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Object pronoun

An object pronoun is a type of personal pronoun that functions as the grammatical object of a verb or preposition, typically receiving the action of the verb or completing a prepositional phrase.^[1] In English, the primary object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them, with whom serving as the object form of who in formal or objective contexts.^[2] These pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition while maintaining agreement in person, number, and gender with their antecedents.^[3] Object pronouns play essential roles in sentence structure, appearing as direct objects (e.g., "She saw him"), indirect objects (e.g., "He gave us the book"), objects of prepositions (e.g., "This is for them"), or object complements (e.g., "They elected her president").^[4] Unlike subject pronouns (e.g., I, he, she), which perform the action, object pronouns cannot serve as sentence subjects and must follow verbs or prepositions.^[1] Common usage errors include confusing object pronouns with subject forms in compound structures, such as incorrectly saying "between you and I" instead of "between you and me."^[3] In formal writing, whom is preferred for interrogative or relative object positions (e.g., "To whom did you speak?"), though informal speech often substitutes who.^[2] Cross-linguistically, object pronouns vary widely; many languages feature clitic or bound forms that attach to verbs, as in Romance languages like Spanish (e.g., lo for "him/it"), contrasting with English's independent pronouns.^[5] This morphological diversity highlights object pronouns' role in marking grammatical relations, a key feature in human languages documented in syntactic theory.^[6]

Definition and Basics

Core Definition

An object pronoun is a type of personal pronoun that functions as the direct or indirect object of a verb or as the object of a preposition, thereby receiving the action or indicating the target of the verbal or prepositional relation.^[2] In linguistic terms, it replaces a noun phrase in object positions within a clause, allowing for more concise expression while maintaining grammatical structure.^[4] Object pronouns differ fundamentally from subject pronouns, which serve as the performer of the action in a sentence; for instance, subject pronouns include forms like "I" or "she," whereas their object counterparts are "me" or "her."^[7] They also contrast with possessive pronouns, which indicate ownership or relation (e.g., "mine" or "hers"), and reflexive pronouns, which refer back to the subject for emphasis or reciprocity (e.g., "myself" or "herself").^[8] This distinction ensures precise case marking in languages that inflect pronouns based on syntactic role.^[2] Examples illustrate these roles neutrally: in "She gave him the book," "him" acts as the direct object receiving the giving action, while in "Tell me a story," "me" functions as the indirect object to whom the story is directed.^[9] The term "object" itself derives etymologically from Latin obiectum, meaning "something thrown against," combining ob- ("against") and iacere ("to throw"), metaphorically capturing the idea of an entity positioned as the recipient or goal of an action.^[10]

Grammatical Roles

Object pronouns serve distinct syntactic functions within clause structure, primarily as complements to verbs or prepositions. These roles are determined by their position relative to other elements in the sentence, rather than solely by semantic meaning, and they highlight how pronouns interact with core grammatical relations such as subject and verb. In typical declarative clauses, object pronouns occupy positions that complete the verb's argument structure or extend prepositional phrases, enabling precise expression of actions, recipients, and associations.^[11] The direct object role involves the pronoun receiving the action of a transitive verb, directly following the verb in the clause. For instance, in the sentence "The cat chased it," the pronoun "it" functions as the direct object, denoting the entity affected by the verb "chased." This position underscores the pronoun's role in completing the verb's valence, a fundamental aspect of transitive constructions across languages. Direct objects are core arguments that can undergo syntactic operations like passivization, shifting to subject position.^[4]^[11] In the indirect object role, the pronoun indicates the recipient or beneficiary of the direct object in ditransitive verb constructions. An example is "He sent her a letter," where "her" acts as the indirect object, specifying to whom the direct object "a letter" is transferred. Indirect objects typically precede the direct object after the verb, as in this dative construction, though they may alternate with prepositional phrases in some cases. This role allows for the encoding of transfer or benefit semantics without additional prepositions.^[12]^[11] The prepositional object role positions the pronoun as the complement of a preposition, forming an adverbial or oblique phrase that modifies the verb or clause. For example, "Sit with us" features "us" as the prepositional object following "with," providing locative or associative information. Unlike direct or indirect objects, prepositional objects are not core verbal arguments and remain outside passivization processes, retaining their oblique status. This function extends the clause's scope without altering the verb's primary complements.^[4]^[11] In languages with subject-verb-object (SVO) word order, such as English, object pronouns consistently follow the verb in declarative clauses, adhering to the canonical sequence subject-verb-object. This placement ensures clarity in information flow, with direct and indirect objects appearing post-verbally, as in "She gave him the book," where both "him" (indirect) and "the book" (direct) succeed the verb "gave." Pronouns in these positions may exhibit cliticization or prosodic reduction in spoken forms, but their syntactic slot remains fixed after the verb.^[13]^[11] Object pronouns interact notably with passivization, where direct and indirect objects can promote to subject position, reorienting the clause focus. For a direct object, "The dog bit me" passivizes to "I was bitten by the dog," elevating "me" (now "I") to subject. Similarly, for an indirect object, "She gave me the book" becomes "I was given the book by her," with "me" (as "I") assuming the subject role. Prepositional objects, however, do not passivize and stay within their phrases, as in "He talked to her" yielding no standard passive equivalent promoting "her." This promotion reflects the pronouns' core status in active clauses, facilitating voice alternations for emphasis or stylistic purposes.^[12]^[11]

Object Pronouns in English

Modern Standard Forms

In modern standard English, the object pronouns form a distinct paradigm that reflects remnants of the language's earlier case system, where pronouns inflect to indicate their grammatical role as direct or indirect objects of verbs or as objects of prepositions. These pronouns are: me (first person singular), you (second person singular and plural), him (third person singular masculine), her (third person singular feminine), it (third person singular neuter), us (first person plural), and them (third person plural).^[1]^[14] This set corresponds to the oblique case, a vestige of Old English's more robust inflectional system, now limited primarily to pronouns while nouns have lost such distinctions.^[14]^[15] The oblique forms are used in formal and informal contexts alike to denote the recipient or target of an action, such as in "She called him" (direct object) or "Give it to us" (indirect object and prepositional object).^[1] In contemporary usage, them has gained prominence as a singular object pronoun to promote gender neutrality, particularly for non-binary individuals or when the referent's gender is unknown, as in "I saw them across the street." This application of singular them dates back centuries but has seen renewed acceptance in style guides and dictionaries since the late 20th century, reflecting evolving social norms around inclusivity.^[16]^[17] Common errors in object pronoun usage often stem from hypercorrection or confusion in compound constructions. For instance, the incorrect "between you and I" arises from overapplying subjective forms (I) due to prescriptive rules emphasizing nominatives, whereas the standard oblique form requires "between you and me."^[18]^[19] Similarly, in coordinate structures, the object pronoun follows the same rule as in isolation: "She invited John and me" is correct, not "John and I," which erroneously mixes cases.^[1]^[20] These patterns underscore English's retention of case distinctions solely in pronouns, aiding clarity in sentence structure.^[21]

Archaic and Dialectal Variants

In Early Modern English, the second-person singular object pronoun was thee, the oblique form of thou, while the plural object form was often you, though ye occasionally appeared in archaic or dialectal usage as a nominative or objective plural, deriving from Middle English ȝe and Old English ēow.^[22]^[23] These forms distinguished singular informal address from plural or formal, with thee functioning as the direct or indirect object, as in "I give this to thee."^[24] The use of thou and thee began to decline in the late 17th century, largely due to social shifts favoring the universal you for both singular and plural to avoid perceived rudeness or class distinctions associated with the informal singular.^[24] By the 18th century, thee had largely fallen out of standard English, supplanted entirely by you across persons and numbers, though ye persisted briefly in some regional speech before merging into you.^[22] Dialectal variants of object pronouns continue in non-standard English varieties. In Southern United States English, y'all (a contraction of "you all") serves as a second-person plural pronoun, including in object positions such as after prepositions, as in "Give it to y'all" or "I saw y'all at the store."^[25] In African American Vernacular English (AAVE), the third-person plural object pronoun them is often realized as dem, particularly in informal speech, as in "I gave dem the book," reflecting phonological patterns where /ð/ simplifies to /d/. Literary works from the Early Modern period showcase these forms vividly. In Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Juliet addresses Romeo using thee as an object pronoun, for example in Act 2, Scene 2: "My bounty is as boundless as the sea, / My love as deep; the more I give to thee, / The more I have," highlighting thee's role in intimate address.^[26] Similar patterns appear in Hamlet, where the ghost uses thou and thee in direct address to Hamlet, underscoring emotional directness and archaic solemnity lost in contemporary equivalents.^[27] These archaic forms persist in specific contexts, notably religious and poetic language. The King James Version of the Bible (1611) retains thee and thou for singular divine address, as in Psalm 23: "Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me" (verse 4), preserving singular intimacy with the divine; thee appears as an object form in other direct addresses to God throughout the text.^[28] In poetry and hymns, such as those by John Keats or traditional carols, thee evokes archaic solemnity, maintaining a stylistic link to earlier English despite its absence from everyday speech.^[28]

Object Pronouns in Other Languages

Indo-European Examples

In Indo-European languages, object pronouns typically mark grammatical roles through case inflections, contrasting with English's largely uninflected forms like me, him, and them, which rely on position for identification.^[29] Romance languages exemplify this with clitic object pronouns that attach to verbs and often co-occur with full noun phrases in doubling constructions. In French, direct object pronouns include me (me), te (you singular informal), le (him/it masculine), la (her/it feminine), and les (them); indirect forms include me (me/to me), te (you singular informal/to you), lui (to him/her/it), nous (us/to us), vous (you plural/formal/to you), and leur (to them).^[29]^[30] These clitics precede the verb, as in Je le vois ("I see it"), where le doubles a direct object for emphasis or syntactic reasons.^[31] Spanish shares similar clitic systems but features the innovation of leísmo, where the dative le replaces the accusative lo or la for direct objects, especially masculine animates, as in Lo vi a él becoming Le vi ("I saw him") in certain dialects.^[32] Germanic languages like German maintain distinct accusative and dative forms for objects, with pronouns showing positional variability tied to verb placement. Common forms are mich (me, accusative), dich (you singular informal, accusative), ihn (him, accusative), sie (her/them, accusative), es (it, accusative), uns (us), euch (you plural informal), and sie (them formal).^[33] In main clauses, these pronouns frequently precede the finite verb due to the verb-second rule, as in Ich sehe ihn ("I see him"), allowing flexible ordering for emphasis while preserving case distinctions.^[34] Slavic languages integrate object pronouns into a rich case system, where direct objects often take accusative forms that merge with genitive, particularly under negation. In Russian, personal pronouns like menja (me, accusative/genitive), tebja (you singular informal), jego (him/it masculine/neuter), ee (her), nas (us), vas (you plural/formal), and ix (them) function as objects, with menja appearing as the direct object in sentences like Ona vižet menja ("She sees me"); under negation, the genitive form (identical for these pronouns) appears as in Ja ne vižu ee ("I don't see her").^[35] Dative forms, such as mne (to me), handle indirect objects and certain verbs, reflecting the language's synthetic nature.^[36] A shared Indo-European feature is the reliance on oblique cases for object pronouns, evolving from Proto-Indo-European accusative (for direct objects) and dative (for indirect or beneficiary roles), which provided the syntactic targets for verbal actions across descendant languages.^[37] This inheritance fosters similarities in marking patient and recipient roles, though innovations like cliticization in Romance or negation-driven shifts in Slavic introduce branch-specific variations.^[38]

Non-Indo-European Examples

In non-Indo-European languages, object pronouns often exhibit morphological strategies that diverge from the fusional case systems common in Indo-European families, such as reliance on context, agglutinative suffixes, or focus-based marking rather than dedicated pronominal forms.^[39] In Sino-Tibetan languages like Mandarin Chinese, personal pronouns lack distinct forms for subjects and objects, with the same pronoun serving both roles based on syntactic position and context. For instance, the third-person singular pronoun tā functions as both "he/she" (subject) and "him/her" (object) in sentences such as tā gěi tā qián ("he/she gives him/her money").^[40] This absence of case distinction simplifies the pronominal system compared to languages with overt object marking.^[41] Uralic languages, such as Finnish, employ an agglutinative structure where object pronouns are inflected for case to indicate total or partial objects, reflecting the action's completeness or quantity. The accusative case marks total objects with forms like minut ("me," accusative) or hänet ("him/her/it," accusative), as in sinä kutsut minut ("you invite me").^[42] For partial or indefinite objects, the partitive case is used, yielding minua ("me," partitive) or häntä ("him/her/it," partitive), for example in en näe häntä ("I don't see him/her").^[42] This dual-case system integrates object pronouns seamlessly into the verb's aspectual semantics.^[43] Austronesian languages like Tagalog utilize a verbal focus system, where affixes on the verb highlight the object (patient or goal) rather than relying on altered pronoun forms; free pronouns such as siya ("he/she/it") remain unchanged but are marked by particles like ang for focus or ng for genitive roles. In an object-focus construction, binilí ko siya means "I bought him/her/it," with the verb affix -in indicating focus on the object while ko encliticizes as the actor pronoun.^[44] Animate objects may take dative marking if not ang-focused, emphasizing the language's syntactic flexibility over pronominal inflection.^[45] In Altaic languages such as Turkish, object pronouns are suffixed with the accusative case marker -ı/-i/-u/-ü (vowel harmony-dependent) to denote definite direct objects, integrating them into the agglutinative noun phrase. The third-person singular o becomes onu ("him/her/it," accusative), as in onu gördüm ("I saw him/her/it"), where the suffix signals specificity and directness.^[46] First-person forms like beni ("me," accusative) follow the same pattern, distinguishing definite objects from unmarked indefinites.^[47] Language isolates like Basque demonstrate ergative-absolutive alignment, where object pronouns appear in the unmarked absolutive case, identical to that of intransitive subjects, while transitive subjects take the ergative -k. The first-person singular pronoun ni serves as the absolutive object in nik zu ikusi zaitut ("I saw you"), with zu also absolutive and the verb agreeing in person and number.^[48] This system reduces distinct object forms for pronouns, prioritizing alignment with intransitive arguments over accusative marking.^[49]

Historical and Comparative Development

Origins in Proto-Languages

The reconstructed system of object pronouns in Proto-Indo-European (PIE), the ancestor of the Indo-European language family spoken around 4500–2500 BCE, distinguished accusative and dative forms to mark direct and indirect objects, respectively, as part of a robust eight-case nominal paradigm. For the first person singular, the accusative was *mē ('me'), the second person singular *tē ('thee'), and the first person plural *ns ('us'); the dative for the first person singular is reconstructed as *mébʰi ('to me'), reflecting an oblique stem. These forms were part of a suppletive pronominal paradigm where personal pronouns inflected irregularly, often using clitic variants like *me, *te, and *ns for unstressed positions.^[50] Comparative linguistics provides strong evidence for these PIE reconstructions through cognates preserved in daughter languages, demonstrating the oblique cases' continuity. In Sanskrit, the accusative first person singular mām ('me') directly descends from PIE *mém or a related form, as seen in Vedic texts where it functions as the direct object. Similarly, Latin employs mē ('me') in the accusative and mihi in the dative, both traceable to PIE *mē and *meh₁-bʰi, respectively, illustrating the retention of synthetic marking in early Italic branches. These parallels across Indo-Iranian, Italic, and other branches confirm the prehistoric unity of the pronoun system via the comparative method. Over time, many Indo-European descendants underwent a typological shift from PIE's synthetic case system—where object pronouns were morphologically marked—to analytic structures relying on prepositions or word order, as evidenced in the evolution toward modern Romance and Germanic languages. In non-Indo-European contexts, Proto-Afroasiatic (PAA), the reconstructed ancestor of Semitic and other African languages spoken circa 10,000–6,000 BCE, featured object pronouns as suffixes, including *-i for the first person singular in early Semitic branches, where it appears as -ī or -ni in Akkadian and Arabic verbal conjugations. Additionally, early language contact influenced pronoun paradigms, such as substrate effects from pre-Roman Celtic or non-Indo-European languages on Romance object clitics, leading to innovations in placement and form in languages like French and Spanish.^[51]

Evolution Across Language Families

In the Indo-European language family, object pronoun systems have undergone significant simplification in some branches while retaining complexity in others. English, for instance, lost its robust case distinctions between Old English and Modern English; in Old English, accusative forms like mec (me) and þē (thee) marked direct objects distinctly from nominative ic (I) and þū (thou), but by Middle English, phonetic erosion and word order rigidification led to the merger into invariant forms me and you (singular and plural). This loss of case marking on pronouns paralleled the broader decay of the inflectional system, driven by phonological reductions and contact influences. In contrast, Latin preserved a full case paradigm for object pronouns, with accusative mē and tē for direct objects and dative mihi and tibi for indirect objects, a system largely retained in modern German through forms like accusative mich and dative mir, where case is still obligatory for distinguishing grammatical roles.^[52]^[53]^[54]^[55] Within the Romance subfamily of Indo-European, object pronouns evolved from full forms in Classical Latin to clitic attachments in Vulgar Latin and subsequent languages, reflecting grammaticalization processes. For example, the demonstrative illu(m) (that one, accusative masculine) reduced phonologically and positionally to become the French direct object clitic le, which obligatorily precedes the verb and functions as a bound morpheme; similar shifts occurred across Romance, with Spanish lo and Italian lo deriving from the same source, marking a transition from independent pronouns to verb-adjacent elements that influence verb agreement. This cliticization was accelerated by spoken Latin's analytic tendencies and syntactic changes favoring preverbal placement. In Germanic languages, a notable shift involved the second-person object pronouns, where the singular informal thee (from Old English þē) merged with the plural/formal you (from ēow) by the 17th century, largely due to social leveling that eroded T-V distinctions in address, as egalitarian movements like Quaker usage promoted uniform forms to avoid hierarchy.^[56]^[57] Non-Indo-European families exhibit parallel yet distinct evolutions in object marking. In Japanese (Japonic family), object marking transitioned from topic- and subject-marked structures in Classical Japanese—where particles like wa (topic) and ga (subject) often highlighted discourse roles—to a dedicated accusative particle o for direct objects by the medieval period, as o grammaticalized from a pragmatic focus marker into a strict case indicator around the 11th century, enhancing syntactic clarity in SOV word order. Cross-linguistically, universal trends include the grammaticalization of object pronouns into verb affixes, as seen in many agglutinative languages where free pronouns become incorporated markers (e.g., in Bantu languages, pronouns fuse as verbal suffixes), reducing independence while preserving referential function. Additionally, gender neutralization has progressed over time in pronoun systems; in Indo-European branches like English, third-person object pronouns shifted from gendered him/her distinctions to neutral them in generic contexts, a pattern echoed in other families through merger of masculine/feminine forms into epicene ones amid semantic simplification. In the 20th and 21st centuries, English-influenced languages worldwide have seen the rise of inclusive object pronouns, particularly the adoption of singular them for nonbinary individuals, spreading via globalization and media to varieties like Indian English and Australian English, where style guides now endorse it for gender neutrality. This contemporary evolution builds on historical neutralizations but is propelled by social advocacy, contrasting with more conservative retention in languages like German.^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]

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[46]
[PDF] A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN - Academia Prisca
Other common Proto-Indo-European forms were méwijos/ménjos, téwijos, séwijos. Forms for the first and second persons are sometimes reconstructed as emós, tewós.
[47]
Afroasiatic Personal Pronouns - in: Diachronic Perspectives on ...
The study reconstructs the Afroasiatic pronominal protosystem across six branches: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic. It identifies ...
[48]
[PDF] The Decay of the Case System in the English Language - DiVA portal
The aim of this essay is to investigate when and why the English language changed from being an inflectional language to being an analytic one.
[49]
[PDF] An Examination of the Old English Case Marking System As ...
However, through the course of its development, Old English lost part of its Germanic morphology: the case-marking system. The loss of this system had such an ...
[50]
Cases in Indo-European Languages: an article by Cyril Babaev
Many late Indo-European languages lost instrumental, it sometimes was unified with dative, genitive or changed by a prepositional combination. Old English had ...
[51]
8 Case theory - Penn Linguistics
In particular, the subjects of finite clauses in German appear in a form called the nominative case, whereas direct objects appear in the accusative. (3) gives ...
[52]
(PDF) Clitic pronouns: phonology, morphology, and syntax
... vulgar Latin to the Romance languages, one of the most important. innovations is the development of clitic pronouns: while vulgar Latin had only one series ...
[53]
Historical overview | Romance Object Clitics - Oxford Academic
From the sixth century onwards Vulgar Latin was not the language of the vulgus any more, as linguistic innovations began to characterize the variety spoken by ...
[54]
[PDF] The grammaticalization of object pronouns - CORE
Dec 11, 2023 · In some languages, they even resemble affixes in that they are closely integrated into the predicate, illustrated for Central Kurdish (17).
[55]
[PDF] UC Merced - eScholarship
Evolution of Gender in Indo-European Languages. Harry E. Foundalis (hfoundal ... feminine assignments to inanimate objects existed even in the original Indo- ...
[56]
[PDF] The Globalization of English and Gender-Inclusive Language
Dec 20, 2021 · Singular 'they' is used as a gender-neutral pronoun, especially for nonbinary individuals, and is gaining popularity as a primary nonbinary ...Missing: 21st | Show results with:21st
[57]
From a pragmatic marker to a direct object marker: The Japanese ...
The study quantitatively examines the evolution of the Japanese particle 'o' from the 11th century to Modern Japanese. Evidence suggests that 'o' was ...<|separator|>