Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Overjustification effect

The overjustification effect is a psychological phenomenon in which extrinsic rewards provided for engaging in an intrinsically motivating activity undermine the individual's subsequent intrinsic motivation for that activity, leading them to attribute their behavior more to the external incentive than to personal interest. This effect, first empirically demonstrated in a 1973 field experiment with preschool children, showed that those promised a reward for drawing—a task they initially enjoyed—spent significantly less free time on it afterward compared to children who received no reward or an unexpected one, with the expected-reward group allocating only 8.59% of free-choice time versus 16.73% for the no-reward group.^[1] The concept is rooted in self-perception theory, positing that individuals infer their own motivations from observable external cues, overjustifying their actions as driven by the reward rather than inherent enjoyment. Subsequent research has replicated and extended these findings across diverse populations and contexts, confirming the effect's robustness while identifying moderators such as the type of reward and task engagement. For instance, a 1999 meta-analysis of 128 studies found that extrinsic rewards decreased intrinsic motivation, with an overall average effect size of d = -0.24 for free-choice measures, stronger for tangible (d = -0.34) and engagement-contingent rewards (d = -0.40), particularly for interesting tasks, though verbal rewards often had positive impacts (d = 0.33), while completion-contingent rewards also generally decreased motivation (d = -0.36).^[2] Another meta-analysis of 50 experiments from 1974 to 1992 reported a moderate overall effect (r = -0.20), stronger when intrinsic motivation was operationally measured via free-choice persistence rather than self-reports.^[3] These studies highlight that the effect is not universal but depends on factors like reward contingency and individual differences in perceived autonomy. The overjustification effect has significant implications for education, parenting, and organizational behavior, where over-reliance on extrinsic incentives like grades, prizes, or bonuses can erode long-term engagement and creativity. In educational settings, for example, excessive rewards for reading or problem-solving may reduce children's voluntary pursuit of these activities, prompting recommendations to prioritize intrinsic motivators such as autonomy and mastery. Despite some debates over its boundary conditions—such as weaker effects in competitive environments or with performance-contingent rewards—the effect remains a cornerstone of motivation theory, influencing self-determination theory's emphasis on supporting internal drives to foster sustained behavior.

Fundamentals

Definition

The overjustification effect is a psychological phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for engaging in an inherently enjoyable activity undermines or diminishes an individual's pre-existing intrinsic motivation to perform that activity.^[4] Individuals come to attribute their participation more to the external incentive, such as money or praise, rather than to personal interest or satisfaction derived from the task itself.^[5] This effect highlights how external motivators can shift the perceived cause of behavior away from internal drives. At its core, the mechanism involves a form of motivational crowding out, where tangible extrinsic rewards overshadow intrinsic factors like curiosity, enjoyment, or a sense of competence.^[5] For instance, a child who initially draws pictures for the sheer pleasure of creative expression may lose interest in drawing once stickers are provided as rewards for each completed artwork, perceiving the activity as a means to obtain the stickers rather than an end in itself.^[4] This effect is distinct from broader distinctions in motivation theory between intrinsic motivation—driven by internal satisfaction and personal fulfillment—and extrinsic motivation, which relies on external contingencies like rewards or punishments.^[5] Unlike overjustification, where expected rewards reduce intrinsic interest, unexpected rewards typically do not produce this undermining effect, as they fail to alter attributions toward external causes.^[4]

Historical Background

The overjustification effect emerged in the 1970s during a pivotal shift in psychological research from behaviorism, which emphasized external reinforcements to shape behavior, to cognitivism, which highlighted internal mental processes and attributions in motivation.^[6] This transition challenged B.F. Skinner's reinforcement schedules, which viewed motivation primarily as a response to external contingencies rather than intrinsic factors.^[7] A key intellectual foundation was Fritz Heider's attribution theory, outlined in his 1958 book The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, which posited that individuals infer their own motivations from observed behaviors and external cues, influencing later self-perception interpretations of rewards.^[8] Building on this, Edward L. Deci provided the first empirical demonstration of the effect in his 1971 study, showing how external rewards could undermine intrinsic interest in puzzle-solving tasks.^[9] The term "overjustification" was popularized by Mark R. Lepper and colleagues in their 1973 paper in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, which framed the phenomenon as an attributional process where children attributed their drawing activities to expected external rewards rather than inherent enjoyment.^[4] Deci further integrated these ideas in his 1975 book Intrinsic Motivation, synthesizing early research to argue that extrinsic incentives often shift perceived causes of behavior away from internal drives.^[10]

Empirical Evidence

Seminal Experiments

One of the foundational experiments establishing the overjustification effect was conducted by Edward L. Deci in 1971, involving 24 female undergraduate students at the University of Rochester. Participants engaged in solving SOMA spatial puzzles, described as highly interesting and challenging, across three one-hour sessions; interest was pre-assessed to ensure baseline intrinsic motivation. In the experimental design, students were randomly assigned to three conditions: an expected monetary reward group (paid $1 for working on the puzzles in session 2), a no-reward control group, and an unexpected reward group (offered payment at the end of session 2 without prior expectation). The key measure of intrinsic motivation was the time spent voluntarily working on the puzzles during free-choice periods in session 3, after rewards were removed. Results showed that the expected reward group spent a mean of 3.3 minutes on the puzzles compared to the no-reward group (mean of 6.1 minutes), while the unexpected reward group exhibited no significant decline, suggesting that anticipated external incentives undermined intrinsic interest.^[11] Building on Deci's work, Mark R. Lepper, David Greene, and Richard E. Nisbett conducted a seminal field experiment in 1973 with 51 preschool children at the Bing Nursery School at Stanford University, focusing on an activity with established intrinsic appeal: free drawing with felt-tip markers. Children, aged 3 to 5, who demonstrated prior interest in drawing were randomly assigned to one of three conditions during an initial "magic marker" session: an expected reward condition (promised a "Good Player Award" certificate for participation), a no-reward control condition, and an unexpected reward condition (awarded the certificate without prior promise). Intrinsic motivation was assessed one to two weeks later by observing time spent choosing and engaging in drawing during unstructured free-play periods, serving as a behavioral proxy for interest. The expected reward group spent roughly half as much time drawing (about 7.5 minutes on average) compared to the no-reward group (about 15 minutes), whereas the unexpected reward group showed no decrement, providing strong evidence that anticipated extrinsic rewards reduced subsequent voluntary engagement.^[1] Judith M. Harackiewicz extended these findings in a 1979 laboratory study examining the role of reward contingency on puzzle-solving motivation among 93 high school students. Participants solved hidden-figures puzzles, rated as moderately interesting, under one of four conditions: performance-contingent rewards (payment based on puzzle performance with feedback), task-contingent rewards (flat payment for participation regardless of output), performance feedback without rewards, or no-reward control. Free-choice time spent on similar puzzles afterward measured intrinsic motivation. Contrary to uniform undermining, performance-contingent rewards increased free-choice persistence (mean 5.8 minutes) compared to task-contingent rewards (mean 3.2 minutes) or no-reward controls (mean 3.9 minutes), attributed to the rewards' role in enhancing perceived competence; however, task-contingent rewards replicated the typical overjustification decrement.^[12] Early applications to prosocial behaviors included blood donation studies in the late 1970s and 1980s, which revealed gender differences in sensitivity to rewards; for instance, monetary incentives reduced repeat donation rates more among women than men, consistent with overjustification principles applied to altruistic acts.^[13] Across these experiments, a common methodological approach was the use of free-choice paradigms, where participants' voluntary task engagement post-reward served as a behavioral indicator of intrinsic motivation, emphasizing natural interest over forced measures. Recent replications have yielded mixed results, underscoring ongoing debates about the effect's boundary conditions.^[11]^[1]

Replications and Meta-Analyses

Early replications of the overjustification effect in the 1980s largely confirmed the phenomenon in controlled laboratory settings, with studies on children demonstrating reduced interest in activities like drawing or playing with toys following exposure to tangible rewards, and similar patterns observed among adults in tasks such as puzzle-solving.^[14] These findings were consistent across diverse age groups, though field-based replications in naturalistic environments, such as classrooms, yielded mixed results, with some showing persistent intrinsic motivation despite rewards.^[15] Key meta-analyses have synthesized decades of research on the effect. Cameron and Pierce's 1994 analysis of 45 studies found a small overall negative impact of rewards on intrinsic motivation (effect size r = -0.06), primarily under task-noncontingent conditions, suggesting limited undermining in most scenarios. In contrast, Deci, Koestner, and Ryan's 1999 meta-analysis of 128 experiments robustly supported the overjustification hypothesis, revealing that tangible, engagement-contingent rewards reliably decreased intrinsic motivation (effect size r = -0.24), while verbal rewards showed no such effect.^[2] Cameron's 2001 review of 96 studies reported a modest negative effect size (d = -0.24) for tangible rewards but emphasized no undermining from verbal praise and argued that methodological controls often eliminated the effect, sparking ongoing debate.^[16] Recent post-2020 research has extended these findings to contemporary contexts. A 2024 cross-cultural study comparing Chinese (collectivist) and Dutch (individualist) university students found monetary rewards improved learning outcomes more in the Chinese sample than the Dutch, with rewards enhancing memory regardless of autonomy in the former but being less effective under high autonomy in the latter.^[17] A 2022 replication of Deci’s seminal 1971 experiment using modern undergraduate samples failed to find significant negative side effects of extrinsic reinforcement, with the reward group spending slightly more free-choice time on the task (non-significant), highlighting questions about the effect's persistence in educational settings.^[18] Additionally, a 2024 review integrated the overjustification effect with the crowding-out phenomenon, proposing that rewards function beyond simple dichotomies by serving as initial engagement tools that can foster intrinsic motivation through knowledge acquisition, provided they are timed to avoid salience during established interest phases.^[19] These developments have addressed key gaps, particularly by incorporating digital and remote learning contexts post-COVID-19, where studies on gamified online platforms have tested reward structures to mitigate overjustification in virtual environments.^[20]

Theoretical Explanations

Self-Perception Theory

Self-perception theory, proposed by Daryl Bem in 1967, suggests that individuals infer their own attitudes and internal states by observing their own behavior in situations where direct internal cues are weak or ambiguous. According to this framework, people act as naive psychologists, attributing their actions to external or internal causes based on the context, much like they would for others' behaviors. This process is particularly relevant when situational pressures are salient, leading individuals to discount potential intrinsic motivations in favor of external explanations. In the context of the overjustification effect, self-perception theory posits that the introduction of extrinsic rewards prompts individuals to attribute their engagement in a task to those rewards rather than any inherent interest. For instance, when people receive payment or praise for an activity, they may observe their behavior and conclude, "I must have done this for the reward," thereby reducing their perceived intrinsic motivation. This attributional shift explains why external incentives can undermine enjoyment, as the reward becomes the inferred primary cause of the behavior. This theoretical lens directly accounts for findings from Edward Deci's 1971 experiments, where participants who solved puzzles for monetary rewards subsequently rated the activity as less enjoyable and spent less free time on it compared to those without rewards. In these cases, the presence of the external incentive led participants to infer that their initial engagement stemmed from the reward, overshadowing any intrinsic appeal. However, self-perception theory's explanatory power is most robust in scenarios with low or ambiguous intrinsic motivation, where internal cues are insufficient to guide attributions. It applies less effectively when strong prior intrinsic interest provides clear internal evidence, potentially limiting its scope for highly engaging tasks. Additionally, the theory focuses on cognitive inference processes without incorporating broader psychological needs, such as the sense of autonomy in motivation.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), a subtheory within self-determination theory developed by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, posits that intrinsic motivation thrives when individuals experience satisfaction of their basic psychological needs for autonomy and competence in relation to an activity.^[21] Autonomy refers to the perception of volitional endorsement of one's actions, while competence involves feeling effective and masterful in performing tasks.^[21] According to CET, social and environmental factors, such as rewards and feedback, influence these perceptions and thereby affect the quality and persistence of intrinsic motivation.^[21] In the context of the overjustification effect, CET explains how extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation by decreasing perceived autonomy and shifting the perceived locus of causality from internal (self-endorsed reasons) to external (reward-driven reasons).^[22] Specifically, rewards that are contingent on performance or compliance—termed controlling rewards—are interpreted as pressuring individuals to behave in prescribed ways, thereby reducing their sense of self-determination and leading to a decline in interest and engagement post-reward.^[21] This process accounts for the overjustification phenomenon, where the introduction of such rewards causes people to attribute their prior intrinsic interest to the external incentive rather than inherent enjoyment.^[22] CET distinguishes between controlling and informational rewards as key components influencing motivation. Informational rewards, such as positive feedback that affirms competence without imposing pressure, can enhance intrinsic motivation by bolstering feelings of efficacy while preserving autonomy.^[21] In contrast, competence feedback becomes detrimental if delivered in a controlling manner. This framework also elucidates why unexpected rewards typically do not undermine intrinsic motivation: lacking contingency, they are less likely to be perceived as controlling and thus maintain the internal locus of causality.^[23] Empirical support for these dynamics comes from meta-analytic reviews confirming the undermining effects of controlling rewards across diverse studies.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory (SDT), developed by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, provides an integrative framework for understanding human motivation, positioning the overjustification effect within a broader model of psychological needs and regulatory processes.^[21] At its core, SDT posits three universal basic psychological needs—autonomy (experiencing behavior as self-endorsed), competence (feeling effective in one's actions), and relatedness (forming meaningful connections with others)—that are essential for fostering intrinsic motivation and well-being.^[21] These needs form the foundation for optimal functioning, with their satisfaction promoting self-initiated engagement in activities, while thwarting them leads to diminished motivation and psychological health issues.^[21] Central to SDT is the continuum of motivation, ranging from amotivation (lack of intent) through various forms of extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation (engagement for its inherent satisfaction). Extrinsic motivation is further differentiated by the degree of internalization, as outlined in the organismic integration theory (OIT), a subtheory of SDT that describes how individuals assimilate external regulations into their sense of self.^[21] The process involves a progression from external regulation (behavior driven by external rewards or punishments) to introjected regulation (partial internalization motivated by internal pressures like guilt), identified regulation (valuing the behavior personally), and integrated regulation (full assimilation congruent with one's values).^[21] This integration is facilitated when social contexts support the basic needs, allowing extrinsic motivators to enhance rather than undermine self-determination.^[21] In the context of the overjustification effect, SDT explains how extrinsic rewards can disrupt intrinsic motivation by thwarting autonomy and competence, shifting regulation toward more external or introjected forms that dominate over internalized or intrinsic processes.^[21] When rewards are perceived as controlling, they signal that the activity's value lies outside the self, reducing the perceived endorsement of one's actions and leading to a motivational shift away from enjoyment toward compliance.^[21] OIT highlights overjustification as an instance where external regulation overrides the natural tendency toward internalization, particularly when needs are undermined, resulting in decreased persistence and satisfaction in the activity post-reward.^[21] SDT has evolved since its foundational articulation in Deci and Ryan's 1985 work, with significant updates in the 2000s incorporating cultural nuances while affirming the universality of the basic needs.^[21] Research in this period demonstrated that while the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness hold across cultures, their expression and the pathways to internalization can vary, such as in collectivistic contexts where relatedness may play a stronger role in facilitating autonomy.^[21] These developments emphasize SDT's applicability to diverse social environments, refining its explanation of how contextual factors influence motivational outcomes like overjustification.^[21]

Controversies and Criticisms

Methodological Debates

Research on the overjustification effect has commonly employed two primary methods to assess intrinsic motivation: free-choice persistence, where participants' voluntary engagement with a task after reward removal is observed (e.g., time spent on puzzles without incentives), and self-reported interest, typically measured via questionnaires rating enjoyment or perceived value of the activity.^[24] These approaches, pioneered in seminal studies like Deci (1971), allow for controlled comparisons between rewarded and non-rewarded groups but have faced criticism for relying on short-term laboratory tasks that fail to capture sustained, real-world motivation dynamics.^[25] Critics argue that such designs, often spanning only minutes or hours, produce transient dips in engagement that dissipate over longer periods, as evidenced by experiments showing motivation recovery within a few trials post-reward.^[26] Sample biases further undermine the generalizability of findings, with early and subsequent studies disproportionately drawing from WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) populations, particularly university students. For instance, Deci (1971) utilized a homogenous sample of 24 northeastern U.S. undergraduates in its primary experiment, limiting insights into diverse demographic responses and introducing potential cultural or socioeconomic confounds.^[27] Small sample sizes were prevalent in foundational work, exacerbating statistical underpowering and increasing the risk of Type II errors, where true effects might go undetected due to insufficient participants (e.g., n=24 in Deci, 1971; even smaller in its follow-up experiments).^[27] Measurement concerns are prominent, as proxy indicators like time spent during free-choice periods may confound genuine interest with habitual behavior or residual task familiarity, rather than reflecting underlying motivational shifts.^[24] Self-reported interest is particularly susceptible to demand characteristics, where participants infer the experiment's hypothesis and adjust responses accordingly, especially in transparent lab settings; correlations between free-choice and self-report measures average only 0.35, indicating inconsistent validity.^[24] These issues are compounded by interpersonal factors, such as the perceived controlling nature of reward administration, which can amplify perceived external pressure and distort motivational attributions.^[24] Statistical challenges include evidence of publication bias favoring positive (undermining) findings, though some meta-analyses find no significant difference between published and unpublished studies, suggesting selective reporting still inflates perceived reliability.^[24] Effect sizes are generally small, with meta-analytic estimates around d = -0.24 for free-choice measures and d = -0.07 for self-reports under tangible rewards, indicating modest practical impact that may not hold across varied contexts.^[24] High heterogeneity in effect sizes (e.g., Q(100) = 287.62, p < .0001) underscores the need for refined methodologies to isolate the overjustification effect from confounds.^[24]

Contextual and Cultural Variations

The overjustification effect varies significantly depending on the nature of the task, with stronger undermining of intrinsic motivation observed when rewards are applied to inherently interesting activities compared to dull or unengaging ones. In a comprehensive meta-analysis of 128 studies, extrinsic rewards reduced intrinsic motivation more pronouncedly for tasks rated as interesting (effect size d = -0.24) than for uninteresting tasks (d = -0.05), suggesting that individuals attribute their engagement to external incentives when the activity is already enjoyable on its own. Furthermore, the type of reward plays a moderating role: controlling rewards, such as those contingent on performance, tend to exacerbate the effect, whereas informational rewards—those providing feedback without pressure—either have neutral or positive impacts on motivation, as they align with and support internal interests rather than overshadowing them. Cultural contexts also influence the manifestation of the overjustification effect, particularly along dimensions of individualism versus collectivism. A 2024 cross-cultural study comparing Dutch (individualistic) and Chinese (collectivist) university students found that extrinsic rewards enhanced learning outcomes more strongly in the Chinese group (β = 0.55) than in the Dutch group (β = 0.19), with evidence of overjustification-like undermining specifically in Dutch high achievers under autonomy-present conditions (β = 0.01), though the Chinese results reflected a different motivational dynamic less tied to such crowding out.^[28] This pattern aligns with broader evidence indicating that the effect is amplified in individualistic cultures due to a heightened cultural emphasis on personal autonomy, making external incentives more likely to crowd out self-directed drive, whereas in interdependent cultures like those in East Asia, social-oriented motivations buffer the undermining, resulting in minimal or inconsistent effects.^[29]^[30] Recent research from 2020 to 2025 has highlighted emerging moderators, including gender differences in reward sensitivity. In blood donation contexts, gender variations show women experiencing stronger crowding-out of intrinsic motivation from monetary incentives compared to men, who maintain higher donation rates under such rewards due to differing baseline altruistic drives.^[31] Meta-analyses indicate consistent effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation across laboratory and field settings, though field studies—such as those on workplace incentives—may introduce additional variables like task complexity and social dynamics that can moderate outcomes in specific contexts.^[24]

Practical Applications

Education

In educational settings, the overjustification effect manifests when external incentives such as grades or prizes diminish students' intrinsic curiosity and engagement in learning activities, particularly in subjects like reading. For instance, providing monetary rewards for reading can shift children's attribution of enjoyment from the activity itself to the reward, leading to reduced voluntary reading time post-reward. A 2019 blog post from a Penn State University applied social psychology course discussed how excessive external rewards in classrooms can lower overall student engagement by overshadowing internal drives for learning.^[32] Studies on token economies in classrooms further illustrate this impact, where contingent rewards for behaviors like task completion often result in post-reward dropout, as students cease the activity once tokens are removed. In one investigation of token systems, higher reward magnitudes led to poorer maintenance of behaviors such as toothbrushing after the program ended, supporting the overjustification hypothesis in applied educational contexts. A meta-analysis of 128 studies confirmed that tangible, engagement-contingent rewards significantly undermine free-choice intrinsic motivation (effect size d = -0.40), with similar patterns observed in classroom settings. To mitigate the overjustification effect, educators can employ unexpected rewards, which show no significant undermining of intrinsic motivation (d = 0.01), or autonomy-supportive incentives that provide choice in tasks, thereby preserving students' sense of self-determination. Focusing on mastery goals—emphasizing personal improvement over performance-contingent outcomes—also helps sustain long-term interest by aligning rewards with internal competence needs rather than external evaluation.^[33] Evidence from recent research underscores these dynamics: a 2025 review of motivation in learning found that students perceive extrinsic motivators like grades as fostering short-term compliance and performance gains but contributing to long-term disinterest when they feel controlling, based on qualitative analyses of self-reports and classroom observations.^[34] The effect is particularly pronounced in younger children, whose developing self-attribution processes make them more susceptible to interpreting external rewards as the primary reason for engagement, as opposed to older students who can better differentiate intrinsic drivers.

Workplace

In professional environments, the overjustification effect often emerges when extrinsic rewards like performance bonuses undermine intrinsic motivation for creative tasks, resulting in diminished innovation and problem-solving. Research demonstrates that tying rewards explicitly to creative output—such as bonuses for generating new ideas—shifts employees' attributions from personal interest to external incentives, leading to lower-quality creative performance. For instance, in an experimental study involving artistic tasks, participants who agreed to a reward contract produced significantly less creative work than those without such conditions, as the reward salience reduced perceived self-determination.^[35] This phenomenon contributes to a broader shift in mindset, where employees transition from deriving intrinsic satisfaction from their roles to viewing work primarily as a means for pay, eroding long-term engagement and job fulfillment. Studies on sales incentives illustrate this, showing that while commissions may drive immediate results, they can reduce sustained effort by fostering dependency on external validation rather than internal drive. A field experiment in an organizational setting found that expected monetary rewards for task completion decreased subsequent voluntary engagement, supporting the overjustification hypothesis in real-world professional contexts. Recent analyses highlight the side effects of extrinsic reinforcement in organizational settings, confirming that over-reliance on such systems can crowd out intrinsic motivation and impair persistent performance. A 2024 review examined how rewards initially spark engagement but often lead to motivational decline in structured work environments when intrinsic value is not nurtured.^[19] To counteract these effects, organizations can adopt strategies like non-contingent rewards, such as baseline salaries that provide security without tying pay directly to outputs, thereby avoiding attribution shifts. Emphasizing employee autonomy in goal-setting further mitigates crowding out, as it aligns with basic psychological needs for competence and relatedness, preserving intrinsic motivation. High-reward cultures focused on extrinsic incentives, however, risk elevated turnover, as the erosion of intrinsic value correlates with increased intentions to leave; empirical data from workplace surveys show intrinsic motivation negatively predicts turnover by enhancing overall satisfaction and commitment.^[36]

Gaming and Volunteering

In video games, the overjustification effect manifests when extrinsic rewards such as loot boxes or achievements overshadow intrinsic enjoyment, leading players to prioritize reward acquisition over the core gameplay experience. For instance, in games like Overwatch, the arcade mode's system of awarding loot boxes for wins—containing cosmetic items and currency—initially boosts participation but causes players to focus on reaching the weekly cap (three boxes every five days) rather than the fun of modes like 3v3 elimination. Once the cap is met, motivation drops sharply, with players abandoning the mode entirely, as the external incentive no longer applies.^[37] Similarly, achievement systems in various titles can reduce play enjoyment by shifting attention from narrative or exploratory elements to checklist completion, potentially causing players to perceive the game as a task-oriented grind rather than a leisure activity.^[38] This effect is particularly evident in massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), where repetitive grinding for rewards fosters a mentality centered on extrinsic gains, diminishing long-term intrinsic engagement. Players often report burnout from constant progression loops tied to loot or levels, where the initial thrill of world-building or social interaction gives way to obligatory farming sessions solely for upgrades. Gamification elements like points systems exacerbate this, as research indicates they can lead to emotional exhaustion when rewards dominate, turning playful activities into pressured obligations.^[39]^[40] In volunteering contexts, extrinsic incentives such as certificates or tax credits can undermine the altruistic drive by triggering the overjustification effect, making participants question their intrinsic motives for helping others. Economic analyses of prosocial behavior show that such rewards create doubt about the purity of one's intentions, reducing the reputational or self-image benefits derived from unpaid service and thereby crowding out voluntary participation.^[41] Empirical studies further reveal that rewarded volunteers are less likely to continue their efforts after incentives end; for example, in experiments with university students making items for charity, those receiving monetary compensation ($1 or $10) showed a trend toward decreased volunteering time in subsequent sessions compared to an unrewarded control group, though results were not statistically significant due to sample size.^[42] Certificates, as symbolic rewards, similarly signal external validation over internal satisfaction, potentially lowering persistence in nonprofit activities.^[41] Gender differences appear in broader volunteering patterns, with women generally reporting stronger intrinsic motivations like helping others, which may make them more susceptible to overjustification when rewards are introduced, though direct studies on reward responses show no significant variation between genders.^[43]^[42] To mitigate the overjustification effect, designers in gaming emphasize intrinsic-focused approaches, such as narrative-driven games that foster emotional investment through storytelling rather than reward loops. Titles like Flower or The Stanley Parable rely on exploration and personal discovery to sustain motivation, avoiding extrinsic badges that could erode enjoyment.^[44] In nonprofits, non-monetary recognition—such as public appreciation or personalized thank-yous—bolsters intrinsic altruism without implying ulterior motives, helping maintain long-term volunteer commitment. Surveys of nonprofit employees indicate that such recognition significantly enhances motivation, with 80% reporting improved engagement from non-financial acknowledgments.^[45]^[46]

Sports and Crowdsourcing

In sports, the overjustification effect manifests when external incentives such as scholarships or prizes undermine young athletes' intrinsic passion for the activity. A study of former Division I college athletes found that those who received athletic scholarships reported significantly lower current-day enjoyment of playing their sport (mean = 3.66 on a 7-point scale) compared to non-scholarship athletes (mean = 4.44), an effect persisting decades after their playing careers.^[47] This long-term undermining aligns with self-determination theory's emphasis on autonomy, where contingent rewards shift focus from personal enjoyment to external validation.^[47] Among professional athletes, lucrative endorsements and contracts can similarly erode intrinsic motivation, leading to performance declines post-signing. Analysis of National Basketball Association and Major League Baseball players revealed a "contract-year syndrome," where performance boosts during negotiation years (e.g., higher scoring and win contributions) are followed by significant drops afterward, interpreted as extrinsic incentives crowding out internal drive.^[48] For instance, players' relative performance improved by about 5-10% in contract years but declined comparably in subsequent seasons, supporting the overjustification mechanism.^[48] In crowdsourcing platforms like Amazon Mechanical Turk, monetary bounties often reduce voluntary contributions and intrinsic engagement. Experiments in crowdsourced disaster response tasks showed that when no minimum work was required alongside fixed payments, participants completed a median of 31 ratings voluntarily, compared to only 16-19 when quotas were imposed, indicating crowding-out of intrinsic motivation.^[49] Participants in quota conditions more frequently cited "following instructions" as their motive (21.7%) rather than interest, highlighting a shift away from self-directed participation.^[49] Rewards in crowdsourcing can also diminish output quality when they dominate, particularly for creative tasks. In a study using Mechanical Turk for idea generation, expected monetary rewards reduced intrinsic motivation and creativity scores (change of -0.14 in motivation) unless paired with fair evaluation procedures, where high procedural justice (e.g., expert judging) preserved or enhanced creative performance (change of +1.13).^[50] Platform analyses further indicate that paid tasks yield less innovative solutions compared to voluntary ones, as extrinsic focus prioritizes completion over depth.^[50] To mitigate these effects in sports, coaches can emphasize team relatedness and personal goals over individual prizes, fostering autonomy-supportive environments that sustain intrinsic motivation.^[51] In crowdsourcing, hybrid reward systems combining monetary incentives with non-contingent prizes (e.g., recognition for effort) have been shown to crowd in motivation, boosting participation without undermining intrinsic interest. Evidence from amateur versus professional athlete comparisons reinforces these strategies, as non-rewarded amateurs maintain higher long-term engagement than pros exposed to financial pressures.^[47]

References

[1]
[PDF] Undermining Children's Intrinsic Interest with Extrinsic Reward: A ...
The overjustification hypothesis implies that such contractual techniques may backfire for at least those children initially interested in the activities ...
[2]
Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation.
Conducted 2 laboratory and 1 field experiment with 24, 24, and 8 undergraduates to investigate the effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivation to ...
[3]
What Happened to Behaviorism
Mar 1, 2004 · In this version of history, there was something wrong with behaviorism in the 1970s ... cognitive psychologists tend to ignore learning history ...
[4]
[PDF] SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT | BF Skinner Foundation
Moreover, schedules contribute to a clarification of the topic of motivation in that they can account for patterns and cycles of behavior. The significance of ...
[5]
[PDF] The Psychology - of Interpersonal Relations - Cipra
The Psychology of. Interpersonal. Relations. FRITZ HEIDER. University of Kansas. Page 3. THIRD PRINTING, APRIL, 1964. Copyright @ 1958 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc ...
[6]
[PDF] Effects of Externally Mediated Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation
The results indicate that (a) when money was used as an external reward, intrinsic motivation tended to decrease, whereas (b) when verbal reinforcement and ...
[7]
Intrinsic Motivation - SpringerLink
This book presents a theoretical perspective. It reviews an enormous amount of research which establishes unequivocally that intrinsic motivation exists.
[8]
http://cipra.cl/biblioteca/heider/1958-FritzHeider-ThePsychologyofInterpersonalRelations.pdf
[9]
http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/1971_Deci.pdf
[10]
https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4613-4446-9
[11]
Prosocial Motivation and Blood Donations: A Survey of the Empirical ...
While the propensity to donate of men was unaffected by any of the treatments, women did react strongly to the treatments: donation rates were markedly lower ...
[12]
Intrinsic motivation and the overjustification effect: A failure to replicate.
Results indicate that the overjustification effect was not replicated in either study; the choice of alternate tasks available during the free-play periodMissing: 1980s | Show results with:1980s
[13]
(PDF) Re-Examining the Overjustification Effect - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Reinforcement, reward, and intrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research,64, 363–423. Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. ...
[14]
A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the ... - PubMed
A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[15]
Reinforcement, Reward, and Intrinsic Motivation: A Meta-Analysis
This article reviews research on the effects of reinforcement/reward on intrinsic motivation. The main meta-analysis included 96 experimental studies that ...
[16]
A cross-cultural comparison of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational ...
Oct 18, 2024 · In the current study, we aim to fill this research gap by investigating how diverse cultural backgrounds, taking Chinese and Dutch cultures as ...
[17]
An Evaluation of the Overjustification Hypothesis: A Replication of
Oct 9, 2025 · The overjustification effect is a cited criticism of educational and other programs that use reward and reinforcers. The overjustification ...
[18]
The role of rewards in motivation—Beyond dichotomies
Existing empirical research has supported the undermining effect (also known as the overjustification effect, Lepper et al., 1973, or the crowding-out effect ...
[19]
Validating the impact of gamified technology-enhanced learning ...
Nov 12, 2024 · This research focuses on validating the impact of gamified technology-enhanced learning environments (TELEs) on motivation and academic performance.
[20]
[PDF] Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation ...
Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) was presented by. Deci and Ryan (1985) as a subtheory within SDT that had the aim of specifying factors that explain ...
[21]
https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf
[22]
[PDF] Cognitive Evaluation Theory, Part I - ELABORER
Deci and Ryan (1980a, 1985b) argued that the introduction of extrinsic rewards for an activity that is intrinsically motivated can prompt a change in PLOC from ...
[23]
https://www.elaborer.org/cours/A23/lectures/Ryan2017_chap6.pdf
[24]
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627
[25]
Short-Term Rewards Don't Sap Long-Term Motivation - Chicago Booth
May 16, 2018 · The effects wear off. Motivational theories and research suggest that incentives reduce intrinsic motivation, and lower task engagement. But ...Missing: critique | Show results with:critique<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
[PDF] Beyond Reinforcement: Deci (1971) on the Effects of Rewards on Self
These experiments emerged from a doctoral dissertation by Edward Deci, a social psychologist examining the impact of external rewards on intrinsic motivation.
[27]
https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/2019_RyanRyanDiDomencio_Deci1971.pdf
[28]
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-024-01228-2
[29]
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01769-5
[30]
Digital credentials for environmental... | Open Research Europe
May 19, 2025 · Research demonstrates that external rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation through a process called the 'overjustification effect,' ...
[31]
[PDF] Gender differences in the crowding-out effect of extrinsic motivation on
Some studies have shown that when women respond to the cash reward of donating blood, their intrinsic motivation is more crowded out than men, but this effect ...
[32]
The Overjustification Effect in Education - Sites at Penn State
Mar 24, 2019 · This shift in motivation is known as the overjustification effect, the loss of motivation and interest as a result of receiving an excessive external reward.
[33]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
[34]
[PDF] Motivation for Learning Review - University of South Australia
While extrinsic motivation has sometimes been viewed as undermining intrinsic engagement, research suggests that when learners feel a sense of ownership over.
[35]
[PDF] Social Influences on Creativity: The Effects of Contracted-for Reward
Several studies have demonstrated the overjustification effect: Offering a reward for an enjoyable behavior can decrease the likelihood that the behavior will ...
[36]
How Much Does Extrinsic Motivation or Intrinsic Motivation Affect ...
The results show that intrinsic motivation correlated with positive outcomes and had a negative correlation with psychological distress and turnover intention.Missing: erosion | Show results with:erosion
[37]
Overwatch Overjustification | The Psychology of Games
Nov 21, 2016 · The overjustification effect is when somebody offers an extrinsic reward (like money or in-game currency) for a task that people were initially ...Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
[38]
The Overjustification Effect and Game Achievements
How achievements, trophies, and badges in games can lower player motivation under the wrong circumstances.Missing: loot boxes
[39]
Reward Fatigue - Game Developer
Feb 18, 2020 · The so-called overjustification effect decreases intrinsic motivation after the activity has been linked to extrinsic rewards. Artifact's " ...
[40]
[PDF] The Dark Side of Workplace Gamification: Motivation or Manipulation
While gamified systems are designed to incentivize and reward desired behaviors, they also have the potential to exert undue pressure on employees, fostering ...
[41]
[PDF] Incentives and Prosocial Behavior
Rewards or punishments (whether material or image-related) create doubt about the true motive for which good deeds are performed, and this "overjustification ...Missing: certificates | Show results with:certificates
[42]
[PDF] Paid Volunteerism: The Effects of Monetary Rewards on University ...
Prior studies using the cognitive evaluation theory demonstrate that expected rewards have an undermining effect on motivation, whereas unexpected rewards do ...
[43]
The Gendered Pathways Into Giving and Volunteering: Similar or ...
Jan 16, 2022 · We find that women report stronger motivations to help others, but men report more of the financial resources that make giving and volunteering possible.Missing: reward overjustification
[44]
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation - Game Developer
Examples of games that (mostly) rely on intrinsic motivation are games such as the Stanley parable, flow, minecraft and flower. None of these games have ...
[45]
Rewards and Recognition - Minnesota Council of Nonprofits
Part of effective staff development is remembering to recognize a job well done. Reward and recognition need not always be monetary.
[46]
Non-Monetary Ways to Reward Employees - LinkedIn
(Harvard Business Review) 80% of nonprofit employees say recognition improves their motivation. (Nonprofit HR) So, how often are you acknowledging your team?<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000133
[48]
The contract year syndrome in the NBA and MLB - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · Prior research has shown that contract year performance improves over the prior year in the National Basketball Association (Stiroh, 2007 ...
[49]
[PDF] A Required Work Payment Scheme for Crowdsourced Disaster ...
This is commonly known as the “crowding-out” of intrinsic motivation (or. “overjustification” effect). This effect has been explored empirically in many ...
[50]
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00974
[51]
[PDF] The coach–athlete relationship: a motivational model
Undermining children's interest with extrinsic rewards: a test of the 'overjustification effect'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129–137 ...