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Midge

A midge is a tiny dipteran fly, typically measuring 1–3 mm in length, belonging to various families within the suborder Nematocera of the order Diptera, such as the non-biting Chironomidae and the biting Ceratopogonidae.^[1]^[2] Unlike mosquitoes, most midges lack specialized piercing mouthparts for blood-feeding, though certain species in the Ceratopogonidae family, known as biting midges or no-see-ums, can inflict painful bites on humans and animals.^[2]^[3] These insects are abundant worldwide, often swarming in large numbers near aquatic environments where their larvae develop.^[4] Midges exhibit complete metamorphosis, with aquatic larvae that serve as important decomposers in freshwater ecosystems by feeding on organic detritus, algae, and bacteria, thereby recycling nutrients.^[4]^[5] Adult midges, which live only a few days to weeks, do not bite in the case of chironomids but contribute to food webs as prey for fish, birds, bats, and predatory insects like dragonflies.^[6]^[4] Biting midges, in contrast, are vectors for diseases such as bluetongue in livestock and Oropouche virus in humans, making them significant in veterinary and public health contexts.^[3]^[7] Notable examples include the highland midge (Culicoides impunctatus), a biting species prevalent in Scotland that forms dense swarms and causes substantial irritation to humans and livestock during summer months.^[8] Gall midges in the family Cecidomyiidae induce plant galls as larvae, influencing agriculture by damaging crops like soybeans and canola.^[9]^[10] Overall, midges are ecologically vital despite their nuisance status, supporting biodiversity through their roles in nutrient cycling and as a foundational food source in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.^[4]^[6]

Overview

Definition

A midge is any small fly belonging to several families within the non-mosquito nematoceran suborder of Diptera, typically measuring 1–3 mm in length.^[3]^[11] These insects are characterized by their delicate bodies and two wings, distinguishing them from other fly groups, and they encompass both biting and non-biting species found worldwide, including polar regions, but generally absent from permanently arid desert environments.^[12]^[13] The term "midge" originates from Old English myċġ or mycge, referring to small gnats or flies, derived from Proto-Germanic roots denoting diminutive flying insects.^[14] This etymology reflects its long-standing use to describe tiny, often annoying aerial pests in English-speaking regions. Midges differ from mosquitoes, which are also nematocerans but possess specialized piercing-sucking mouthparts for blood-feeding in females, whereas most midges—especially non-biting forms—lack such proboscises and instead have simpler mouthparts for nectar or pollen consumption.^[15] Additionally, midges exhibit distinct wing venation patterns, with shorter wings that do not extend beyond the body, unlike the longer, scaled wings of mosquitoes. Male midges often have hairy, plumose antennae.^[16] Common names for midges vary by type and region; for instance, biting midges are often called "no-see-ums" due to their minuscule size, while non-biting chironomid midges are known as "lake flies" in areas near water bodies where they swarm.^[6]^[3]

Distinguishing Features

Midges are distinguished from other small flies, such as mosquitoes, primarily by their wing characteristics; they possess a single pair of membranous wings lacking scales, in contrast to the scaled wings of mosquitoes, with venation patterns that are diagnostic for identification within the group.^[6] At rest, these wings are typically held flat or in a roof-like position over the abdomen, differing from the angled posture of mosquito wings.^[17] This structure contributes to their delicate appearance and weak flight capabilities. The body of midges is notably slender, featuring a long, cylindrical abdomen and elongated legs that are often disproportionate to their overall small size of 1–3 mm.^[18] Antennae exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism: males have plumose, feathery antennae adapted for detecting pheromones or the high-pitched sounds produced by female wings during courtship, while females possess filiform, thread-like antennae with fewer sensory structures.^[19] Non-biting midges, in particular, have reduced mouthparts incapable of piercing skin, lacking the elongated proboscis seen in biting species or mosquitoes.^[20] Midges display unique behavioral traits in flight, acting as weak fliers that form dense, stationary swarms, predominantly of males, especially at dusk to attract females for mating.^[21] These swarms enable coordinated movement through sensory adaptations, including large compound eyes that facilitate detection of motion and light within the group, aiding in maintaining swarm cohesion without direct physical contact.^[22]

Taxonomy and Classification

Major Families

Midges belong to several families within the order Diptera, collectively encompassing over 20,000 described species worldwide as of 2025.^[23] These families are primarily classified under the suborder Nematocera, characterized by their small size and diverse ecological roles, though the focus here is on taxonomic distinctions. The Chironomidae, known as non-biting midges, represent the largest family with approximately 10,000 described species.^[13] Key diagnostic traits include adults with plumose antennae in males, short palps, and wings lacking scales, distinguishing them from similar flies like mosquitoes. Larvae are predominantly aquatic, often inhabiting freshwater sediments or constructing silken tubes.^[24] The Ceratopogonidae, or biting midges, comprise about 6,200 extant species.^[25] Adults are small (1–3 mm), with females featuring a well-developed proboscis for blood-feeding; wings are broader than in Chironomidae, often with distinctive patterns, and typically held flat over the abdomen at rest. Larvae are semi-aquatic or terrestrial, frequenting moist soils or decaying vegetation.^[26]^[27] Among other notable families, the Cecidomyiidae (gall midges) include roughly 6,600 described species.^[28] Diagnostic features encompass very fragile bodies (often under 2 mm), reduced wing venation, and males with long, beaded antennae; many species induce plant galls, where larvae develop.

Evolutionary History

The fossil record of midges, encompassing both non-biting (Chironomidae) and biting (Ceratopogonidae) forms, extends back to the Triassic period. The earliest known chironomid fossil, Aenne triassica, originates from Late Triassic deposits in England, dating to approximately 205–201 million years ago, marking the oldest definitive record of the family.^[29] Chironomid fossils become more diverse and abundant by the Cretaceous period, with numerous specimens preserved in amber and sedimentary rocks, reflecting increased ecological roles in freshwater systems. In contrast, the Ceratopogonidae fossil record begins later, with the oldest described species, Archiaustroconops besti, from Early Cretaceous Purbeck Limestone deposits in southern Great Britain, approximately 142 million years old.^[30] This disparity highlights an incomplete pre-Cretaceous record for biting midges, with few transitional forms documented, underscoring the need for expanded paleogenomic analyses to recover ancient DNA and clarify early divergences. Phylogenetically, midges occupy basal positions within the paraphyletic suborder Nematocera of Diptera. Non-biting midges (Chironomidae) form the superfamily Chironomoidea, while biting midges (Ceratopogonidae) belong to Culicomorpha, a clade that also includes mosquitoes (Culicidae) and black flies (Simuliidae). Recent phylogenomic studies position Chironomoidea as the sister group to Culicomorpha, supporting a close evolutionary relationship between non-biting midges and the mosquito-inclusive lineage.^[31] A hallmark adaptation in this lineage is the aquatic larval stage of chironomids, often featuring hemoglobin-rich hemolymph that facilitates respiration in oxygen-depleted sediments, an innovation likely predating the Cretaceous diversification and enabling exploitation of hypoxic freshwater niches.^[32] The major radiation of midges occurred during the Mesozoic era, coinciding with the diversification of angiosperms around 140–100 million years ago in the Early to mid-Cretaceous. This plant radiation expanded riparian and lacustrine habitats, providing novel breeding sites and food resources that drove midge proliferation, particularly for aquatic larvae dependent on organic-rich sediments.^[33] Post-2020 genetic research, leveraging DNA barcoding of the COI gene, has illuminated ongoing evolutionary dynamics by uncovering cryptic species complexes—undescribed lineages indistinguishable morphologically but genetically distinct—in both families. For instance, studies on Culicoides biting midges have identified multiple cryptic taxa across regions, enhancing resolution of biodiversity patterns.^[34] These analyses also affirm the monophyly of key subfamilies like Chironominae and Ceratopogoninae, reinforcing the stability of higher-level classifications while highlighting gaps in fossil integration for deeper time scales.^[35]

Biology

Morphology

Midges, belonging to the families Chironomidae (non-biting midges) and Ceratopogonidae (biting midges), exhibit delicate, slender anatomy typical of nematoceran Diptera, with body lengths ranging from 1 to 10 mm depending on the species and family.^[4]^[27] The adult head features prominent compound eyes and antennae that show marked sexual dimorphism: males possess bushy, plumose antennae adapted for detecting pheromones, while females have simpler, whorled or filiform antennae.^[36] The proboscis varies significantly between families; in Chironomidae, it is short and non-piercing, suited for nectar feeding, whereas in female Ceratopogonidae, it is elongated and equipped with piercing stylets for blood-feeding.^[4]^[27] The thorax is robust relative to the body size, bearing three pairs of long, slender legs each with five segments (coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, tarsus) terminating in claws, and a pair of halteres—small, club-shaped organs that function in flight balance.^[27] The abdomen is segmented and flexible, typically ending in cerci in females, which are paired appendages associated with the ovipositor used for egg deposition.^[27] Larval midges are generally worm-like and aquatic or semi-aquatic, lacking true jointed legs but often featuring prolegs for locomotion. They possess a distinct, sclerotized head capsule with mouthparts adapted for filter-feeding or scraping, and the body is elongate with up to 12 segments.^[37] In Chironomidae, many larvae are known as bloodworms due to their red coloration from hemoglobin, which enables survival in low-oxygen environments such as profundal lake sediments; these larvae typically have a single fleshy proleg at the anterior and posterior ends.^[4]^[37] Ceratopogonid larvae share a similar vermiform shape but often have the head capsule more protrusible and are predaceous or detritivorous.^[38] The pupal stage is comma-shaped, with the head and thorax fused into a cephalothorax and the abdomen curved ventrally, facilitating emergence from breeding habitats. A key feature is the pair of thoracic respiratory horns, which are tubular structures with apertures allowing gas exchange at the substrate surface; these horns vary in length and branching but are essential for oxygenation during the brief pupal period.^[39]^[40] This morphology is conserved across both families, though Ceratopogonid pupae may have more ornate horn structures in some genera.^[41] At the microscopic level, midge wings lack scales, distinguishing them from moths (Lepidoptera), and instead bear fine setae or hairs, particularly dense in Ceratopogonidae; wing venation is reduced with few prominent veins, aiding in taxonomic identification.^[26]

Life Cycle

Midges undergo complete (holometabolous) metamorphosis, consisting of egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages.^[4] Female midges lay eggs in gelatinous masses on water surfaces or moist soil, with each mass containing hundreds to thousands of eggs depending on the species. These eggs typically hatch within 2-7 days, influenced by water temperature and oxygen levels.^[4]^[27] The larval stage comprises four instars, during which midges are primarily aquatic or in moist environments, feeding on algae, detritus, and microorganisms; some species possess hemoglobin in their hemolymph to aid respiration in low-oxygen conditions. This stage lasts 1-3 weeks under optimal temperatures, though it can extend longer in cooler conditions.^[4]^[42] The pupal stage is non-feeding and transitional, lasting 1-4 days, after which the pupa moves toward the surface of its breeding substrate, often enclosed in an air bubble for emergence as an adult in aquatic species, or directly from moist substrates in others.^[4]^[27] Non-biting midge adults live 3-7 days, primarily focused on mating and oviposition, with males having shorter lifespans of a few days; biting midge females live up to 1-2 months, allowing multiple blood meals and egg batches, while males live shorter periods.^[43]^[27] Midge voltinism varies from 1 to 10 generations per year based on climate and species, with temperate populations often entering diapause as final-instar larvae to overwinter.^[44]^[45]

Ecology and Behavior

Habitats and Distribution

Midges, encompassing families such as Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae, primarily inhabit aquatic and semi-aquatic environments worldwide. Species in the family Chironomidae, commonly known as non-biting midges, thrive in freshwater systems including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, bogs, and marshes, where their larvae develop in the underlying sediments and organic-rich substrates.^[46] In contrast, Ceratopogonidae, or biting midges, favor coastal and marshy habitats such as swamps, mangroves, shallow ponds, and floodplains, with larvae often occupying moist soils, decaying vegetation, mud, or sand along shorelines.^[27]^[3] The global distribution of midges is cosmopolitan, spanning nearly all continents and biomes except the most extreme polar interiors, with Chironomidae present across all major landmasses including Antarctica.^[13] Diversity is particularly high in tropical regions, where warm, humid conditions support hyperdiverse communities, as observed in swamp forests of Southeast Asia and island ecosystems like Hainan, China.^[47]^[48] Polar species, such as the Antarctic midge Belgica antarctica (Chironomidae), exemplify adaptations to cold extremes, inhabiting coastal terrestrial and freshwater niches along the Antarctic Peninsula, though rapid winter warming as of 2022 poses survival threats to its larvae.^[49]^[50] Midges occupy a broad altitudinal range, from sea level to elevations exceeding 5,000 meters. In the Himalayas, cold-tolerant species like Diamesa (Chironomidae) have been documented in glacial habitats at altitudes of 5,100–5,600 meters, where they endure subzero temperatures and low oxygen levels.^[51]^[52] At the microhabitat scale, midge larvae predominantly reside in benthic sediments of their aquatic breeding sites, burrowing into soft mud or among detritus to feed and develop, while adults remain in close proximity to these areas for mating and oviposition.^[53]^[23] This distribution ties into their aquatic larval stages, which require stable, nutrient-rich substrates for survival.^[46] In the 2020s, climate warming has driven poleward distributional shifts in midge populations, with increased abundances and outbreak frequencies reported in northern Europe and North America due to extended warm seasons and altered precipitation patterns.^[54]^[55]^[56]^[57] For instance, Culicoides species in Europe have shown prolonged seasonal activity, expanding their range northward and heightening risks of vector-borne disease transmission.^[58] As of 2025, models predict further global range expansions for Culicoides, amplifying viral disease risks.^[56] These trends underscore midges' sensitivity to temperature rises, potentially reshaping their ecological roles in higher latitudes.^[59]

Feeding and Reproduction

Adult midges in the family Chironomidae, commonly known as non-biting midges, primarily feed on nectar, pollen, honeydew, and other sugar-rich substances to sustain their short adult lives.^[60] In contrast, females of the biting midge family Ceratopogonidae require blood meals from vertebrates to obtain proteins necessary for egg development, while both sexes consume nectar; their specialized mouthparts include serrated mandibles and maxillae that lacerate skin to facilitate feeding.^[27]^[61] Larvae of most midge species, particularly Chironomidae, are detritivores that consume decaying organic matter, algae, and microorganisms in aquatic or semi-aquatic environments.^[60] However, larvae in certain gall midge species of the family Cecidomyiidae are predatory, actively hunting small arthropods such as aphids, spider mites, and mealybugs.^[62] Mating in midges often occurs in lekking swarms formed by males near visual landmarks like hilltops or water surfaces, where females select mates based on display behaviors.^[63] In some Chironomidae species, acoustic signals produced by wing beats during swarming serve as courtship cues to attract females and deter rivals.^[60] Antennae in both sexes aid in detecting pheromones released during these aggregations.^[60] Reproduction in midges is predominantly sexual, though parthenogenesis occurs rarely in isolated populations of certain Chironomidae species.^[64] Females typically lay batches of 50 to 300 eggs, depending on species and environmental conditions, with egg strings or masses deposited in moist substrates suitable for larval development.^[65] Dispersal in adult midges is generally limited, with flight distances rarely exceeding 1 to 2 kilometers under normal conditions, which constrains gene flow between populations and promotes local genetic differentiation.^[66] Wind-assisted movement can occasionally enable longer-range transport, but self-powered flight remains the primary mode influencing reproductive isolation.^[67]

Types of Midges

Non-Biting Midges

Non-biting midges, primarily from the family Chironomidae, constitute the most diverse and abundant group of non-hematophagous midges, with over 10,000 described species worldwide.^[4] These small flies, often resembling mosquitoes but lacking biting mouthparts, play crucial roles in freshwater ecosystems, where their aquatic larvae dominate benthic communities.^[68] Chironomid larvae, commonly known as bloodworms due to their hemoglobin-rich bodies, exhibit varying tolerances to environmental stressors, making them valuable bioindicators of water quality.^[69] The larvae of many Chironomidae species demonstrate high tolerance to pollution, particularly organic enrichment from sewage and urban runoff, allowing them to thrive in degraded habitats where other macroinvertebrates decline.^[70] This resilience positions them as key indicators for assessing organic pollution levels in streams and lakes, with community composition shifts signaling deteriorating conditions.^[69] For instance, tolerant genera like Chironomus often dominate in polluted waters, providing early warnings for ecosystem health.^[71] Ecologically, Chironomidae serve as a primary food source for a wide array of predators, including fish, birds, amphibians, and aquatic invertebrates, thereby supporting higher trophic levels in food webs.^[72] Their larvae also function as efficient decomposers, processing detritus and organic matter in sediments, which facilitates nutrient recycling and maintains aquatic ecosystem productivity.^[73] This dual role enhances biodiversity and stability in freshwater environments, underscoring their overlooked positive contributions.^[68] Despite their benefits, mass emergences of adult Chironomidae can create nuisance conditions, particularly in the Great Lakes region, where synchronized swarms—sometimes referred to as "midge storms"—overwhelm shorelines during warmer months.^[74] These events, driven by favorable water temperatures around 15–20°C, involve billions of individuals mating and laying eggs, leading to temporary accumulations on beaches and structures.^[4] In areas like Lake Erie and Lake Michigan, such emergences peak in spring and fall, affecting recreation but posing no health risks.^[75] Specific examples include lake flies of the genus Chironomus, which are widely used in biomonitoring programs to evaluate pollution and habitat integrity.^[76] Chironomus larvae, with their tube-dwelling habits in sediments, respond predictably to contaminants, enabling scientists to quantify water quality through abundance and diversity metrics.^[77] These species highlight the family's utility in environmental assessments, from urban streams to large lakes.^[69] Conservation efforts for Chironomidae face threats from habitat loss due to urbanization, dam construction, and wetland drainage, which fragment aquatic environments and reduce larval refugia.^[69] However, many species exhibit resilience to eutrophication, with eutrophication-tolerant taxa proliferating in nutrient-enriched waters, aiding recovery in impacted systems.^[78] This adaptability, combined with their role in biomonitoring, supports targeted protection of freshwater habitats to preserve their ecological functions.^[79]

Biting Midges

Biting midges belong to the family Ceratopogonidae, a diverse group of small hematophagous flies primarily recognized for their role as vectors of diseases in vertebrates. The family encompasses over 6,000 species across more than 100 genera, but only a few are significant biters of vertebrates.^[25] Key hematophagous genera include Culicoides, which comprises the majority of vector species and affects livestock and humans worldwide, and Leptoconops, known for biting humans and domestic animals in arid and coastal regions.^[27]^[36]^[80] Female biting midges require blood meals for egg development and employ specialized mouthparts to feed. The proboscis consists of elongated stylets, including serrated mandibles and laciniae from the maxillae, which females use to pierce host skin and lacerate capillaries, creating a blood pool. During feeding, they inject saliva containing anticoagulants and vasodilators to prevent clotting and facilitate blood flow, a process that can last several minutes.^[81]^[61]^[82] These midges transmit several arboviruses of veterinary and medical importance. Culicoides species are primary vectors of bluetongue virus (BTV), an orbivirus causing severe disease in ruminants like sheep and cattle, with outbreaks linked to species such as C. sonorensis and C. imicola. In humans, Culicoides paraensis has emerged as a vector for Oropouche virus (OROV), an orthobunyavirus responsible for fever outbreaks in the Americas; by the end of 2024, over 16,000 confirmed cases were reported, including expansions to new regions such as Cuba (first cases in June 2024) and Panama (first case in November 2024), with two deaths. Outbreaks continued into 2025, with over 12,000 additional cases reported in the Americas by late July, and the first travel-related case in the United Kingdom noted in August 2025.^[83]^[84]^[85]^[86]^[87]^[88] Biting midges exhibit preferences for mammalian and avian hosts, with species-specific variations; for instance, many Culicoides target large mammals like cattle or birds in wetlands. Their activity is predominantly crepuscular, peaking at dawn and dusk when hosts are most accessible, which enhances transmission efficiency. Bites often provoke strong allergic responses due to salivary proteins, resulting in intense localized itching and swelling; in sensitive individuals, including humans and equines, repeated exposure can lead to hypersensitivity reactions characterized by chronic dermatitis.^[89]^[90]^[91]^[92]^[93]

Human Interactions

Economic and Ecological Impact

Midges play a vital role in aquatic ecosystems as a foundational prey base for various fish species, particularly salmonids. For instance, non-biting midge larvae and adults constitute a significant portion of the diet for subyearling Chinook salmon in the Lower Columbia River Estuary, where Chironomidae comprise the majority of consumed dipterans.^[94] Similarly, Chinook salmon fry extensively feed on small midges, supporting their growth and overall fishery productivity.^[95] Adult midges also contribute to pollination services; non-biting Chironomidae species are among the primary pollinators in Arctic environments, facilitating plant reproduction in nutrient-poor soils.^[96] Beyond their ecological contributions, midges offer practical benefits in aquaculture and environmental monitoring. Chironomid larvae, rich in proteins and essential fatty acids, serve as a high-quality feed for larval fish in aquaculture systems, promoting efficient growth and reducing reliance on traditional feeds.^[97] Additionally, chironomid communities act as effective bioindicators of water quality and ecosystem health, aiding environmental policy by signaling pollution levels and habitat degradation in freshwater assessments.^[98] However, midges impose substantial economic costs, particularly through tourism disruptions and livestock health impacts. In the Scottish Highlands, swarms of biting midges deter visitors during peak seasons, resulting in estimated annual losses of approximately £286 million to the tourism industry.^[99] Biting midges further burden agriculture by vectoring diseases like bluetongue virus, which caused outbreaks costing Tunisian livestock farms around €561 million in 2020 alone, including animal losses and treatment expenses.^[100] In 2025, biting midges have been implicated in ongoing Oropouche virus outbreaks in South America, posing emerging public health risks.^[101] Climate change exacerbates these issues by expanding the geographic range of Culicoides biting midges, enhancing their potential as vectors for arboviruses such as bluetongue and potentially increasing outbreak risks in new regions.^[102] Culturally, midges feature prominently in folklore as symbols of nuisance or supernatural omens. In Scottish Gaelic traditions, the Highland midge is depicted in tales as a persistent pest unleashed to torment invaders, reflecting its real-world irritation in rural life.^[103] Similarly, Māori narratives incorporate midges among insects in stories of environmental balance and conflict, portraying them as elements of nature's trials.^[104]

Pest Management

Pest management for midges, particularly biting species in the family Ceratopogonidae and non-biting Chironomidae, emphasizes integrated pest management (IPM) approaches that combine multiple strategies to reduce populations while minimizing environmental impact.^[4] These methods target both larval and adult stages, focusing on breeding sites in aquatic habitats such as wetlands and standing water. Recent advances prioritize biological and habitat-based controls over broad-spectrum chemicals due to growing concerns over resistance and non-target effects.^[105] Biological controls leverage natural predators and microbial agents to suppress midge populations. Dragonfly and damselfly larvae are effective predators of midge larvae in aquatic environments, consuming large numbers and helping regulate densities in ponds and wetlands.^[106] Similarly, Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) is a widely used bacterial larvicide that produces toxins lethal to midge and mosquito larvae upon ingestion, while sparing beneficial insects, fish, and humans.^[4] Bti is applied as pellets or granules to breeding sites and has been effective in significantly reducing larval abundances in treated waters without disrupting wetland ecosystems.^[107] Chemical methods, including pyrethroid insecticides like cypermethrin and deltamethrin, are applied via ultra-low-volume (ULV) sprays to control adult biting midges around livestock or human areas.^[27] These synthetic pyrethroids act as neurotoxins, causing rapid knockdown and mortality in exposed adults.^[105]^[108] Physical barriers provide non-toxic protection against adult midges entering structures or outdoor spaces. Fine-mesh screens with 20x20 weave or tighter, such as no-see-um netting, effectively block biting midges while allowing ventilation.^[109] UV light traps, including plug-in devices and outdoor zappers, attract and capture adults using wavelengths around 350-365 nm, reducing local populations by trapping thousands per unit over extended periods.^[110]^[111] These traps are particularly useful in IPM as they avoid chemical residues and can be combined with fans for enhanced suction.^[112] Habitat modification targets larval development by altering breeding conditions. Wetland drainage or winter drawdowns expose and desiccate overwintering larvae, significantly lowering emergence rates in subsequent seasons.^[4] Vegetation management, such as removing decaying organic matter and controlling nutrient runoff from fertilizers, reduces food sources for Chironomidae larvae in eutrophic waters.^[109] These practices, when implemented in managed wetlands, can significantly decrease midge densities without harming biodiversity.^[113] Emerging technologies offer promising long-term solutions for Culicoides control. Genetic methods, including gene drives, have been proposed to suppress populations by biasing inheritance of sterility or pathogen-refractory traits.^[114] These innovations integrate with traditional IPM to address resistance and habitat constraints effectively.^[115]

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Family Mycetophilidae – ENT 425 – General Entomology - NC State
Spot ID Key Characters: · Long, multi-segmented antennae · Hump-backed thorax · Long legs with long coxae · Large bristles and apical spurs on the tibiae · Body ...Missing: diagnostic traits
[31]
(PDF) Aenne triassica sp.n., the oldest representative of the family ...
The oldest known chironomid species is from Upper Triassic deposits from Aust Cliff, United Kingdom (Krzemiński and Jarzembowski 1999) . In the fossil record ...
[32]
The oldest fossil biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) from the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The fossil record of Ceratopogonidae dates back to the Early Cretaceous with findings in the Purbeck limestone of Great Britain (142 Ma) [4] .
[33]
A phylogenomic analysis of Culicomorpha (Diptera) resolves the ...
Feb 26, 2018 · Three families are sampled sufficiently to discuss internal relationships: Culicidae, Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae. Within Culicidae ...
[34]
Insects in hypoxia - ScienceDirect.com
Adaptations to hypoxia include the ability to switch from aerobic to anaerobic metabolic pathways (with attendant generation of end products), the ability to ...
[35]
The angiosperm radiation played a dual role in the diversification of ...
Jan 22, 2024 · Interactions with angiosperms have been hypothesised to play a crucial role in driving diversification among insects, with a particular ...Missing: midges | Show results with:midges
[36]
DNA barcoding of Culicoides biting midges (Diptera
May 29, 2025 · Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the DNA barcoding of Culicoides biting midges to demonstrate the species diversity or cryptic ...
[37]
Cryptic Diversity and Climatic Niche Divergence of Brillia Kieffer ...
This study addresses this issue by developing a DNA barcode reference library for the globally distributed Brillia (Diptera: Chironomidae).
[38]
Morphological and molecular insights into the diversity of ...
Sep 23, 2023 · Morphology of the antennae of two species of biting midge: Culicoides impunctatus (Goetghebuer) and Culicoides nubeculosus (Meigen) (Diptera ...
[39]
Recognizing Insect Larval Types - UK Entomology
6- Midge larvae occur in water or moist organic litter. There is a single fleshy leg at the front and back of the body. They are the immature stages of varies ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[40]
[PDF] Taxonomic Morphology of Biting Midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)
Ceratopogononidae is a family of small nematocerous flies ranging approximately 1 to 3mm in length. Ceratopogonidae which was previously categorised as a ...
[41]
[PDF] A Key to the Pupal Exuviae of the Midges (Diptera: Chironomidae) of ...
Tanytarsini typically have a slender, elongate thoracic horn. Page 15. Pupal Morphology 11 that extends beyond the thoracic suture, often beset with setae or ...
[42]
Chironomidae: Biology, Ecology and Systematics - IntechOpen
The respiratory horn may be lacking in pupae, if they exist they can be fluffy or simple. The tergites are often ornamented with hooks. Numerous sub-equal setae ...
[43]
Midges of Kishenehn Formation
This report highlights the eight new morphotypes of culicomorphan dipterans from 46-million-year-old Kishenehn Formation (Montana, USA).
[44]
Midges | Home & Garden Information Center - HGIC@clemson.edu
Aug 2, 2004 · Midges are one of the most abundant insects in aquatic habitats and develop through the four stages of their life cycle in and around water.
[45]
[PDF] Chironomid Midges
The life cycle from egg to adult ranges from less than a week to more than a year, depending on the species and time of year. Most adults emerge within one to ...Missing: durations | Show results with:durations
[46]
[PDF] Biting Midges: Biology and Public Health Risk - Extension Entomology
What Is the Life Cycle of Biting Midges? Biting midges undergo a type of development known as. “complete metamorphosis.” This means the last larval stage.Missing: scientific | Show results with:scientific
[47]
Non-biting Midges | VCE Publications - Virginia Tech
Mar 3, 2021 · Midges are frequently mistaken for mosquitoes, but they do not bite and do not transmit diseases. Male midges have bushy, feathery antennae.
[48]
Environmental Requirements and Pollution Tolerance of Common ...
Chironomids are among the most ubiquitous of aquatic invertebrates. They are found in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including lakes, ponds, bogs, marshes, ...
[49]
Chironomidae | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
Diversity. The Chironomidae is a large and diverse family of flies. They are commonly known as "non-biting midges." There are over 20,000 species known ...
[50]
Discovering a resilient and hyperdiverse midge fly fauna in a ...
Sep 6, 2019 · Researchers uncover a highly unique and diverse chironomid community in a Singaporean swamp forest highlighting the importance of these ecosystems.
[51]
Molecular identification and genetic diversity of biting midges (Diptera
Jul 7, 2024 · The biting midges in Hainan, a tropical island, had abundant genetic diversity. Timely surveillance is a crucial control measure for the ...
[52]
Assessing distribution shifts and ecophysiological characteristics of ...
Jun 3, 2020 · We conclude that the species has the potential to expand its distribution to include parts of the west and east coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula and even ...
[53]
A novel cold-tolerant insect found in a Himalayan glacier - Nature
Jul 19, 1984 · Here we report the discovery of a new species of cold-tolerant midge (Chironomidae, Diamesa Meigen sp.) in a high-altitude glacier of the Nepal Himalayas.Missing: altitudinal | Show results with:altitudinal
[54]
Four new species of Diamesa Meigen 1835 (Diptera: Chironomidae ...
Apr 28, 2018 · The maximum altitude at which there are representatives of chironomids is 5600 m above sea level (Himalayas), where Diamesa spp. live at ...
[55]
[PDF] Non-biting Midges - Virginia Tech
Midges have a complete life cycle consisting of an egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages. Midges breed chiefly in water, but some develop in decaying vegetation, ...Missing: durations | Show results with:durations
[56]
Long‐term shifts in the seasonal abundance of adult Culicoides ...
Long‐term shifts in the seasonal abundance of adult Culicoides biting midges and their impact on potential arbovirus outbreaks.Missing: america | Show results with:america
[57]
Management of North American Culicoides Biting Midges: Current ...
Jun 18, 2015 · Because changes in BTV and EHDV distribution in both North America and Europe have occurred recently, the role of environmental variability ...Missing: shift warming<|separator|>
[58]
The impact of temperature changes on vector-borne disease ...
Mar 15, 2017 · Biting midges of genus Culicoides transmit a number of arboviruses causing several livestock diseases of veterinary and economic importance, for ...
[59]
Current and future latitudinal gradients in stream macroinvertebrate ...
Overall, our findings provide support for the hypothesized poleward shifts of freshwater invertebrates under climate change. ... midges (Diptera: Chironomidae) in ...<|separator|>
[60]
Chironomidae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Chironomidae have a life cycle consisting of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and imago. Upon hatching, the first instar larva begins a period of growth, which ...
[61]
(PDF) Mouthparts of Females of Four Culicoides Species (Diptera
Aug 5, 2025 · All piercing/sucking mouthparts possess a thin, yet hard, structure for puncturing, with serrated edges for bracing itself; these structures ...
[62]
Predatory Gall Midge (Unofficial Common Name), Feltiella ...
The predatory gall midge, Feltiella acarisuga (Vallot), is one of the most effective and widespread natural enemies of spider mites (Tetranychidae).Missing: organic | Show results with:organic
[63]
[PDF] Sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems in flies
Feeding and mating in the insectivorous Ceratoponidae (Diptera). Memoirs of ... The mating system of chironomid midges (Diptera: Chironomidae): a review.
[64]
[PDF] Use of acoustic signals in mating in an eavesdropping frog-biting ...
Male frog-biting midges aggregate under low-light conditions and perform characteristic mating flights. Female midges approach males in the swarm and copulation ...Missing: hilltops | Show results with:hilltops
[65]
Aspects of the biology of the midge, Eretmoptera murphyi Schaeffer ...
Investment in reproduction by the parthenogenetic adult females is high, with individuals producing single egg batches containing ca. 85 eggs and having a ...Missing: per | Show results with:per
[66]
Not so free range? Oviposition microhabitat and egg clustering ...
Oct 16, 2018 · This differs from Belgica antarctica (Jacobs 1900), the closely related endemic Antarctic midge, which produce 41 (median) eggs per batch, laid ...
[67]
Gene flow within and between regions: The population genetic ...
These results suggest that most of the dispersal is female dominated and mostly takes place between populations within regions. Due to this extensive regional ...
[68]
Population Genetic Structure and Population History of the Biting ...
Aug 13, 2022 · First, the gene flow is mediated by wind-assisted long-distance dispersal. This mechanism was postulated as a factor responsible for the ...
[69]
Ecological and Societal Services of Aquatic Diptera - PMC - NIH
Mar 14, 2019 · Foremost in this role are the Chironomidae [99,100,101], which are diverse, widespread, and have larvae that are abundant in aquatic habitats ...
[70]
Chironomids as indicators in freshwater ecosystems: an assessment ...
Mar 6, 2015 · The Chironomidae assemblage level has been a suitable tool for measuring organic pollution in streams, measuring water quality using biotic ...
[71]
Chironomidae as indicators of water pollution in Pesquería River ...
Chironomidae are potential indicators of water quality, with their distribution and abundance related to pollution, especially organic pollution from sewage.
[72]
Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Non-Biting Midge Larvae ...
In total, 69 taxa were recorded after four seasonal samplings (winter, spring, summer, and autumn). The dominant taxa were Rheotanytarsus sp. 1, Rheotanytarsus ...Missing: global | Show results with:global
[73]
(PDF) Ecological and Economic Importance of Chironomids (Diptera)
Jan 5, 2019 · As an abundant and omnipresent group of organism in aquatic bodies, they are major food source for aquatic invertebrates, amphibians, fishes and birds.Missing: benefits decomposers
[74]
Non-biting midges in biodiversity conservation and environmental ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... Chironomids are also an important food source for predators such as odonates, fish, and birds, and act as important decomposers of organic ...
[75]
Why midges are suddenly back in Northeast Ohio
tiny, non-biting insects — has swarmed parts of Northeast Ohio this week, creating a rare sight for mid-October.
[76]
Why midges are suddenly back in Northeast Ohio - cleveland.com
formally known as chironomids — spend most of their lives as larvae in lake-bottom sediment before emerging as adults once temperatures ...
[77]
New insights on bioindicator value of Chironomids by using ...
Highlights · The sensitivity of chironomids to water quality was assessed by occupancy modelling. · Most of chironomids were sensitive to dissolved oxygen.
[78]
A new dawn for chironomids in freshwater biomonitoring?
Aug 10, 2025 · Non-biting midges are extraordinarily well-suited as environmental indicators in freshwater biomonitoring;. numerous studies by those in our ...
[79]
Cumulative effects of climate change and land use on the ecological ...
On the one hand, chironomid taxa that indicate eutrophic conditions tend to be more resilient to changes in nutrient and oxygen conditions than the most ...
[80]
NGS barcoding reveals high resistance of a hyperdiverse ...
Aug 14, 2018 · Freshwater ecosystems are under threat worldwide from habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. ... Deforestation, forest degradation, ...
[81]
Culicoides Latreille and Leptoconops Skuse biting midges of the ...
Jan 28, 2022 · Leptoconops Skuse and Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) biting midges are serious pests of mammals, birds, and reptiles and ...
[82]
Anatomy and function of the mouthparts of the biting midge ...
The stylets (labrum, hypopharynx, mandibles, laciniae) are individually described so that their union into the piercingsucking syntrophium can be understoo.
[83]
Physiological and immunological responses to Culicoides ...
Jun 20, 2018 · To obtain a blood meal, midges deposit saliva containing allergens, proteases, and anti-hemostatic factors, into the dermis to facilitate ...Missing: laciniae | Show results with:laciniae
[84]
[PDF] Bluetongue - The Center for Food Security and Public Health
Oct 9, 2023 · Bluetongue virus is transmitted by biting midges in the genus Culicoides, which are biological vectors and become persistently infected with ...
[85]
Culicoides sonorensis midge - Entomology Today
Jun 6, 2023 · The Culicoides biting midge, a tiny fly in the order Diptera, transmits several important animal viruses. One of the most significant is the bluetongue virus.
[86]
Oropouche virus disease - World Health Organization (WHO)
Oct 22, 2024 · The Oropouche virus is present mostly in South America and the Caribbean, but since December 2023 more cases were reported, totalling over 10 ...
[87]
https://www.paho.org/en/news/14-8-2025-paho-publishes-new-update-oropouche-fever-americas
[88]
Blood meal analysis: host-feeding patterns of biting midges (Diptera ...
Jul 20, 2021 · Most species of Culicoides biting midges parasitize birds or mammals; certain species, however, feed on the blood of reptiles and amphibians [9] ...
[89]
Seasonal change and influence of environmental variables on host ...
May 10, 2024 · By shifting host-seeking activity to before sunset on colder days, midges could seek hosts at a time when environmental conditions were more ...
[90]
Biting Midges of Animals - Integumentary System
Culicoides spp are vicious biters and can cause intense irritation and annoyance. In large numbers, they can cause production animals to be nervous and ...
[91]
Understanding Insect Bite Hypersensitivity in Horses - MDPI
Characterized by severe pruritic dermatitis, IBH primarily arises from hypersensitivity reactions to the saliva of biting midges of the genus Culicoides, which ...
[92]
Subyearling Chinook salmon diets in Lower Columbia River ...
Jun 12, 2025 · The most important prey in LCRE subyearling Chinook diets have been adult dipterans (mostly Chironomidae; non-biting midges) and amphipods ( ...
[93]
[PDF] becker.pdf - NOAA
Chinook salmon fry consumed small midges most extensively whereas fingerlings tended to include larger insects in their diet. The relation- ship of increasing ...
[94]
Meet The Flies That Pollinate Cocoa Trees - Science Friday
Dec 29, 2017 · Adult, non-biting midges from the family Chironomidae are some of the most important pollinators in the Arctic. These flies have had to survive ...
[95]
Production and Enrichment of Chironomid Larva with Different ...
Chironomid larvae have a high reproduction capacity. Because of their excellent nutritional quality, they have great potential in larval fish nutrition, ...
[96]
Why are there so many midges in Scotland right now? - The National
May 14, 2024 · The Scottish tourism industry is estimated to lose about £286 million-a-year because of the swarming insects – and that is based on the ...
[97]
Estimation of the economic impact of a bluetongue serotype 4 ...
Feb 29, 2024 · The total mean cost of the 2020 BT outbreak in Tunisian investigated farms was estimated at 1,935 million TND (million €561.15) (range: 1,489 ...Missing: burden | Show results with:burden
[98]
Culicoides-borne Orbivirus epidemiology in a changing climate
Oct 20, 2023 · Climate change is anticipated to alter the distribution and range of many vector species due to warming and altered rainfall patterns (Greer et ...
[99]
'Tiny Fly' – the Highland midge in Gaelic tradition - Scotland's Nature
Sep 26, 2025 · Roddy Maclean gives a Gaelic view of a miniscule insect that has made its presence felt for centuries in the Scottish Highlands.Missing: cultural | Show results with:cultural
[100]
Te aitanga pepeke – the insect world
Midges, moths, cicadas, mosquitoes and other insects feature in many traditional Māori stories, especially the battles fought by Tāne, guardian of the forest ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[101]
Laboratory and semifield data indicate that vector Culicoides spp. in ...
Jun 26, 2025 · Current control practices for biting midges rely heavily on chemical insecticides, yet their efficacy and potential for insecticide resistance ...
[102]
Dragonflies are efficient predators that consume hundreds of ...
Mar 3, 2020 · Dragonflies are efficient predators that consume hundreds of thousands of insects, locally · Chironomids are damselflies' favourite food · New ...
[103]
Bti for Mosquito Control | US EPA
Aug 8, 2025 · Bti is used to kill developing mosquito larvae by being applied to standing water where those larvae are found.
[104]
Laboratory and field assays indicate that a widespread no-see-um ...
Feb 8, 2025 · How do species, population and active ingredient influence insecticide susceptibility in Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) of ...
[105]
How To Get Rid Of Midges - Miche Pest Control
Jun 16, 2025 · Physical Barriers. Install fine mesh screens on windows and doors. Use netting over outdoor seating areas if midges are particularly bad.
[106]
Artificial light and biting flies: the parallel development of attractive ...
Jan 7, 2021 · A UV light trap emitting predominantly at 325 nm caught fewer mosquitoes than UV traps emitting at 350–365 nm [50], possibly suggesting that ...
[107]
How to Get Rid of Midge Flies: Solutions for Home & Outdoors
May 30, 2025 · If you want to know how to kill midges effectively, it often starts with using UV light traps, which attract flying insects.
[108]
How to Get Rid of No-See-Ums - DynaTrap.com
Dynatrap has a wide selection of traps for indoor and outdoor use. Our traps use light to attract insects to the trap. Once near the trap, a powerful fan ...
[109]
How to Get Rid of Aquatic Midge Flies in Freshwater Ponds
The larval stage of the midge fly occurs entirely inside the aquatic environment ... midge larvae, which are specially adapted to live in low oxygen environments.
[110]
Next-generation tools to control biting midge populations and ...
Jan 7, 2021 · Next-generation control methods such as Wolbachia- and genetic-based population suppression and replacement are being investigated in several vector species.
[111]
Pheromonal Control of Biting Midges (Culicoides Spp.). - DTIC
The male Culicoides melleus Coquillett Diptera Ceratopogonidae is able to orienate extremely rapidly to the copulatory position on a C. melleus female and, ...
[112]
A pheromone a day keeps the midges away | News - Chemistry World
Sticky traps baited with a microgram of the pheromone attracted male midges from up to 50m away. One trap caught 1500 males midges in a morning. 'Now that ...