuse IgG production and enhanced immune clearance.^[61] Such responses are critical for limiting pathogen spread, as demonstrated in models where memory B cell depletion abolishes this titer surge.^[8] Memory B cell populations exhibit heterogeneity in secondary responses, with atypical subsets playing key roles in recognizing variant antigens. For instance, in SARS-CoV-2 infections, atypical memory B cells (e.g., CD27−CD21− or CD45RBlo phenotypes) expand and contribute to cross-reactive recall against variants like Omicron, providing broader protection through functional antibody secretion despite sequence divergence.^[29] Pre-existing memory B cells specific for seasonal coronaviruses can also contribute to rapid adaptation upon SARS-CoV-2 booster vaccination.^[62] As of 2025, studies on repeated COVID-19 boosters show that phenotypic heterogeneity in B cell responses correlates with improved neutralizing antibody quality.^[63]

Clinical significance

Vaccination efficacy

Memory B cells play a central role in the efficacy of vaccines by providing long-term humoral immunity through rapid antibody production upon re-exposure to antigens. Vaccines are designed to elicit these cells primarily via T-dependent (TD) or T-independent (TI) pathways, with TD antigens such as protein subunits or conjugated polysaccharides promoting class-switched, high-affinity memory B cells through germinal center (GC) reactions that involve T follicular helper cells.^[64] In contrast, TI antigens like unconjugated bacterial polysaccharides stimulate predominantly IgM-producing memory B cells with limited class switching and shorter-lived GC responses, resulting in protection that wanes more rapidly, often within 5 years in adults.^[65] Conjugate vaccines, which link polysaccharides to carrier proteins, convert TI responses to TD, enhancing memory B cell generation and durability, particularly in infants who otherwise mount poor TI responses.^[65] The longevity of vaccine-induced memory B cells is bolstered by adjuvants that amplify GC reactions, leading to persistent antigen-specific B cell populations. For instance, mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, such as BNT162b2, sustain GC B cells at near-peak frequencies for at least 15 weeks post-vaccination, fostering long-lived memory B cells with somatic hypermutations that improve antibody affinity and breadth.^[66] Adjuvants like AS03 further enhance the magnitude and persistence of these memory B cells, increasing neutralization against variants by promoting clonal breadth in GCs.^[67] This durability underpins sustained protection, as evidenced by cross-reactive memory B cells that maintain efficacy against evolving pathogens for months to years post-immunization.^[66] Serial booster immunizations expand and diversify memory B cell pools, enabling adaptation to antigenic variants. In SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, bivalent boosters recruit pre-existing memory B cells into GCs, where somatic hypermutation refines responses to achieve broad neutralization across strains like Omicron subvariants, with up to 60% of receptor-binding domain-specific antibodies showing cross-reactivity.^[68] Repeated dosing in previously primed individuals amplifies these pools without primarily relying on de novo naive B cell activation, thereby strengthening recall responses and overall vaccine effectiveness against viral evolution.^[68] Despite these mechanisms, vaccine efficacy can be compromised by waning memory B cell function in vulnerable populations. In the elderly, memory B cells specific to SARS-CoV-2 persist post-vaccination even as neutralizing antibodies decline to undetectable levels, but overall responses are impaired due to accumulation of atypical B cells that reduce potency and breadth after boosting.^[69]^[70] In immunocompromised patients, such as kidney transplant recipients, initial memory B cell responses to COVID-19 vaccines are diminished, though repeated boosters can drive expansion of these pools to partially restore humoral immunity.^[71] These challenges highlight the need for tailored vaccination strategies to mitigate age- and condition-related declines in memory B cell maintenance.^[72]

Roles in disease

Memory B cells play protective roles in combating persistent and variant pathogens, particularly through atypical subsets that maintain responses against evolving threats. In SARS-CoV-2 infections, atypical and non-classical CD45RB^lo memory B cells constitute the majority of circulating virus-specific B cells following infection or mRNA vaccination, enabling sustained antibody production against variants such as Omicron.^[29] Similarly, in HIV, double-negative (DN) memory B cells, characterized by CD27^-CD21^- expression, expand during chronic infection and contribute to antiviral immunity by producing broadly neutralizing antibodies, though their functionality is often impaired by exhaustion.^[73] These atypical populations, including DN cells, have been highlighted in 2024-2025 studies as key for recall responses to viral variants, bridging gaps in classical memory B cell efficacy.^[74] In autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), dysregulation of memory B cells promotes pathogenesis through exhausted atypical subsets. Exhausted memory B cells, also termed tissue-like or atypical memory B cells marked by low CD21 expression, accumulate in SLE patients and exhibit reduced capacity to generate neutralizing antibodies, correlating with disease flares and lupus nephritis progression.^[75] These cells display transcriptional signatures of exhaustion, including elevated T-bet and reduced proliferative potential, which perpetuate autoantibody production and impair immune regulation.^[76] In SLE, DN3 B cell subsets within atypical memory populations are significantly associated with heightened disease activity, particularly in females, underscoring their role in sustaining chronic inflammation.^[76] Memory B cells have dual implications in cancer, acting protectively in antitumor immunity or pathologically as origins of malignancies. Tumor-resident memory B cells within tertiary lymphoid structures enhance immunotherapy responses by supporting CXCL13⁺ follicular helper T cells and promoting antibody-mediated tumor control in solid cancers like melanoma.^[77] Conversely, in B cell lymphomas such as activated B cell-like diffuse large B cell lymphoma (ABC-DLBCL), memory B cells serve as the primary cells of origin, with chronic antigenic stimulation driving oncogenic transformations like NF-κB pathway activation.^[78] In follicular lymphoma, dysregulated memory B cells harboring BCL2 translocations evade apoptosis, fueling lymphoma persistence.^[79] Therapeutic strategies target memory B cells to modulate disease outcomes in autoimmunity and cancer. Rituximab, a CD20-depleting monoclonal antibody, effectively reduces pathogenic autoreactive memory B cells in autoimmune conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and SLE, leading to sustained suppression of autoantibodies and clinical remission in responsive patients.^[80] This depletion preferentially affects short-lived autoreactive plasma cell precursors derived from memory B cells, though long-lived subsets may resist, necessitating combination therapies.^[81] For enhancement, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapies targeting CD19 on autoreactive B cells, including memory subsets, achieve deep B cell depletion in autoimmune diseases, resetting immunity and inducing drug-free remission by eliminating IgG⁺ and IgA⁺ memory B cells.^[82] In cancer immunotherapy, CAR T cells indirectly bolster tumor-resident memory B cells by reducing immunosuppressive B cell populations, improving overall antitumor efficacy.^[83]

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Early IgM + and switched Ig + memory B cells develop from a germinal center (GC)–independent pathway, whereas late switched memory cells are GC dependent.
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