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Myringotomy

Myringotomy is a common surgical procedure involving a small incision in the tympanic membrane, or eardrum, to drain fluid from the middle ear, relieve pressure imbalances, and facilitate ventilation, often in conjunction with the insertion of tympanostomy tubes.^[1] This intervention is primarily used to address persistent middle ear effusion or recurrent infections that do not resolve with conservative treatments, helping to restore normal hearing and prevent complications such as speech delays in children.^[2] It is one of the most frequently performed otologic surgeries, especially in pediatric populations, with millions of procedures conducted annually worldwide.^[1]

Background

Definition and Purpose

Myringotomy is a surgical procedure that involves creating a small incision in the tympanic membrane, also known as the eardrum, to drain accumulated fluid, pus, or blood from the middle ear and relieve associated pressure.^[3] This intervention primarily serves to ventilate the middle ear space, prevent recurrent infections by facilitating drainage, and restore hearing impaired by fluid buildup.^[4] It is commonly indicated for conditions such as otitis media with effusion (OME) or Eustachian tube dysfunction, where persistent fluid accumulation leads to complications.^[4] The procedure can be performed as a simple myringotomy, which consists solely of the incision and aspiration of fluid, allowing the eardrum to heal naturally within 2 to 3 weeks.^[5] In contrast, myringotomy with tympanostomy tube insertion involves placing a small ventilation tube into the incision to provide prolonged drainage and equalization of pressure, with tubes typically remaining in place for 6 to 18 months before extruding naturally.^[6] This distinction allows simple myringotomy for acute or short-term issues, while tube placement addresses chronic or recurrent problems requiring extended ventilation.^[7] Myringotomy is routinely conducted as an outpatient procedure under general or local anesthesia, lasting approximately 15 to 20 minutes, and is most prevalent in pediatric populations due to higher rates of middle ear infections, though it is also performed in adults for similar indications.^[3] In the United States, it represents the most common ambulatory surgery in children, with approximately 1 million procedures annually.^[8]

Nomenclature

The term myringotomy derives from "myringo-," referring to the eardrum (from the Latin myringa, meaning eardrum), combined with "-tomy," from the Greek tomē meaning a cutting or incision.^[9] Similarly, tympanotomy originates from "tympano-," from the Greek tympanon denoting a drum, paired with the same "-tomy" suffix, thus also signifying an incision into the eardrum.^[9] In medical terminology, myringotomy specifically denotes a surgical incision into the tympanic membrane to relieve pressure or drain fluid from the middle ear.^[6] Tympanotomy serves as a direct synonym for myringotomy, emphasizing the same procedure without distinction in most contexts.^[9] Tympanostomy is often used interchangeably with myringotomy but in contemporary usage typically refers to the combined procedure of incision followed by insertion of a ventilation tube to maintain drainage and aeration.^[6] By contrast, tympanocentesis involves aspiration of middle ear fluid through a needle puncture of the tympanic membrane, usually for diagnostic purposes like culturing pathogens, without creating a full incision.^[10] Historically, terms like myringotomy and tympanotomy were used interchangeably since the procedure's early documentation in the 17th century, with little emphasis on tube placement as perforations were expected to heal spontaneously.^[11] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, as surgeons sought to prolong eardrum openings for ventilation—initially with materials like gold foil—usage began to evolve, though distinctions remained fluid until the mid-20th century.^[11] Modern nomenclature, solidified after the introduction of durable plastic tubes in the 1950s, clearly differentiates tympanostomy as implying tube insertion, while reserving myringotomy for the incision alone.^[6] Related terms include grommets, a British English synonym for tympanostomy tubes, evoking the shape of a small flanged ring used in other mechanical contexts, and pressure equalization (PE) tubes, which highlight the devices' function in balancing middle ear pressure.^[6]

Anatomy and Pathophysiology

Ear Structures Involved

The ear is anatomically divided into three main components: the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear, each playing distinct roles in sound collection, transmission, and perception. The outer ear consists of the pinna (auricle), a cartilaginous structure that funnels sound waves, and the external auditory canal, a curved tube approximately 2.5 cm long lined with skin, hair, and ceruminous glands that protect the ear and conduct sound to the middle ear.^[12] The inner ear, housed within the temporal bone, includes the cochlea, a spiral-shaped structure responsible for auditory processing through fluid-mediated vibration detection, and the vestibular system, comprising the semicircular canals, utricle, and saccule, which detect head position and motion for balance.^[13] The middle ear, or tympanic cavity, is an air-filled space within the petrous portion of the temporal bone, bounded laterally by the tympanic membrane and medially by the inner ear structures. It contains the three auditory ossicles—the malleus, incus, and stapes—which form a chain that mechanically amplifies and transmits vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window of the cochlea. The malleus attaches directly to the tympanic membrane's umbo, the incus articulates with the malleus and stapes, and the stapes footplate seals the oval window, facilitating efficient sound conduction. The middle ear connects to the nasopharynx via the Eustachian tube, a 3-4 cm canal that equalizes air pressure between the middle ear and ambient environment and allows mucociliary drainage, preventing pressure imbalances that could impair ossicular movement.^[14]^[15] Central to myringotomy is the tympanic membrane, a thin, semitransparent, oval-shaped structure approximately 0.1 mm thick and 8-10 mm in diameter, separating the external auditory canal from the middle ear cavity. It comprises three layers: an outer stratified squamous epithelial layer continuous with the canal skin, a middle fibrous lamina propria of radial and circular collagen fibers providing tensile strength, and an inner mucosal layer continuous with the middle ear mucosa. The membrane is divided into the pars tensa, the larger taut lower portion anchored peripherally to the fibrous annulus and reinforced by organized collagen fibers for vibration transmission, and the pars flaccida, the smaller loose upper portion lacking a fibrous annulus and containing more elastic tissue, making it prone to retractions. In myringotomy, incisions are typically made in the anterior-inferior quadrant of the pars tensa to minimize disruption to ossicles and vasculature while allowing access to the middle ear space.^[16] The middle ear and tympanic membrane receive blood supply primarily from branches of the external carotid artery, including the deep auricular artery (lateral surface), anterior tympanic artery from the maxillary artery (malleus and medial membrane), and posterior tympanic artery from the stylomastoid branch (ossicles and posterior membrane). Venous drainage occurs via the pterygoid and sigmoid sinuses. Innervation includes sensory supply to the lateral tympanic membrane from the auriculotemporal nerve (mandibular division of trigeminal), auricular branches of the vagus and facial nerves, and glossopharyngeal nerve, while the medial surface is innervated by the tympanic plexus (glossopharyngeal nerve) and chorda tympani (facial nerve, coursing between malleus and incus). These vascular and neural elements pose risks during incision, such as bleeding from the anterior tympanic artery or temporary taste disturbances from chorda tympani injury, necessitating precise surgical placement.^[16]^[14]

Underlying Conditions

Myringotomy is often necessitated by conditions involving middle ear effusion, where dysfunction of the Eustachian tube impairs ventilation and drainage, leading to negative middle ear pressure and fluid accumulation.^[17] This negative pressure arises from the tube's failure to equalize atmospheric pressure with the middle ear space, causing transudation of serous fluid initially, which may progress to thicker mucoid or purulent effusion if infection occurs.^[18] Prolonged negative pressure can result in tympanic membrane retractions or spontaneous perforations, exacerbating the effusion and potentially leading to structural damage.^[19] The primary underlying conditions include otitis media with effusion (OME), characterized by persistent fluid in the middle ear without signs of acute infection, often lasting more than three months.^[20] Recurrent acute otitis media (AOM) is another key indication, defined as three or more episodes within six months or four within a year, where repeated infections cause ongoing effusion and inflammation.^[21] Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) involves persistent otorrhea through a tympanic membrane perforation, stemming from unresolved AOM or OME with bacterial superinfection.^[22] Contributing factors to these conditions frequently involve an immature Eustachian tube in young children, which is shorter, more horizontal, and less rigid, predisposing to obstruction and poor mucociliary clearance.^[23] Allergies and upper respiratory infections can cause mucosal edema, further blocking the tube, while craniofacial abnormalities such as cleft palate impair tube function through anatomical misalignment.^[24] Daycare attendance and exposure to tobacco smoke also increase risk by promoting viral infections and irritant-induced inflammation.^[25] Untreated effusions lead to conductive hearing loss, typically averaging 20-30 dB, which disrupts sound transmission and can cause temporary mild to moderate impairment.^[26] In children, this hearing deficit is linked to speech and language delays due to reduced auditory input during critical developmental periods, as well as balance issues from vestibular involvement.^[27] Long-term risks include tympanic membrane atrophy, ossicular erosion, and cholesteatoma formation, a destructive growth arising from retracted or perforated tissue.

Historical Development

Early History

The earliest indications of ear drainage practices appear in ancient Egyptian medical texts, such as the Ebers Papyrus dating to around 1550 BCE, which describes treatments for ear ailments including the use of probes and fluids to alleviate pus and inflammation, though explicit references to tympanic membrane incision remain unconfirmed.^[28] Similar conceptual approaches appear in Greek writings; Hippocrates in the 5th century BCE described the middle ear filling with mucus and recommended incision of the eardrum for drainage, an early form of myringotomy.^[11] The first documented myringotomy occurred in 1649, when French anatomist Jean Riolan the Younger described lancing the tympanic membrane to drain pus from the middle ear in cases of suppurative otitis media.^[11] This procedure gained traction in the early 19th century through the work of English surgeon Astley Cooper, who in 1801 presented observations to the Royal Society demonstrating improved hearing after incision, leading to its popularization for relieving pressure and effusion.^[29] However, widespread and often inappropriate application resulted in minimal long-term benefits and significant complications, causing the technique to fall out of favor for decades.^[11] Advancements resumed in the mid-19th century, with Irish otologist William Wilde promoting myringotomy in the 1860s as a targeted intervention for otitis media, using a sickle knife to incise the anteroinferior quadrant of the tympanic membrane followed by cautery to delay healing.^[11] Wilde's 1853 textbook, the first comprehensive English work on aural surgery, emphasized its role in acute inflammation while acknowledging its temporary effects.^[11] Concurrently, efforts to maintain perforations led to early prosthetic innovations; in 1845, German otologist Martell Frank introduced a button-like gold tube approximately 6 mm long with flanges to secure it in the membrane for prolonged drainage and ventilation.^[30] This was followed by similar devices, such as Adam Politzer's hard rubber drain in 1868 and Friedrich Voltolini's gold ring in 1873, aimed at chronic cases where spontaneous closure hindered relief.^[30] German surgeon Hermann Schwartze further refined myringotomy techniques in the 1870s, particularly for chronic otitis and fluid collections, advocating incision combined with suction and Eustachian tube treatments to address persistent suppuration.^[31] Despite these developments, the procedure faced substantial challenges in the pre-antibiotic era, including high risks of secondary infections, rapid membrane healing that negated benefits, and frequent extrusion or blockage of early tubes, prompting a shift toward more conservative management of ear diseases.^[29]

Modern Innovations

In the mid-20th century, significant advancements in myringotomy involved the introduction of tympanostomy tubes designed for prolonged middle ear ventilation. In 1954, otolaryngologist Beverly Armstrong developed the first modern vinyl ventilation tube, which was inserted through a myringotomy incision to maintain aeration for extended periods, typically around 12 months, addressing the limitations of short-lived incisions alone.^[29] This innovation revived the use of grommets, with subsequent variants like the Shepard grommet (a fluoroplastic tube) and Armstrong grommet (initially vinyl, later silicone or Teflon adaptations) becoming widely adopted for their improved retention and biocompatibility, reducing the need for repeated procedures.^[32] The 1980s brought laser-assisted myringotomy as a precise alternative to traditional incisions, utilizing CO2 lasers to create bloodless, controlled openings in the tympanic membrane. Pioneered by Richard L. Goode in 1982, this technique employed a focused CO2 laser beam delivered via an otoscope, resulting in incisions that typically remain patent for 2-4 weeks without requiring tube insertion, ideal for acute cases of otitis media with effusion.^[33] The method offered enhanced precision and minimal thermal damage to surrounding tissues compared to mechanical blades, though its adoption has been limited by equipment costs and the need for specialized training.^[34] From the 2010s onward, office-based myringotomy procedures under local anesthesia have gained prominence, particularly for adults, allowing for outpatient management without general anesthesia. This shift reflects advancements in minimally invasive tools and topical anesthetics, enabling quick recovery and reduced healthcare costs; by the 2020s, such approaches were routinely performed for chronic Eustachian tube dysfunction and recurrent effusions. A 2025 scoping review underscores the feasibility of broader middle ear surgeries, including myringotomy and tube placement, in office settings under local anesthesia, highlighting high success rates and patient tolerance when combined with sedation.^[35] Post-2020 innovations have further refined myringotomy through endoscopic assistance, biodegradable materials, and adjunctive therapies. Endoscopic techniques enhance visualization of the ear canal and tympanic membrane, improving incision accuracy and tube placement, as demonstrated in studies showing reduced operative times and better outcomes in otitis media with effusion compared to microscopic methods.^[36] Biodegradable tympanostomy tubes, such as those made from silk fibroin or 3D-printed polymers, eliminate the need for surgical removal by naturally degrading over 6-12 months, minimizing secondary interventions and complications like persistent perforations.^[37] Additionally, integration with balloon Eustachian tuboplasty (BET) has emerged as an effective adjunct, where myringotomy or tube insertion accompanies balloon dilation to address underlying tubal dysfunction; a retrospective study post-2020 found improved symptom resolution and ventilation without added risks when combined.^[38]

Clinical Indications

In Children

Myringotomy with tympanostomy tube insertion is most commonly performed in children under 5 years of age, with approximately 8.6% of U.S. children receiving tubes by age 12, peaking in the early years due to the horizontal orientation and shorter length of their Eustachian tubes, which impair drainage and contribute to frequent middle ear infections.^[39]^[40]^[1] Indications in children include persistent bilateral otitis media with effusion (OME) lasting more than 3 months accompanied by documented hearing loss of at least 20 dB, as this can significantly affect auditory input during critical developmental periods.^[41]^[1] For recurrent acute otitis media (AOM), tubes are indicated after at least 3 episodes in 6 months or 4 episodes in 12 months, provided middle ear effusion is present at assessment.^[41]^[42] Children at high risk for chronic or recurrent middle ear disease, such as those with Down syndrome or cleft palate, warrant earlier consideration for myringotomy and tube placement, even with less severe or shorter-duration symptoms, due to their predisposition to persistent effusion and infections.^[43]^[44] The American Academy of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS) clinical practice guideline, originally published in 2013 and updated in 2022, recommends tympanostomy tube insertion after a period of failed observation for qualifying cases of OME or recurrent AOM in children aged 6 months to 12 years.^[45]^[41] Recent studies from 2025 support combining adenoidectomy with tube placement for children aged 3 to 7 years in select cases of chronic OME, showing improved outcomes in effusion resolution and reduced need for antibiotics, particularly when adenoidal hypertrophy contributes to Eustachian tube dysfunction.^[46]^[47] These interventions aim to mitigate potential developmental impacts, including delays in speech acquisition and learning, associated with prolonged hearing loss from OME, though long-term benefits vary by individual risk factors.^[48]^[49] Younger children often experience higher rates of tube extrusion and subsequent reinsertion due to rapid eardrum healing and growth, necessitating closer monitoring.^[50]^[51]

In Adults

Myringotomy in adults is performed less frequently than in children, where procedures are often driven by recurrent acute otitis media or developmental Eustachian tube issues. In adult cases, the intervention is primarily linked to acquired conditions such as occupational or environmental exposures rather than congenital factors.^[20]^[4] Key indications include barotrauma, commonly affecting divers, pilots, or individuals undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy, where pressure imbalances lead to middle ear effusion that impairs equalization.^[52] Eustachian tube dysfunction secondary to allergies, chronic inflammation, or nasopharyngeal tumors also prompts myringotomy to restore ventilation and alleviate symptoms like aural fullness or conductive hearing loss.^[53] Additionally, chronic otitis media with effusion in immunocompromised patients, such as those with HIV or undergoing chemotherapy, may necessitate the procedure for persistent fluid accumulation unresponsive to conservative measures.^[54] Diagnostic thresholds emphasize failure of initial medical management, typically involving a 4- to 12-week trial of intranasal corticosteroids, mucolytics, or autoinflation techniques like the Otovent device to promote Eustachian tube patency.^[55] Unilateral presentations warrant prompt imaging, such as nasopharyngoscopy or CT of the nasopharynx, to exclude underlying pathology like malignancy, given the higher risk in adults compared to bilateral cases.^[20]^[56] As of 2025, there has been a notable increase in office-based myringotomy for refractory adult cases, enabled by topical anesthesia and minimally invasive tools.^[35] Balloon dilation of the Eustachian tube (BDET) has emerged as a precursor intervention for persistent dysfunction, often performed prior to myringotomy to address cartilaginous obstruction and potentially avert repeated incisions.^[57]^[58]

Surgical Procedure

Preparation and Anesthesia

Preoperative assessment for myringotomy begins with a detailed medical history to screen for bleeding disorders, allergies, or other contraindications that could affect the procedure or anesthesia.^[1] This is followed by otoscopy to directly visualize the tympanic membrane for signs of effusion or abnormalities, tympanometry to confirm middle ear fluid via a characteristic type B flat curve, and audiometry to quantify any associated hearing loss, typically in the 20-40 dB range for conductive impairment.^[1] Informed consent is obtained from the patient or guardian, outlining the procedure's benefits, such as relief from recurrent infections or effusion, alongside risks including infection, perforation persistence, or rare vascular injury.^[59] Anesthesia selection depends on patient age, anxiety level, and procedural setting. In children, general anesthesia is the standard approach, delivered via inhalational mask or intravenous induction to ensure immobility and comfort during the brief intervention.^[1] For adults or office-based myringotomy, local anesthesia is commonly used, involving topical application of lidocaine, direct injection into the ear canal, or iontophoresis—a non-invasive method using electrical current to deliver anesthetic ions through the skin.^[1]^[60] Sedation with anxiolytics may supplement local techniques for particularly anxious individuals to minimize discomfort without full general anesthesia.^[61] Myringotomy is usually conducted in an outpatient clinic for adults or an operating room for children under general anesthesia, allowing same-day discharge in most cases.^[1] Patients receiving general anesthesia adhere to fasting protocols, refraining from solid food for at least six to eight hours and clear liquids for two hours preoperatively to reduce aspiration risk.^[3] Prophylactic systemic antibiotics are not routinely administered due to insufficient evidence of benefit in preventing postoperative complications in clean ear surgery.^[62] Additional preparation includes meticulous cleaning of the external ear canal with cerumen loops or forceps to remove debris and optimize visualization of the tympanic membrane.^[1] If clinical suspicion arises for cholesteatoma based on otoscopic findings or history, preoperative imaging such as high-resolution computed tomography (CT) of the temporal bone is recommended to delineate extent and plan safely.^[63]

Technique and Variations

The standard technique for myringotomy entails creating a small radial incision, approximately 2-3 mm in length, in the pars tensa of the tympanic membrane using a myringotomy knife, also known as a cold steel instrument, to penetrate all layers of the eardrum.^[59] Following the incision, middle ear effusion is aspirated via a fine suction device to decompress the space and remove fluid, which may be collected for culture if infection is suspected.^[4] For cases necessitating extended drainage, a tympanostomy tube, such as the Armstrong grommet, is inserted through the incision using alligator forceps to secure both flanges in the membrane.^[59] Several variations exist to adapt the procedure to patient needs or anatomical challenges. Laser-assisted myringotomy employs a CO2 laser to vaporize a precise opening in the tympanic membrane, resulting in a bloodless field and enabling rapid office-based execution without general anesthesia.^[34] Endoscopic guidance, using a rigid Hopkins rod or similar scope, provides enhanced visualization and precision for incision and tube placement, particularly beneficial in narrow external auditory canals.^[36] The procedure can be performed with or without tube insertion, with tubes indicated primarily for chronic otitis media with effusion to sustain middle ear ventilation.^[4] As of 2025, advancements in local anesthesia techniques, including iontophoretic systems like the Tula Iontophoresis System and single-pass inserters like the AventaMed Solo+, have further expanded office-based myringotomy for suitable adult and select pediatric patients, diminishing reliance on operating room settings.^[35]^[60]^[64] Tympanostomy tubes differ in design, duration, and composition to suit clinical scenarios. Short-term tubes, often grommet-shaped and constructed from silicone or fluoroplastic, typically remain in place for 6-12 months before spontaneous extrusion.^[6] Long-term options, such as T-tubes made of similar materials, offer prolonged patency exceeding 12 months for recurrent or persistent cases.^[6] During insertion, tubes are positioned in the anterior-inferior quadrant of the pars tensa to prevent interference with ossicular structures.^[59] The entire procedure usually requires 5-15 minutes per ear under microscopic or endoscopic visualization.^[65]

Postoperative Management

Immediate Care

Following myringotomy, patients are typically monitored in a recovery room for 1 to 2 hours if general anesthesia was used, with healthcare providers assessing vital signs, level of alertness, and any immediate signs of complications such as bleeding or respiratory issues.^[40] Most patients, particularly children, are discharged the same day once they are stable, able to tolerate fluids, and show no excessive drowsiness or nausea.^[40] Pain is usually mild and short-lived, managed with acetaminophen or ibuprofen; aspirin should be avoided due to the risk of bleeding.^[3]^[66] Ear care in the immediate postoperative period focuses on keeping the ear dry to promote healing of the incision. For the first 24 to 48 hours, water should be prevented from entering the ear canal during bathing or showering, using a cotton ball coated with petroleum jelly or a waterproof earplug.^[3] If otorrhea (ear drainage) occurs, which may include clear, bloody, or yellow fluid, it should be gently cleaned with prescribed antibiotic ear drops rather than cotton swabs to avoid trauma.^[66] According to the American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS) guidelines, routine water precautions such as earplugs are not necessary for children with tympanostomy tubes beyond the initial healing phase, though individualized advice may apply based on tube type and surgeon preference.^[42] Activity restrictions are advised to minimize pressure changes and support recovery. Patients should avoid forceful nose blowing, swimming, or air travel for at least one week to prevent barotrauma or infection risk, and sleeping with the head elevated can help reduce swelling.^[3] Parents or caregivers are educated on monitoring for early complications, including fever above 101°F (38.3°C), increased pain, persistent discharge, dizziness, or hearing changes, and instructed to contact their provider promptly if these occur.^[66]^[40]

Long-term Follow-up

Following myringotomy with tympanostomy tube placement, patients typically undergo an initial follow-up visit 1 to 3 months postoperatively to assess healing, tube patency, and hearing status via otoscopy and audiometry.^[67] Subsequent appointments occur every 6 months until tube extrusion, with otoscopy used to evaluate tube position, function, and any middle ear effusion.^[68] This schedule helps monitor for persistent issues while minimizing unnecessary visits, as tubes generally remain in place for 6 to 18 months before natural extrusion.^[1] Tube maintenance involves prompt treatment of otorrhea with topical antibiotic drops to prevent infection and ensure ventilation.^[69] Routine water protection measures, such as earplugs during swimming or bathing, are not encouraged, though individualized advice may be provided based on patient-specific factors.^[42] If a tube persists beyond 2 years or causes complications like persistent perforation, surgical removal under local or general anesthesia may be necessary.^[1] Ongoing monitoring includes periodic audiograms to confirm hearing improvement and detect any residual loss, particularly in children with pre-existing deficits.^[70] If speech or language delays persist despite resolved effusion, referrals to speech therapy are advised to support developmental progress.^[71] For cases with recurrent otitis media with effusion after tube extrusion, adenoidectomy may be considered as an adjunctive procedure to address underlying adenoidal hypertrophy.^[46] As of 2025, telehealth has emerged as a viable option for routine follow-up checks, enabling remote otoscopy and audiometry assessments that yield outcomes comparable to in-person visits in terms of patient satisfaction and efficacy.^[72]

Potential Complications

Short-term Risks

Intraoperative risks during myringotomy are generally low but can include bleeding, which occurs in less than 1% of procedures and is typically minor.^[3] Extension of the tympanic membrane perforation beyond the planned incision site may happen if the incision is not precisely controlled, though this is uncommon with standard techniques.^[73] Damage to the ossicular chain, such as disruption during tube insertion, represents another rare intraoperative concern, particularly if the procedure involves placement in the posterosuperior quadrant of the tympanic membrane.^[74] In the early postoperative period, typically within the first few weeks, patients may experience otorrhea in approximately 5% to 10% of cases following tympanostomy tube placement, often due to bacterial contamination from middle ear effusion.^[75] Pain and tinnitus are also reported shortly after surgery, with discomfort arising from residual inflammation or pressure changes and ringing sensations linked to eardrum manipulation.^[76] Infection, such as otitis externa, can develop as a secondary complication from otorrhea or improper ear canal hygiene, affecting a small subset of patients.^[77] Anesthesia-related short-term risks include nausea and vomiting in children undergoing general anesthesia, occurring in up to 20-30% of pediatric cases due to the effects of anesthetic agents.^[40] Allergic reactions to postoperative topical antibiotic drops, such as contact dermatitis or more severe hypersensitivity, are possible, particularly with neomycin-containing preparations, though incidence remains low at under 5%.^[78] Tube blockage affects 5-10% of inserted tympanostomy tubes in the immediate postoperative phase, often from debris, effusion, or otorrhea, with a mean incidence of about 6.9% across studies.^[79] Recent 2025 studies on office-based myringotomy under local anesthesia indicate lower immediate risks compared to operating room procedures under general anesthesia, primarily by avoiding anesthesia-related complications.^[35] Certain procedural variations, such as tube design or incision location, may slightly elevate these short-term risks if not optimized.^[73]

Long-term Complications

One of the primary long-term complications associated with myringotomy and tympanostomy tube insertion is persistent tympanic membrane perforation following tube extrusion, occurring in approximately 2-5% of cases with short-term tubes.^[80] This risk increases significantly with long-term tubes, reaching up to 16.6%, and is influenced by factors such as tube duration, multiple insertions, and underlying otorrhea.^[80] Granulation tissue formation around the tube site represents another tube-related issue, with an incidence of about 5%, potentially leading to chronic inflammation if not resolved.^[80] Cholesteatoma, a rare but serious sequela involving abnormal skin growth in the middle ear, develops in roughly 0.7-1% of cases, with a heightened relative risk (2.6 times) for long-term tube use.^[80]^[81] Structural changes to the tympanic membrane, such as tympanosclerosis—characterized by white, calcified plaques—occur in 17-32% of treated ears and result from healing responses to surgical trauma or infection.^[82]^[80] While cosmetically noticeable, tympanosclerosis typically has minimal impact on hearing, as it rarely causes significant conductive loss.^[83] Recurrent middle ear effusion after tube extrusion affects 20-30% of patients, often linked to persistent eustachian tube dysfunction, with lower recurrence rates observed in cases of longer tube retention (e.g., 9-18% for tubes lasting over 6 months).^[84] Severe long-term complications are uncommon but include sensorineural hearing loss in less than 1% of cases, with postoperative incidence approaching 0% in large cohorts, though preexisting deficits may persist in about 1.3%.^[85] Facial nerve injury is exceedingly rare (<0.1%), primarily reported in revision surgeries due to anatomical distortion from prior interventions.^[86] Risks escalate in revision cases, where multiple tube placements correlate with higher rates of perforation and cholesteatoma.^[87] A 2025 population-based study found overall complication rates following tympanostomy tube insertion to be lower than previously reported, except for cholesteatoma (incidence 0.8% in children aged 0-7 years and 2.2% in those aged 7-18 years).^[81] Recent advancements as of 2025 indicate that biodegradable tympanostomy tubes, such as those made from polylactic acid, may reduce long-term perforation risk by eliminating the need for manual removal and minimizing foreign body reactions.^[88] Additionally, balloon dilation of the eustachian tube (BDET) as an adjunct to myringotomy has shown promise in lowering recurrence rates of otitis media with effusion, with combined procedures yielding significant symptom improvement and reduced effusion persistence compared to tube insertion alone, as demonstrated in a 2020 clinical trial.^[89]

Efficacy and Evidence

Short-term Outcomes

Myringotomy effectively achieves fluid drainage from the middle ear, providing near-immediate relief from pressure and associated symptoms in nearly all cases. The procedure allows for rapid evacuation of effusion, with success rates approaching 100% for initial drainage during surgery. Hearing improvement typically occurs within days to weeks post-procedure, with average gains of 9 to 24 dB reported in pediatric patients at 1 to 3 months, depending on whether tubes are inserted.^[3]^[90]^[91] In children with recurrent acute otitis media (AOM), myringotomy combined with tympanostomy tube insertion leads to a reduction in subsequent AOM episodes during the first 6 months compared to no intervention or myringotomy alone, with earlier studies reporting decreases of approximately 50% or more and 1 to 2.5 fewer episodes per child. However, a 2021 randomized controlled trial found no significant difference in episode rates compared to medical management (1.48 vs. 1.56 episodes per child-year over 2 years).^[41]^[92]^[93] Studies indicate that tubes enhance ventilation, contributing to this early protective effect against reinfection. Pediatric patients often experience a quick return to normal activities following myringotomy, with minimal downtime and resolution of otitis media with effusion (OME) symptoms within days. A 2025 randomized controlled trial demonstrates that myringotomy with tubes yields superior OME resolution at 1 month compared to incision alone, with hearing improvement rates of 81.8% versus 42.4% and average gains of 23.8 dB. This approach is particularly beneficial for young children, promoting faster symptom alleviation and school performance.^[91] In adults undergoing myringotomy for barotrauma, the procedure provides rapid pressure equalization, often yielding immediate symptom relief such as reduced pain and restored auditory function. Fluid drainage and pressure normalization occur swiftly during the procedure, allowing patients to resume activities shortly thereafter with high success in alleviating acute Eustachian tube dysfunction.^[94]^[95]

Long-term Benefits and Limitations

Myringotomy with tympanostomy tube insertion provides sustained benefits in reducing recurrent otitis media with effusion (OME) in children, with clearance rates of 60-80% at 12 months post-procedure compared to watchful waiting.^[96] The AAP 2017 meta-analysis indicates no additional hearing benefit from tubes compared to watchful waiting at 12 to 24 months. However, the procedure does not prevent long-term speech delays, as meta-analyses show no significant differences in language development outcomes between early tube insertion and delayed intervention at ages 3 years or older.^[71] Despite these advantages, myringotomy addresses symptoms rather than curing underlying Eustachian tube dysfunction, leading to OME recurrence in 20-40% of cases after tube extrusion.^[84] In bilateral OME, meta-analyses indicate no measurable impact on overall language acquisition or cognitive development beyond short-term hearing improvements.^[90] Cochrane reviews up to 2023 support ventilation tubes for persistent OME in children aged 6 months to 12 years, showing reduced effusion persistence at 6 months (risk ratio 0.30, 95% CI 0.14-0.65; low certainty) compared to no treatment, though evidence quality is low to moderate due to heterogeneity, and effects are smaller and non-significant at 12 months.^[97] For adults with chronic Eustachian tube dysfunction, alternatives like balloon dilation of the Eustachian tube (BDET) offer comparable or better outcomes, with 70% patency and symptom relief maintained at 2 years follow-up.^[98] Cost-effectiveness analyses favor myringotomy with tubes in high-risk children with severe or recurrent OME, where incremental costs of approximately $334 per child yield reduced effusion duration by 4.5 months compared to watchful waiting.^[99] In contrast, watchful waiting remains preferable for mild cases, as tubes provide no additional quality-adjusted life-days and increase overall expenses without long-term developmental gains.^[100]

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Oct 11, 2022 · Myringotomy, also known as a tympanostomy, is a surgical procedure to remove the fluid in the middle ear and re-establish equal air pressure on ...
[8]
Ear Tubes (Tympanostomy): Definition & Procedure - Cleveland Clinic
Myringotomy involves making an incision (cut) in your eardrum to drain excess fluid from your middle ear. Sometimes, myringotomy is performed as a standalone ...Missing: simple | Show results with:simple
[9]
Myringotomy with Tubes - Fairbanks ENT
Each year, more than half a million ear tube surgeries are performed on children, making it the most common childhood surgery performed with anesthesia. The ...Who Needs Ear Tubes And Why? · What Happens During Surgery? · What Happens After Surgery?Missing: pediatrics statistics
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MYRINGOTOMY Definition & Meaning | Merriam-Webster Medical
The meaning of MYRINGOTOMY is incision of the tympanic membrane —called also tympanotomy.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[11]
Otitis Media With Effusion Workup - Medscape Reference
Jul 31, 2024 · Tympanocentesis and Myringotomy. Tympanocentesis involves the aspiration of effusion from the middle ear. This procedure can be performed as ...
[12]
The History of Myringotomy and Grommets - Sage Journals
Mar 19, 2020 · The first recorded myringotomy was in 1649. Astley Cooper presented 2 papers to the Royal Society in 1801, based on his observations that myringotomy could ...
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The external ear is the visible part of the hearing apparatus. It is comprised of the auricle (pinna) and external auditory canal.Introduction · Structure and Function · Embryology · Nerves
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Middle ear anatomy involves intricate relationships between the 3 ossicles and nearby nerves, blood vessels, and muscles.Missing: tube | Show results with:tube
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Anatomy, Head and Neck, Ear Eustachian Tube - StatPearls - NCBI
Blood is supplied to the Eustachian tube by several arteries ... Sensory innervation to the Eustachian tube, middle ear, and the trigeminal nerve governs pharynx.
[17]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Ear Tympanic Membrane - NCBI - NIH
May 8, 2023 · Myringotomy. Sometimes (e.g., recurrent otitis media infections), an incision in the tympanic membrane needs to be made, usually to allow ...
[18]
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Inflammation resulting in the inability of the Eustachian tube to open results in the failure of gas equilibrium between the middle ear and nasopharynx, leading ...Function · Mechanism · Related Testing · Pathophysiology
[20]
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It is a spectrum of diseases that includes acute otitis media (AOM), chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM), and otitis media with effusion (OME). Acute ...Missing: underlying | Show results with:underlying
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Chronic suppurative otitis media can result from acute otitis media, eustachian tube obstruction, mechanical trauma, thermal or chemical burns, blast injuries, ...
[24]
Otitis Media with Effusion (OME) | Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
An immature eustachian tube, which is common in young children; An inflammation of the adenoids ; Having a cold; Spending time in a daycare setting ; Hearing ...
[25]
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[26]
Analysis of factors that influence the occurrence of otitis media with ...
High adenoid grade, ETS exposure, and comorbid AR were risk factors for OME in pediatric patients with AH, but breastfeeding was a protective factor. The final ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
Clinical Practice Guideline: Otitis Media with Effusion (Update)
Feb 1, 2016 · The average hearing loss associated with OME in children is 28-dB HL ... An average hearing level between 0 and 20 dB is normal (green) ...
[28]
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Swollen eustachian tubes can become blocked, causing fluids to build up in the middle ear. This fluid can become infected and cause the symptoms of an ear ...Missing: contributing | Show results with:contributing
[29]
The story of progress of otology - Lippincott
The term otology is derived from the Greek word "Óus." Descriptions of the ear are available in the prehistoric age, before 4000 BC.[2] Ebers Papyrus, one of ...
[30]
A brief history of otorhinolaryngolgy: otology, laryngology and ...
The oldest reference in laryngology is a drawing found in medical tombs in the planes of Saqqara, Egypt, from approximately 3,600 years B.C. The image seems to ...
[31]
History of myringotomy and grommets - PubMed
The first recorded myringotomy was in 1649. Astley Cooper presented two papers to the Royal Society in 1801, based on his observation that myringotomy could ...
[32]
The tympanostomy tube: An ingenious invention of the mid 19th ...
The aim of this report is to clarify the historical record concerning the introduction of tympanostomy tubes through study original 19th century sources.
[33]
A brief history of otorhinolaryngolgy: otology, laryngology and ...
In 1869, Hinton broadened Politzer's studies on the myringotomy to treat secretory otitis media and, between 1873 and 1885, Hermann Schwartze from Halle ...
[34]
(PDF) History of myringotomy and grommets - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · The first reported tympanotomy was performed in 1649 by French anatomist Jean Riolan. The most feared complication was the rapid healing of the ...
[35]
CO2 laser myringotomy - PubMed
CO2 laser myringotomy. Laryngoscope. 1982 Apr;92(4):420-3. doi: 10.1288/00005537-198204000-00012. Author. R L Goode. PMID: 7200178; DOI: 10.1288/00005537 ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[36]
Laser Myringotomy in Different Age Groups - JAMA Network
LASER MYRINGOTOMY (LM) in human ears was first introduced by Goode1 in 1979, who used focused and defocused carbon dioxide laser beams. The pioneers of this ...
[37]
Office-Based Middle Ear Surgery Under Local Anesthesia
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[38]
Endoscopic Treatment of Otitis Media with Effusion - PMC - NIH
Jan 11, 2022 · Myringotomy with grommet insertion is presently the standard of care for patients with middle ear effusion. This common surgical procedure is ...
[39]
Silk Protein Bioresorbable, Drug-Eluting Ear Tubes: Proof of Concept
To address this need, we use silk fibroin protein to generate degradable and drug-eluting ear tubes. Silk fibroin possesses biocompatibility, tunable ...Missing: biodegradable | Show results with:biodegradable
[40]
Balloon Eustachian Tuboplasty Combined or Not with Myringotomy ...
Oct 25, 2023 · Balloon Eustachian tuboplasty (BET) is an emerging technique for dilating the Eustachian tube and treating ETD. Whether adding myringotomy improves BET ...
[41]
Epidemiology of Pediatric Tympanostomy Tube Placement in the ...
Among 73.1 million children, 6.26 million (8.6%) had TTP. The incidence of FEI was 3.49 million (4.8%). Males (9.6%) were more likely than females (7.5%) to ...
[42]
Clinical Practice Guideline: Tympanostomy Tubes in Children
Jul 1, 2013 · Clinicians should offer bilateral tympanostomy tube insertion to children with bilateral OME for 3 months or longer (chronic OME) AND documented ...
[43]
Clinical Practice Guideline: Tympanostomy Tubes in Children
This guideline is intended for any clinician involved in managing children, aged 6 months to 12 years, with tympanostomy tubes or children being considered for ...Missing: reaffirmed 2023
[44]
Executive Summary - Tympanostomy Tubes in Children With Otitis ...
Certain children, including those with Down syndrome and cleft palate, have a very high risk for middle ear disease. ... and children with risk factors, such as ...
[45]
AAO-HNSF Clinical Practice Guideline: Tympanostomy Tubes in ...
Jul 1, 2013 · Tympanostomy tubes may be offered to children who are at-risk ... Down syndrome, craniofacial disorders, cleft palate, and/or developmental delay.
[46]
Clinical Practice Guideline: Tympanostomy Tubes in Children ...
This guideline update provides evidence-based recommendations for patient selection and surgical indications for managing tympanostomy tubes in children.Missing: reaffirmed 2023
[47]
The Efficacy of Adenoidectomy on Otitis Media with Effusion ...
Oct 19, 2025 · According to our study, adenoidectomy with myringotomy is effective in the treatment of OME not only in children older than 4 years, but also in ...
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Tympanostomy Tube Insertion With and Without Adenoidectomy
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The extrusion time of the VT had a tendency to be longer for the younger patients (age, <7 yr old; mean extrusion time, 263 days) than that for the older ...
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Factors Related to Ventilation Tube Extrusion Time in Children and ...
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Myringotomy and Tympanostomy Tube - Medical Clinical ... - Aetna
Tympanostomy tube insertion is considered not medically necessary for children with recurrent acute otitis media (AOM) who do not have middle ear effusion in ...Scope Of Policy · Background · Endoscopic Balloon Dilation...
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CG-SURG-46 Myringotomy and Tympanostomy Tube Insertion
This document addresses myringotomy and tympanostomy tube insertion, which are procedures used to decompress and ventilate the middle ear when fluid builds ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
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Myringotomy for acute postviral otitis media with effusion
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Otitis Media With Effusion Differential Diagnoses
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[59]
The emergence of in-office ventilation tubes for the treatment of otitis ...
Jan 7, 2025 · Myringotomy has long been performed safely on adults in the clinic setting, but there are additional challenges when working with paediatric ...
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Balloon Dilation of the Eustachian Tube for Adults With Chronic ...
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Jul 27, 2025 · Balloon dilation of the Eustachian tube (BDET) is a minimally invasive treatment with variable outcomes. This review evaluates the safety and ...3. Results · 3.3. Risk-Of-Bias Assessment · 3.4. 3. The Etdq-7 Results...
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Myringotomy and Tubes (Tympanostomy Tubes)
May 8, 2017 · Preoperative Preparation. Consent should cover the potential complications. A dehiscent high-riding jugular bulb or aberrant carotid artery ...
[63]
Observer and Patient-Reported Outcomes for Ear Tube ... - FDA
Jun 21, 2021 · The Tula System is used to deliver a tympanostomy tube under local anesthesia induced using the Tula Iontophoresis System and TYMBION, a ...Missing: preparation | Show results with:preparation
[64]
How do You Select an Anesthesia Method Prior to Tympanostomy ...
The use of general (face-mask inhalation and intravenous) anesthesia has been the method of choice for tympanostomy tube insertion in children.Missing: preparation | Show results with:preparation
[65]
Cholesteatoma Workup: Approach Considerations, Audiometry ...
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[66]
Myringotomy for ear tubes - WikiAnesthesia
Mar 27, 2024 · Procedure variants ; Unique considerations, Can be performed without IV access ; Position, Supine ; Surgical time, 5-10 minutes ; EBL, Minimal.
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In-office myringotomy and tympanostomy tube insertion
Myringotomy is a procedure in which an incision is made through all 3 layers of the tympanic membrane (TM), providing equalization of pressure and path of ...Missing: Charles | Show results with:Charles
[68]
Instructions After Your Myringotomy With Tube Placement
Apr 18, 2023 · You may have some discomfort in your affected ear for 1 to 2 days after your procedure. · It may take a few days for your hearing to get better.
[69]
Caring for Your Child After Myringotomy and Tube Placement
Your child will need a hearing test and ENT a follow-up visit 1-3 months after surgery at the Pediatric ENT Clinic. Then, your child will see ENT every 6 months ...
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[PDF] CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES
CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES. PATIENT INFORMATION. EAR TUBES - A CAREGIVER'S GUIDE ... Clinical Practice Guideline: Tympanostomy Tubes in Children (Update).
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Perioperative and postoperative management of tympanostomy tube ...
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Clinical Indicators: Myringotomy and Tympanostomy Tubes
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[73]
Follow-up audiometry after bilateral myringotomy and tympanostomy ...
We recommend testing no fewer than 6 weeks after tympanostomy tube insertion. Earlier audiometry underestimates the degree of hearing improvement.
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Developmental Outcomes after Early or Delayed Insertion of ...
Aug 11, 2005 · At six years of age, 85 percent of children in the early-treatment group and 41 percent in the delayed-treatment group had received tympanostomy ...
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Biocompatibility of “On-Command” Dissolvable Tympanostomy Tube ...
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Myringotomy - Indications and Complications
Residual tympanic membrane perforation (a hole that doesn't close after the tube falls out) is the most significant risk, especially with long-term T-tubes. ——— ...Missing: extension | Show results with:extension
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A Case-Control Study of Titanium and Fluoroplastic Ventilation Tubes
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Complications of Tympanostomy Tubes Inserted for Facilitation of ...
Early postoperative otorrhea develops in approximately 5% to 10% of patients.Several authors have noted an increased incidence when active infection is present ...
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Myringotomy: How long til the ear feels normal? - Mayo Clinic Connect
Sep 20, 2022 · Hi!! New to the group and wondering if anyone has had this procedure (no tube) I had it done 5 days ago and my ear feels more blocked / and ...
[81]
Etiology, Diagnosis, Complications, and Management of Acute Otitis ...
Aug 15, 2022 · One of the most important complications associated with tympanostomy tube insertion is otorrhea, which involves discharges and effusions of the ...Missing: early tinnitus
[82]
Ototoxicity of Topical Antibiotic Ear Drops in Chronic Suppurative ...
Dec 21, 2022 · When using topical antibiotics or their excipients, the outer ear's skin may get irritated chemically or allergically, causing local discomfort, ...
[83]
Risk Factors Associated With Postoperative Tympanostomy Tube ...
Postoperative blockage of TTs has been estimated to affect a mean of 6.9% of ears (range, 0%-37.3%). Once the TT is blocked, patients may reaccumulate middle ...
[84]
Meta-analysis of tympanostomy tube sequelae - PubMed
Meta-analysis showed that long-term tubes increased the relative risk of perforation by 3.5 (95% CI, 1.5 to 7.1) and cholesteatoma by 2.6 (95% CI, 1.5 to 4.4).Missing: complications myringotomy
[85]
Contemporary Tympanostomy Tube Complications in Children
Aug 1, 2025 · Post-TTI complication rates are lower in the post-intervention era, except for cholesteatoma. This current quantitative appreciation of TTI ...
[86]
Otological Findings Ten Years after Myringotomy with ... - NIH
Abstract. Introduction: To study the long-term complications of tympanostomy tube insertion in young children 10 years after surgery.<|control11|><|separator|>
[87]
Hearing Loss Due to Myringotomy and Tube Placement and the ...
All patients resolved their conductive hearing loss after myringotomy and tube placement. There was a 1.3% incidence of preexisting sensorineural hearing loss.
[88]
Otitis media with effusion: recurrence after tympanostomy tube ...
OME recurrence rate after tube extrusion was 20.7% in the study. The longer the tympanostomy tube retention time was the lower was the recurrence rate of OME.
[89]
Hearing loss due to myringotomy and tube placement and the role of ...
The incidence of sensorineural or conductive hearing loss after myringotomy and tube placement is negligible and the use of preoperative audiometric evaluation ...
[90]
Factors affecting persistent tympanic membrane perforation after ...
Conclusion: Overall, we found an 87% perforation closure rate after surgical removal of the TT and PPM. Persistent perforations occurred significantly more ...Missing: extension | Show results with:extension
[91]
Factors related to persisting perforations after ventilation tube insertion
Risk factors for persistent TM perforation include the surgical removal of tubes, otorrhea, long-term tube placement, multiple sets of tubes, and prolonged ...
[92]
Myringotomy and tube insertion combined with balloon eustachian ...
Jan 30, 2020 · Objective: This study aimed to clarify the role and safety of balloon eustachian tuboplasty (BET) in the treatment of otitis media with effusion ...
[93]
Effectiveness of Tympanostomy Tubes for Otitis Media: A Meta ...
Jun 1, 2017 · There is particular need for randomized studies evaluating tympanostomy tubes in higher risk groups, such as patients with cleft palate, Down ...
[94]
Otitis media with effusion and hearing outcomes - Myringotomy vs ...
Jul 2, 2025 · Our study concluded that myringotomy with tympanostomy tube seems to have better hearing results than myringotomy alone in treatment of OME. Key ...
[95]
A systematic review of the effect of tympanostomy tubes in children ...
Tube treatment could reduce AOM with about one attack in six months after operation. Six months treatment with antibiotics was not different from treatment with ...
[96]
Myringotomy - Ear, Nose & Throat of New Jersey
A myringotomy is nearly always successful and provides immediate relief from symptoms. Most children on whom this procedure is performed do not suffer any ...Missing: equalization | Show results with:equalization
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Adult Ear Tubes In-Office: Rapid Relief for Fluid & Infections
Rapid relief: Many patients may notice quick or early improvement as trapped fluid drains and pressure begins to equalize.
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Ear Tubes for Adults: Preparation, Procedure, Recovery
Sep 8, 2025 · Recovery time for ear tube placement in adults is similar to that for children. While you will likely feel fine within a day or two of your ...Missing: outpatient | Show results with:outpatient
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Results - Tympanostomy Tubes in Children With Otitis Media - NCBI
As illustrated in Figure 7, when compared with watchful waiting at 1 to 3 months followup, mean hearing thresholds improved (decreased) by average of 9.1 dB ...Missing: normalization | Show results with:normalization
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None
Nothing is retrieved...<|separator|>
[101]
Long-term Outcomes of Balloon Dilation for Persistent Eustachian ...
Balloon dilation results in durable improvements in symptoms and middle ear assessments for patients with persistent Eustachian tube dysfunction at mean follow ...Missing: myringotomy patency
[102]
Economic Evaluation of Ventilation Tubes in Otitis Media With Effusion
The mean costs per child during 1 year of follow-up were US $454 in the ventilation tube group and US $120 in the watchful waiting group. On average, an ...Missing: myringotomy | Show results with:myringotomy
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[PDF] Tympanostomy Tubes in Children
Oct 16, 2015 · Devices@FDA: Ventilation Tube Teflon Shepard Tube. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2015. (Accessed 06-30-2015, 2015, at http://www ...<|control11|><|separator|>