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Nasalization

Nasalization is a phonetic and phonological process whereby a speech sound is articulated with airflow passing through both the oral and nasal cavities, achieved by lowering the velum (soft palate) while maintaining an open or partially open oral tract. This results in nasal consonants, such as , , and [ŋ], where complete oral closure directs air exclusively through the nose, or in nasalized vowels and other segments, where simultaneous oral and nasal airflow imparts a nasal quality to the sound.^[1] The process is universal across human languages, though its realization varies, and it plays a key role in sound production, often arising through assimilation when nasal sounds influence adjacent vowels or consonants. In phonetics, nasalization involves precise articulatory mechanisms: the velum is lowered to couple the nasal cavity to the vocal tract, allowing nasal resonance while vocal folds vibrate for voiced sounds. Acoustically, it lowers the first formant frequency and introduces additional nasal formants, distinguishing nasalized sounds from their oral counterparts.^[1] Phonologically, nasalization can be contrastive, as in French where nasal vowels like [ɛ̃] in pain ("bread") contrast with oral [ɛ] in peine ("sorrow"), or allophonic, as in English where vowels before nasals, such as the [æ] in man, become nasalized without changing meaning. This distinction highlights the interface between phonetic implementation and phonological patterning, with nasalization frequently spreading regressively from a following nasal consonant in processes like vowel nasalization in English or regressive nasal harmony in languages like Guaraní.^[1]^[2] Nasalization has been studied extensively since ancient descriptions in the 5th century BCE, with modern research employing techniques like aerodynamics, fiberoscopy, and spectrography to analyze its production and perception.^[1] It is among the earliest sounds acquired by infants, reflecting its perceptual salience.^[3] Typologically, nearly all languages feature nasal consonants, but contrastive nasal vowels occur in approximately 25% of languages, often evolving diachronically from oral vowels through nasal assimilation and loss of the conditioning nasal consonant.^[1]^[4] Key areas of ongoing research include the physiological basis of nasal harmony, opacity effects in spreading, and cross-linguistic variation in neutral segments that block nasalization. In phonological theories, nasality is represented as a manner feature in feature geometry models.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition and Overview

Nasalization is a phonetic process in which the production of a speech sound involves lowering the velum (soft palate), allowing airflow through the nasal cavity alongside the oral cavity, thereby modifying the sound's acoustic quality. This modification can affect vowels, resulting in nasal vowels, or consonants, producing nasal consonants, and contrasts with purely oral sounds where the velum remains raised to direct all airflow orally. In phonetics and phonology, nasalization plays a key role in sound systems, influencing articulation, perception, and linguistic contrasts across diverse languages.^[5] The study of nasalization emerged within 19th-century phonetic research, building on earlier observations of nasal sounds dating back to ancient descriptions, but gaining systematic analysis through experimental and descriptive linguistics in Europe.^[1] Key developments included contributions from linguists examining sound alternations in Slavic and other languages, such as Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's work in the 1870s on phonetic and phonemic distinctions. Globally, nasalization is widespread, with nasal consonants present in the vast majority of languages and phonemic nasal vowels occurring in about 25% of documented languages, as seen in Indo-European languages like French and Polish, and in other families including some Austronesian and Bantu languages.^[6]^[4] A fundamental distinction exists between phonetic nasalization, which is gradient and often coarticulatory—arising from contextual influences like adjacent nasal consonants—and phonemic nasalization, where nasal quality serves as a contrastive feature distinguishing meaning, such as the opposition between [ɛ̃] and [ɛ] in French words like pain [pɛ̃] "bread" and peine [pɛn] "penalty".^[5]^[7] Typologically, nasalization contrasts oral sounds (velum raised) with nasal ones (velum lowered), and can be obligatory—required by phonological rules in certain contexts—or optional, varying by speaker or dialect, as in regressive nasal spreading before nasal consonants.^[8]^[9]

Articulatory and Acoustic Mechanisms

Nasalization is produced articulatorily by lowering the soft palate, or velum, which opens the velopharyngeal port and allows airflow to pass through both the oral and nasal cavities simultaneously. This process involves coordinated action of several muscles, primarily the levator veli palatini, which elevates the velum for oral sounds but relaxes to permit lowering during nasalization, and the tensor veli palatini, which tenses the velum to facilitate its movement.^[10] The palatopharyngeus and muscularis uvulae also contribute to fine-tuning the port's closure and opening, ensuring precise control over the division of airflow between the nasal and oral tracts.^[10] As a result, a portion of the airstream is shunted into the nasal cavity, creating a coupled resonance system that characterizes nasal sounds. Biomechanical factors significantly influence the execution of nasalization, including the timing and extent of velum lowering, which typically occurs over durations of 100-200 ms for the velum plateau in various syllable positions.^[11] Velum lowering often precedes or synchronizes with other articulatory gestures, such as tongue movements, depending on syllable structure; for instance, anticipatory lowering in codas exhibits a lag of approximately 60-90 ms relative to consonant articulation.^[11] Tongue position and oral cavity shape further modulate the process by altering the impedance and resonance properties of the coupled tracts, with higher tongue positions potentially constraining velum excursion due to biomechanical linkages via the palatoglossus muscle.^[10] Acoustically, nasalization introduces additional spectral components due to the nasal cavity's resonance, including nasal formants (poles) such as P0 around 250-450 Hz and P1 at 790-1100 Hz, alongside nasal zeros (anti-formants) that create destructive interference and dampen oral formants, particularly F1.^[12] These zeros, often located between 200-500 Hz for low vowels, reduce the amplitude of the first oral formant by 4-6 dB or more, while increasing low-frequency energy and widening formant bandwidths, such as F1 bandwidth by up to 150 Hz.^[12] Overall, the spectrum exhibits enhanced damping of higher oral formants and a steeper spectral tilt, contributing to the muffled quality of nasalized sounds.^[12] Measurement techniques for quantifying nasalization include nasometry, which uses a Nasometer to compute nasalance as the percentage ratio of nasal to total (nasal plus oral) acoustic energy, typically ranging from 10-50% in nasalized vowels and higher in full nasal consonants.^[13] Aerodynamic instruments like the Aerophone II measure nasal airflow and intraoral pressure to assess velopharyngeal opening size and airflow partitioning, often revealing nasal airflow contributions of 20-40% during nasalized segments. Spectrographic analysis further visualizes these effects by identifying formant damping, anti-formant notches, and increased low-frequency amplitude in wideband spectra.^[12] Perceptually, listeners detect nasality primarily through shifts in formant structure, such as the lowering of F1 amplitude and the introduction of anti-resonances that disrupt oral vowel resonances, with changes as small as 6 dB in F1 sufficient to cue nasality in synthetic stimuli. These cues are robust across languages, though sensitivity varies with spectral tilt and bandwidth widening, enabling differentiation from oral sounds even at moderate nasal airflow levels.^[12]

Nasal Vowels

Characteristics and Formation

Nasal vowels form through the lowering of the velum during vowel articulation, allowing airflow through both the oral and nasal cavities, which modifies the oral resonance and distinguishes them from oral vowels. This process often arises from coarticulation with adjacent nasal consonants, where anticipatory velum lowering begins during the vowel production in preparation for the consonant, or from phonemic specification in languages where nasal vowels are contrastive units. In sequences of vowel plus nasal consonant, nasalization can spread regressively, leading to the emergence of distinct nasal vowels over time through phonological derivation.^[14]^[15]^[16] Phonetically, nasal vowels exhibit acoustic traits such as altered formant frequencies compared to their oral counterparts, often with a lowered first formant (F1) in many languages due to the coupling of oral and nasal resonators that introduces anti-formants and nasal formants, damping higher frequencies; however, in French, nasal vowels show raised F1 due to greater vowel opening and centralization. For instance, in French, the oral mid-front vowel /ɛ/ typically has an F1 around 600 Hz, while its nasal counterpart /ɛ̃/ shows a raised F1 near 670 Hz (female speakers), with F2 often lowered due to centralization. Additionally, nasal vowels often display increased duration; in Brazilian Portuguese, they are approximately 15% longer than oral vowels in nasal contexts, enhancing perceptual distinctiveness.^[17]^[18]^[19] In their phonemic role, nasal vowels serve as contrastive elements in several languages, creating minimal pairs that differentiate meaning. French exemplifies this with bon /bɔ̃/ "good" contrasting beau /bo/ "beautiful," where nasality on the vowel is phonemic. Similarly, Portuguese maintains phonemic nasal vowels, such as the five monophthongs in European Portuguese (/ɛ̃/, /ɐ̃/, /ɔ̃/, /ĩ/, /ũ/), and Polish features two nasal vowels (/ɛ̃/ as ę and /ɔ̃/ as ą) that contrast with orals in stressed syllables. Conversely, in English, nasalization is allophonic, occurring predictably before nasal consonants, as in hand pronounced [hæ̃nd], where the vowel /æ/ nasalizes without altering word meaning.^[20]^[21] Language-specific patterns highlight obligatory nasal harmony in Guaraní, where nasality spreads bidirectionally from a stressed nasal trigger (vowel or consonant), nasalizing all vowels, including those before nasal consonants, and creating a system of six nasal vowels mirroring the oral set. Historically, nasal vowels in French developed from mergers of oral vowels followed by nasal consonants during the Old French period (ca. 900–1300), where nasalization progressively distinguished them before the loss of final nasals. Cross-linguistically, nasal vowels vary by height and position, with front nasals like /ɛ̃/ and back nasals like /ɔ̃/ common; in tone languages such as Vietnamese, allophonic nasalization of vowels before nasal finals interacts with tones, with nasal airflow varying by tone type without disrupting tonal contrasts. Contrastive nasal vowels occur in about 20% of the world's languages.^[22]^[23]^[24]

Degrees of Nasality

Nasalization in vowels exhibits a gradient scale, ranging from partial to full nasality, primarily quantified by the proportion of nasal airflow relative to total airflow during production. Partial nasality typically involves 20-40% nasal airflow, as observed in contextually nasalized vowels adjacent to nasal consonants, such as pre-nasal vowels in American English where the velum lowers gradually, resulting in limited nasal coupling. In contrast, full nasality surpasses 50-60% nasal airflow, characteristic of phonemic nasal vowels like French /ɔ̃/, where the velum is substantially lowered throughout the vowel duration to allow dominant nasal resonance. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) denotes nasalization with a tilde diacritic (e.g., [ĩ] for lightly nasalized high vowels and [ẽ] for more heavily nasalized mid vowels), though the intensity is often contextually interpreted rather than strictly differentiated by symbol variation.^[25]^[26]^[27] Several factors influence the degree of nasality, including the duration and extent of velum lowering, the influence of adjacent consonants, and inter-speaker variability. Longer durations of velum lowering correlate with increased nasal airflow, as the prolonged opening of the velopharyngeal port enhances nasal resonance, with peak nasality occurring later in vowels adjacent to nasal codas. Adjacent nasal consonants, particularly in pre-nasal contexts, strengthen nasalization by anticipatory coarticulation, leading to higher nasal airflow percentages compared to post-nasal or non-adjacent positions. Speaker variability arises from anatomical differences, such as larger nasal cavities and vocal tracts in males, which can result in greater overall nasal airflow and perceived nasality intensity relative to females.^[28]^[29]^[30] Perceptually, nasality becomes detectable when nasal airflow exceeds approximately 20-30% of total airflow, marking the threshold for distinguishing nasalized vowels from oral ones in listener judgments. Excessive nasality, or hypernasality, occurs when airflow partitioning favors the nasal cavity beyond normal ranges (e.g., over 40% in oral contexts), often associated with speech disorders like velopharyngeal insufficiency, where inadequate velum closure leads to unintended resonance.^[31]^[32] Typologically, degrees of nasality vary across languages, with weaker, contextual nasalization in Brazilian Portuguese (around 30-50% nasal airflow in heterosyllabic contexts) contrasting stronger, phonemic nasalization in Hindi (over 60%, with distinct articulatory adjustments like tongue body lowering for back vowels). Diachronic shifts can amplify nasality over time, as seen in languages like French, where historical vowel-nasal interactions have strengthened phonemic contrasts from earlier partial coarticulation. Experimental evidence from MRI studies confirms this continuum, revealing velum aperture sizes ranging from 0.3-0.8 cm² for nasalized vowels to larger openings (up to 1.0 cm² or more) in fully nasal productions, with quantifiable differences in port area correlating to airflow and resonance intensity. Recent research using real-time MRI has further elucidated dynamic velum movements in nasal vowel production, such as in European Portuguese (as of 2022).^[27]^[33]^[34]^[20]

Nasal Consonants

Standard Nasal Stops

Standard nasal stops are occlusive consonants produced by creating a complete closure in the oral cavity while lowering the velum to allow airflow through the nasal cavity, resulting in nasal resonance determined by the place of articulation. The bilabial nasal /m/ involves closure at the lips, the alveolar nasal /n/ at the alveolar ridge behind the upper teeth, and the velar nasal /ŋ/ at the soft palate (velum).^[35]^[36] These consonants form part of the phonemic inventory in nearly all human languages, with /m/ occurring in approximately 902 languages, /n/ in 837, and /ŋ/ in 615, reflecting their near-universal presence. Examples include /m/ and /n/ in English words like "man" and "no," and /ŋ/ in "sing." However, /ŋ/ is typically absent in word-initial position in many language families, including Indo-European languages, where it does not occur at the beginning of words.^[37]^[38] Acoustically, nasal stops exhibit a characteristic low-frequency nasal murmur due to the resonance of the nasal cavity, with the first nasal formant (N1) around 200-300 Hz for /m/, rising to about 300-400 Hz for /n/, and varying between 250-350 Hz for /ŋ/, alongside antiresonances that dampen higher frequencies. In spectrograms, this murmur appears as a low-intensity band of energy, often accompanied by a voice bar representing the fundamental frequency of voicing during the closure phase.^[35]^[36]^[39] Allophonic variations of nasal stops include prenasalized forms in Bantu languages, where a nasal is followed by a brief oral closure, as in [ᵐb], [ⁿd], and [ᵑɡ], functioning as single segments with extended nasal airflow. In Italian, geminate nasals like /nː/ in "anno" exhibit significantly longer durations—often 1.5 to 2 times that of single nasals—serving as the primary cue for phonological length contrasts.^[40]^[41] Historically, nasal stops have undergone loss in certain contexts, leading to the development of nasal vowels in some languages through compensatory nasalization of preceding vowels, as seen in Romance languages where intervocalic or final nasals were deleted. Areally, click languages of the Khoisan family, such as !Xóõ and Khoekhoe, feature a high frequency of nasal stops alongside nasalized clicks, with standard nasals /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/ integrated into complex consonant inventories that include up to three plain nasal stops.^[42]^[43]

Nasalized Approximants and Other Consonants

Nasalized approximants are non-stop consonants produced with a lowered velum, allowing airflow through both the oral and nasal cavities during the articulation of an approximant, without complete oral closure. Common types include the nasalized alveolar lateral [l̃], postalveolar approximant [ɹ̃], labiovelar approximant [w̃], and palatal approximant [j̃]. These sounds arise from coarticulatory effects where the velum lowers in anticipation or carryover from adjacent nasal elements, blending approximant manner with nasal resonance.^[44]^[45] Such nasalized approximants frequently occur as allophones in proximity to nasal consonants or vowels. In English, the lateral approximant /l/ becomes nasalized [l̃] following a nasal stop, as in "milk" realized as [mɪl̃k], due to anticipatory nasal airflow. Phonemically, they appear in select languages; for instance, Burmese features a uvular nasal approximant /ɴ/, a velar-uvular realization without full closure, contrasting with oral approximants in final positions. Standard nasal stops can trigger this nasalization through assimilation, though the resulting approximants maintain open airflow distinct from stops.^[46]^[47] Acoustically, nasalized approximants exhibit a broader formant structure compared to nasal stops, reflecting the combined oral-nasal resonance cavity. They display nasal poles and zeros in their spectra, similar to nasal vowels, which introduce anti-formants that dampen certain frequencies and create spectral complexity. For the nasalized lateral [l̃], the first formant (F1) typically lowers, akin to the effect observed in nasalized vowels, due to the expanded resonance space, while maintaining lateral-specific low-frequency energy from the side airflow. Laterals and nasals share spectral similarities, with zeros reducing overall intensity relative to vowels.^[36]^[48] As phonemes, nasalized approximants are rare, documented primarily in Athabaskan languages where velar nasals like Hupa /ŋ/ often surface as the nasalized approximant [ɰ̃] due to incomplete closure, cognate with [j̃] in related varieties. They are more common in coarticulatory contexts across languages, such as Spanish where the alveolar nasal /n/ assimilates in place before palatals or velars, yielding [ɲ] or [ŋ]—the latter sometimes realized with approximant-like lenition in rapid speech—enhancing nasal spread without full stop articulation.^[49] In pathological speech, hypernasal approximants emerge in conditions like cleft palate, where velopharyngeal insufficiency causes excessive nasal resonance on approximants and vowels, leading to perceptibly hypernasal laterals or rhotics graded as moderate deviations. Dialectally, regional American English varieties exhibit nasalized rhotics [ɹ̃], particularly in coarticulatory environments near nasals, contributing to a perceived nasal quality in approximant realizations across certain accents.^[50]

Advanced Nasal Articulations

True Nasal Fricatives

True nasal fricatives, also referred to as nasalized fricatives, are consonants characterized by turbulent airflow generated at an oral constriction while the velum is lowered, allowing simultaneous nasal airflow. Unlike standard oral fricatives, the nasal component reduces intraoral pressure, making these sounds aerodynamically unstable and typologically rare across languages. They are distinguished from purely oral fricatives with secondary nasalization by the active involvement of nasal resonance in sustaining the articulation, often notated with a tilde (e.g., [s̃]) in the International Phonetic Alphabet extensions. No language is known to contrast true nasal fricatives phonemically in isolation, but they emerge contextually in nasal harmony systems or historical developments.^[51] The articulatory production of true nasal fricatives presents significant challenges due to the conflicting aerodynamic requirements of frication and nasal emission. Fricatives demand a high pressure differential across a narrow oral constriction to produce turbulence, but lowering the velum diverts airflow nasally, lowering oral pressure and potentially extinguishing the fricative noise. This necessitates precise velum control to maintain just enough nasal venting for resonance without fully disrupting the oral constriction; insufficient control results in approximant-like sounds rather than true fricatives. Voiced variants, such as [ṽ] or [ð̃], are particularly difficult, as they require additional transglottal airflow to sustain voicing amid the pressure drop. These challenges explain their limited occurrence, often confined to specific phonological environments like nasal harmony domains.^[51] Examples of true nasal fricatives include phonemic realizations in Coatzospan Mixtec, a Mesoamerican language, where nasal harmony in second-person familiar verb forms produces nasalized sibilants like [s̃] and [ʃ̃], as well as non-sibilants [ð̃] and [β̃].^[51] Acoustically, true nasal fricatives exhibit high-frequency turbulent noise damped by nasal resonance, typically showing reduced amplitude in higher formants (above 2 kHz) compared to oral counterparts, with widened spectral peaks and anti-formant effects from nasal coupling. Spectrographic analyses from field studies on nasal harmony languages reveal these signatures: for instance, nasalized [s̃] in Mixtec displays a broader noise spectrum with lowered intensity beyond 2500 Hz, distinguishing it from oral while risking perceptual overlap with nasal approximants. These acoustic properties arise from the nasal cavity's filtering, which attenuates high-frequency energy essential for fricative salience.^[51] Typologically, true nasal fricatives are more frequently attested in New World languages, particularly in Mesoamerican families like Mixtec, where nasal harmony freely spreads through fricatives, contrasting with Old World patterns that often block nasality at obstruents. This distribution may reflect areal influences in regions with robust nasal systems. Perceptually, their weakened frication can lead to confusion with nasal approximants or stops, contributing to diachronic shifts (e.g., fricative weakening in harmony contexts) and highlighting their marginal role in phonological inventories.^[51]

Nasal Clicks and Other Rare Types

Nasal clicks represent a distinctive type of ingressive consonant produced using a velaric airstream mechanism, where the back of the tongue forms a closure at the velum while the front creates an anterior seal, creating a vacuum that is released with nasal airflow escape through a lowered velum. In languages like Nama (a Khoisan language), nasal clicks such as [!ŋ] arise from nasalized variants of basic clicks like [ǃ], involving a simultaneous pulmonic egressive component for the nasal release, which allows voicing and nasal resonance during the click burst. This dual airstream—velaric ingressive for the click and pulmonic for the nasal—distinguishes them from standard pulmonic nasals.^[43]^[52] These sounds are primarily distributed in southern African languages, including Khoisan families like !Xóõ and ǂHoan, as well as borrowed into some Bantu languages such as Xhosa and Zulu, where nasal clicks function as phonemes contrasting with oral ones. Acoustically, nasal clicks exhibit unique low-frequency bursts around 200-500 Hz during the release, attributed to the nasal cavity resonance and the ingressive noise, which enhances their perceptual salience in noisy environments. Their evolutionary origins likely trace to ancient consonant shifts in proto-Khoisan systems, possibly from labial or coronal precursors, though direct pathways remain speculative due to limited historical records.^[53]^[54]^[55] Beyond clicks, other rare nasal articulations include the uvular nasal /ɴ/, which appears allophonically in Japanese as a realization of the moraic nasal /N/ in syllable-final position, articulated with the tongue root against the uvula and velum lowered for nasal airflow. In Dravidian languages such as Tamil and Telugu, the retroflex nasal /ɳ/ is phonemic, produced by curling the tongue tip backward to contact the hard palate while directing airflow through the nasal cavity, contrasting with alveolar /n/. In varieties of Arabic like Moroccan and Iraqi, pharyngeal fricatives such as /ħ/ and /ʕ/ are produced with significant nasal airflow due to velum lowering and epilaryngeal constriction, imparting a nasal quality to these consonants, though they remain fricatives rather than true nasals. These rarities are concentrated in Asian language families like Dravidian and Japonic, with limited spread elsewhere due to anatomical constraints on extreme tongue positioning and velar coordination, which increase articulatory complexity and learning difficulty in non-native contexts.^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59]

Phonological Processes

Contextual Nasalization

Contextual nasalization refers to the phonological process in which nasality from a nasal consonant spreads to an adjacent vowel or other sound, typically as a form of assimilation. This spreading enhances articulatory ease by aligning the velum position across segments. Assimilation can be regressive, where the preceding vowel nasalizes in anticipation of a following nasal consonant, or progressive, where nasality from a nasal consonant affects the subsequent vowel. Regressive assimilation is far more common cross-linguistically, as seen in English words like "hand," pronounced [hæ̃n̩d], where the low vowel /æ/ acquires nasalization before the alveolar nasal /n/.^[31] In Hindi, vowels preceding nasal consonants are similarly nasalized, such as in /bɑn/ "port," realized as [bɑ̃n], reflecting a regressive spread of the [nasal] feature. Progressive assimilation, though rarer, occurs in languages like Sundanese, an Austronesian language, where nasality spreads rightward from a nasal stop to following vowels and glides, as in /bənər/ realized with nasalized vowels after the nasal.^[60] In phonological theory, contextual nasalization is often formalized as the spreading of the [nasal] feature within feature geometry, where nasality is represented as a manner feature under the root node that delinks and reassociates to adjacent segments via autosegmental spreading.^[61] In Optimality Theory, this process arises from the interaction of markedness constraints favoring nasal agreement, such as *VN (prohibiting non-nasal vowels before nasals) outranking faithfulness constraints like IDENT-IO([nasal]), which penalize changes to nasality; for instance, /VN/ surfaces as [ṼN] to satisfy agreement while preserving the input nasal.^[62] Specific language examples illustrate this. In French, liaison contexts induce nasalization when a word-final nasal consonant links to a following vowel, as in "un ami" [œ̃.na.mi], where the liaison /n/ causes partial nasalization of the subsequent /a/.^[63] In Hindi, the rule applies robustly before nasals, often without deletion. Additionally, nasal deletion can accompany spreading, as in the historical development of Portuguese "pão" [pɐ̃w] from Latin "panem," where the intervening nasal assimilated and was lost, leaving a phonemic nasal vowel. Diachronically, contextual nasalization frequently leads to the phonologization of nasal vowels through the loss of the triggering nasal consonant, a process evident in the evolution from Vulgar Latin to modern French. In Vulgar Latin, sequences like /an/ in "panem" nasalized the vowel before the nasal was deleted or reduced, yielding French "pain" [pɛ̃] with a phonemic nasal /ɛ̃/.^[64] This shift created contrastive nasal vowels in French, distinguishing them from oral counterparts. Variability in realization occurs across dialects and speech conditions; for example, Quebec French exhibits stronger and more extensive nasalization than Standard French, with nasal vowels like /ɑ̃/ pronounced more openly and with greater velum lowering.^[65] Furthermore, speech rate influences the distance of nasal spread: slower rates allow greater anticipatory nasalization in English vowels before nasals, extending the temporal domain of velum lowering, while faster rates reduce it.^[66]

Denasalization and Neutralization

Denasalization refers to the phonological process whereby nasality in vowels or consonants is reduced or eliminated, primarily through the raising of the soft palate (velum) to close the velopharyngeal port and prevent nasal airflow. This articulatory adjustment contrasts with nasalization by redirecting airflow exclusively through the oral cavity, often occurring in response to phonological constraints or historical sound changes. In many cases, denasalization is accompanied by compensatory lengthening, where the duration of a preceding vowel increases to offset the loss of a nasal segment, preserving syllable structure. For instance, in historical English, nasal vowels derived from sequences like /an/ or /un/ underwent denasalization with vowel lengthening, as seen in the evolution from Old English *mūþ to Modern English "mouth," where the nasal quality was lost while the vowel prolonged.^[28]^[67]^[68] Phonological neutralization involves the loss of nasal contrasts in specific environments, simplifying the sound inventory. A prominent synchronic example occurs in Brazilian Portuguese, where word-final nasal consonants delete, leaving behind nasalized vowels and neutralizing the distinction between underlying oral vowels followed by nasals and inherent nasal vowels; for example, underlying /limpã/ surfaces as [lĩːpɐ̃] with the nasal coda absorbed into the vowel. Historically, similar neutralizations appear in Germanic languages, such as Old English, where nasal vowels like /ɑ̃ː/ denasalized to /ɑː/ in certain dialects, merging previously distinct nasal and oral categories. In Korean, regressive nasal assimilation affects obstruents before nasal consonants (e.g., /kap + m/ → [kam]), but nasality typically does not spread to the preceding vowel, resulting in partial neutralization without full nasal propagation.^[69]^[70]^[71] Typologically, denasalization contributes to vowel system simplification in languages lacking phonemic nasal vowels, such as Mandarin Chinese, where vowels exhibit contextual nasalization only before nasal codas but maintain oral quality elsewhere, avoiding a dedicated nasal series. Perceptually, this process aligns with an oral bias observed in speech acquisition, where infants initially favor oral over nasal sounds, leading to delayed mastery of nasal contrasts and potential overgeneralization of oral forms. Clinically, denasalization techniques are employed in speech therapy for hypernasal disorders, such as velopharyngeal insufficiency, using velum-raising exercises to reduce excessive nasal resonance; acoustic formant analysis (e.g., lowered F1 and F3 transitions) aids in assessing and recovering underlying nasality post-intervention.^[72]^[73]^[74]

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In American English, vowels also show allophonic variation based on whether the following consonant is oral or nasal. Vowels are pronounced with a nasalized ...
[20]
[PDF] Nasal spreading in Paraguayan Guaraní: Introducing long-distance ...
There are twelve vowel phonemes in modern Guaraní: six oral vowels /i, i, u, e, o, %/ and six nasalized counterparts of each of those oral vowels. These vowels ...
[21]
[PDF] Vowel nasalization in French Author(s): Kristen Kennedy Terry and ...
Vowel nasalization in French occurs through regressive assimilation, where an oral vowel acquires nasal features from a following nasal consonant, and then ...
[22]
[PDF] Nasal release, nasal finals and tonal contrasts in Hanoi Vietnamese
Jan 26, 2008 · The present research addresses three issues in the phonetics of Hanoi. Vietnamese: (i) What are the airflow characteristics of the obstruent- ...
[23]
[PDF] Measurement of vowel nasalization by multi-dimensional acoustic ...
When the velum lowers during vowels, the velopharyngeal port is opened, and there is acoustic coupling between the nasal cavity and the main vocal tract, giving ...
[24]
[PDF] Three degrees of vowel nasality in Kawaiwete (Tupi-Guarani)
The percentage nasal airflow is significantly greater in phonemically nasal vowels than in partially nasal vowels (p<. 001) when preceded by an oral consonant, ...
[25]
[PDF] the aerodynamics of vowel nasality and nasalization in brazilian ...
Brazilian Portuguese (BP) is thought to possess contrastive nasal vowels that are different from contextually nasalized vowels in its phonological system.
[26]
[PDF] The physiological basis of the phonologization of vowel nasalization
The diachronic change by which coarticulatory nasalization increases in VN (vowel-nasal) sequences has been modelled as an earlier alignment of the velum ...<|separator|>
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Individual differences in the production of nasal coarticulation and ...
For instance, a nasalized vowel adjacent to a nasal consonant does not sound nasalized to a listener, indicating that the acoustic effect of coarticulation is ...
[28]
Acoustic and speaker variation in Dutch /n/ and /m - AIP Publishing
Aug 6, 2021 · ... consonants. 1. Phonetic context. In nasals, the lowering of the velum may carry over to neighboring speech sounds, resulting in distinct ...Missing: adjacent | Show results with:adjacent
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Is vowel nasalisation phonological in English? A systematic review
Oct 2, 2017 · Unlike in English, prenasal vowels are not nasalised at all. In Sundanese nasalised vowels, nasal airflow steadily decreases with increasing ...
[30]
OBJECTIVE MEASURES OF PLOSIVE NASALIZATION IN ... - NIH
Hypernasality refers to the perception of excessive nasal resonance during speech production. It results from an inability to properly modulate airflow ...
[31]
Managing the distinctiveness of phonemic nasal vowels: Articulatory ...
Jan 13, 2012 · For Hindi nasal vowels, the tongue body is generally lowered for back vowels, fronted for low vowels, and raised for front vowels (with respect ...
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Acoustic structure of consonants
A low frequency voicing buzz is present in phonetically voiced sounds, seen on spectrograms as 'voice bar'. ... spectrograms in the case of voiceless stops.
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[PDF] The Acoustics of Nasals and Laterals - MIT OpenCourseWare
Formant transitions – as in oral stops • Nasal murmur differs according to place of articulation, but in itself is a weak cue – murmur is relatively quiet. ...Missing: profile bar
[35]
Global patterns in consonant inventories: Frequency distributions ...
Nasals show an asymmetrical distribution: /m/ occurs in 902 languages, /n/ in 837, and /ŋ/ in 615. The lower frequency of /ŋ/ may be influenced by the presence ...
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Chapter The Velar Nasal - WALS Online
This chapter addresses the distribution of the sound ŋ (the velar nasal) in the languages of the world.
[37]
How to read a spectrogram - Rob Hagiwara - University of Manitoba
Nov 18, 2009 · A voiced plosive may have a low-frequency voicing bar of striations, usually thought of as the sound of voicing being transmitted through the ...
[38]
[PDF] Perception of Prenasalized Stops - International Phonetic Association
Many Bantu languages exhibit vowel lengthening before NCs but not Ns [3]; in some Bantu languages, the nasal murmur of NC is also longer than that of N [2].
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Consonant gemination in Italian: the nasal and liquid case - arXiv
Apr 19, 2020 · Results on nasals and liquids confirm the findings on stops, in particular that the primary acoustic cue to gemination in Italian is durational ...
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[PDF] Nasal Loss Before Voiceless Fricatives - UC Berkeley Linguistics
Sound changes involving loss of post-vocalic nasal consonants are rather common. This is one part of the origin of the distinctively nasal vowels in French (/da ...Missing: siglo | Show results with:siglo
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[PDF] Pulmonic venting and the typology of click nasality
Mar 29, 2017 · A cross-linguistic survey of several dozen languages with clicks reveals an unexpected generalization: every language with clicks has nasal ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
[PDF] Chapter 3: Nasalization - UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository)
In this section, I have presented a typological overview of nasal harmony types, based on five parameters according to which language-particular manifestations ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
[PDF] The Phonology and Typology of Nasality by Myriam Lapierre A d
This study addresses one of the most fundamental questions in formal phonology, namely What are the units of phonological representation that grammars ...
[44]
[PDF] SOCIAL FACTORS IN PRONUNCIATION ACQUISITION
... nasalized /l/. This would explain my observation that students frequently seem to be producing one of the standard allophones of neither English /n/ or /l ...
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[PDF] Phonology and Morphosyntax of Pubarong Queyu - Scholars' Bank
For nasal sounds, there are eight of them occurring in five places phonetically, with the uvular nasals [ɴ] and [ɴ̥] being the allophones of the velar ones. They ...
[46]
[PDF] Acoustic Modeling of American English Lateral Approximants
Nasalized vowels are similar in production to the /l/ sound since ... Two zeros appear at 2390 and 4160 Hz, giving rise to pole-zero clusters in that frequency ...
[47]
The Spanish Sound System (Part II) - The Cambridge Handbook of ...
Aug 13, 2018 · Skelton, who analyzed vowels produced by 20 speakers from Spain and Latin America, argued that the overlap of the /e/ in open syllables with the ...
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[PDF] Speaking Children with Repaired Cleft Palate - CORE
vowels and approximants; Grade 2 shows hypernasal resonance perceived on vowels and approximants, but also involves noticeably weakened consonants with.
[49]
[PDF] The Aeroacoustics of Nasalized Fricatives - UC Berkeley
In addition to the appearance of antiformants in the sound spectrum (Fujimura. 1962) nasalization also tends to widen formant bandwidths (Johnson 1997, Stevens ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
Polish nasals - Language Miscellany
Jun 19, 2025 · There are 2 nasal vowels in Polish: ɛ̃ (written<ę>); and ɔ̃ (written ... If the fricative consonant is palatalised, <ę> is pronounced [ej̃];.
[51]
[PDF] CLICKS IN XHOSA AND NAMA: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Jan 12, 2010 · As phonemic speech sounds, clicks can be found in two regions in Africa: in the. South, the Southern and Northern Khoisan and ǂHoan, Central ...
[52]
Clicks, concurrency and Khoisan* | Phonology | Cambridge Core
May 20, 2014 · The glottalised nasals (row 11) are initials, and are nasal stops with an initial glottal check. ... Given that most Khoisan languages have the ...
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https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/phonology/article/clicks-concurrency-and-khoisan/0D57F5AE8BC655A8F2AC3F69CAB8AABE
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Genetic perspectives on the origin of clicks in Bantu languages from ...
Aug 29, 2012 · Although clicks are generally considered the hallmark of the so-called 'Khoisan' languages, they have also been borrowed into some Bantu ...
[55]
[PDF] Phonological Interference of Japanese Uvular /ɴ - CORE
Apr 30, 2025 · The data of the present study shows that Japanese uvular /ɴ/ has caused Japanese to replace nasal /n/ at ending distribution to uvular /ɴ/.
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[PDF] The retroflex-dental contrast in Punjabi stops and nasals
Sep 6, 2018 · Specifically, ultrasound was used to study retroflex-dental contrasts in the. Dravidian languages Kannada [18] and Malayalam [19] and in the ...
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[PDF] Nasality from Moroccan Arabic Nasal and Pharyngeal Consonants
This aerodynamic study investigates velum activity during the production of nasal and pharyngeal consonants, using airflow,.
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Why Click Speech Is Rare | Scientific American
Dec 1, 2017 · Click sounds, such as those found in some languages in Africa, make perfectly good consonants. So why do they appear so rarely in most human speech?
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Hindustani phonology - Wikipedia
The palatal and velar nasals [ɲ, ŋ] occur only in consonant clusters, where each nasal is followed by a homorganic stop, as an allophone of a nasal vowel ...Vowels · Nasalization of vowels · Vowel orthography with... · Consonants
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[PDF] Chapter 2 - Rutgers Optimality Archive
In this chapter I develop a description and analysis of a cross-linguistic typology of nasal harmony, focusing on variability in the set of segments ...Missing: obligatory | Show results with:obligatory<|control11|><|separator|>
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https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110399981-010/html
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4.9 Types of phonological rules – Essentials of Linguistics, 2nd edition
The most common general type of phonological rule we find is assimilation, when a phoneme changes to an allophone that matches some aspect of its environment.
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French nasal vowels in liaisons
Nov 21, 2023 · Learn when to make the liaison with French nasal vowels & when you shouldn't. Find all you need to know about liaisons, denasalization, ...What is a liaison in French? · When liaisons must be made?Missing: induced | Show results with:induced
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Portuguese phonology - Wikipedia
Nasalization and height increase noticeably with time during the production of a single nasal vowel in BP in those cases that are written with nasal consonants ...
[65]
Romance languages - Vowel Shifts, Grammar, Dialects | Britannica
In nearly all Romance languages a following nasal consonant has caused peculiar development in a preceding vowel. ... vowel during the Vulgar Latin period.
[66]
4 Big Differences: Canadian French vs Regular French - Jumpspeak
Jan 30, 2021 · The vowels are quite different in Canadian French. The nasal vowels -an, -on, -in are even more nasal sounding than they are in Standard French, ...
[67]
Phonetic and Phonological Processes: The Case of Nasalization
The aim of this paper is to differentiate between universal phonetic processes and language-specific phonological processes. Cross-linguistic data on ...
[68]
Compensatory Lengthening - jstor
nated by the term 'compensatory lengthening'. We first di development of length and the loss of a consonant are in fact and then analyse remaining examples.
[69]
[PDF] The ' Vowels - Daniel Ezra Johnson
For most of their evolution, then, the nasalvowels underwentthesame changesastheir non-nasalcounterparts. There were seven vowels in Vulgar Latin (i, e, e, a, o ...
[70]
[PDF] 1 The contrastive nasality in Portuguese * Leda Bisol (PUCRS ...
- An oral vowel emerges, if the final nasal is deleted: homem > home 'man', garagem > garage (garage). All these phenomena suggest the presence of a skeletal ...
[71]
[PDF] nasalization and nasal vowels - IU ScholarWorks - Indiana University
Sep 8, 2025 · ... historical attestations of nasal vowels in parts of central Europe historically inhabited by German- speakers, presented here with the ...
[72]
[PDF] Korean Assimilation S.-Y. Kuroda UCSD March, 2003 (DRAFT) 1 ...
The Iverson-. Sohn geometry implies that nasality is not distinctive for sonorants: sonorants are either nasal or non-nasal. This may well be true, as long as ...
[73]
[PDF] Acoustic Analysis of Nasalization in Mandarin Prenasal Vowels ...
Dec 7, 2020 · Abstract— This study investigates the effects of first dialect, age, vowel type, nasal type and vowel timing on the nasalization.Missing: typological denasalization
[74]
[PDF] Perceptual bias in learning a vowel nasalization pattern
If perception acts as a bias we expect a learning advantage for nasalization of non-low vowels over low vowels. If phonetics does not act as a bias, we expect ...
[75]
Acoustic analysis of nasalance and formants in VPI patients - PubMed
Apr 13, 2025 · Nasalance scores and formants 1-4 were measured both pre- and post-VPI surgery and correlated with age, gender, and surgical outcomes.Missing: recovery nasality