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Praise

Praise is the expression of approval, admiration, or commendation for a person's actions, qualities, or achievements, typically delivered verbally or non-verbally as a form of positive reinforcement that combines attention with evaluative feedback.^[1]^[2] In psychological research, praise influences motivation and behavior through mechanisms such as reinforcing desired outcomes, but its effects depend critically on form and context: process-oriented praise, which highlights effort or strategy, boosts intrinsic motivation, persistence, and learning goals, whereas person-oriented praise, emphasizing fixed traits like intelligence, often undermines resilience and performance following setbacks by promoting entity theories of ability.^[3]^[4]^[5] Empirical studies, including longitudinal analyses of parent-child interactions, demonstrate that early exposure to effort-focused praise predicts superior academic outcomes years later, such as in mathematics and reading comprehension, underscoring its causal role in fostering adaptive mindsets.^[6] Controversies arise from evidence that insincere, inflated, or ability-focused praise can erode intrinsic motivation, inflate narcissism, or exacerbate achievement gaps, particularly among lower socioeconomic groups, where it may inadvertently signal lowered expectations and impair perceived competence.^[7]^[8]^[9] From a first-principles perspective grounded in social reinforcement dynamics, praise functions as a proximate mechanism to align individual behaviors with group-beneficial norms, yet its efficacy hinges on authenticity and calibration to avoid extrinsic over-reliance or perceived manipulation.^[10]

Conceptual Foundations

Definition and Etymology

Praise denotes the act of expressing approval, admiration, or commendation for a person's qualities, achievements, or actions, often verbally but also through nonverbal cues such as gestures or facial expressions.^[11] In psychological contexts, it functions as a form of social reinforcement that conveys recognition or reassurance, typically contingent on observed behaviors or outcomes rather than inherent traits.^[10] This distinguishes praise from mere flattery, as authentic praise aligns with verifiable merits, fostering reciprocal esteem rather than unearned deference.^[12] The noun form emerged in Middle English around the 13th century, denoting commendation for virtues or valuable deeds.^[13] Etymologically, "praise" derives from Old French preisier or praisier, meaning "to prize" or "to value," which itself stems from Late Latin pretiāre, an alteration of pretiare "to prize," rooted in Latin pretium "price, reward, or value."^[14] This origin underscores praise's conceptual link to appraisal and worth, reflecting a historical evolution from economic valuation—assigning a "price" to something esteemed—to moral or social approbation.^[11] The term displaced earlier native English words like lof (from Old English lof "praise, permission"), highlighting Norman influence on medieval English lexicon post-1066 Conquest.^[14]

Role in Behavioral Reinforcement

Praise functions as a form of positive reinforcement within operant conditioning frameworks, where it serves as a secondary reinforcer that increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring by associating the action with social approval or pleasure.^[15] In B.F. Skinner's model, verbal praise adds a desirable stimulus following a response, thereby strengthening that response over time, as demonstrated in experiments where contingent praise elevated task engagement and compliance in subjects ranging from animals to humans.^[16] This mechanism operates on causal principles: the immediate delivery of praise after a target behavior creates a contingency that conditions the individual to anticipate approval, thus motivating repetition, with empirical support from shaping procedures where praise incrementally builds complex behaviors.^[17] Studies in educational and developmental settings confirm praise's reinforcing effects, particularly when behavior-specific—explicitly noting the desired action, such as "You completed the math problems quickly"—which boosts on-task behavior and reduces disruptions more effectively than general praise.^[18] A review of classroom interventions found that teacher-delivered praise, at ratios of approximately five praises per one corrective statement, sustains student engagement and prosocial actions, with effect sizes indicating moderate to large improvements in compliance rates.^[19] Functional neuroimaging corroborates this by showing praise activates brain regions linked to reward processing, akin to tangible incentives, thereby reinforcing behavior through neurochemical pathways involving dopamine release.^[20] However, praise's efficacy as a reinforcer varies by context and delivery; non-contingent or overly effusive praise may fail to condition behaviors reliably without pairing with primary reinforcers like tokens, as evidenced in preschool evaluations where isolated verbal praise yielded inconsistent results.^[21] Meta-analyses reveal that while verbal reinforcement generally enhances intrinsic motivation and creative output, its impact diminishes if perceived as controlling rather than informational, underscoring the need for authenticity to avoid undermining long-term behavioral persistence.^[22] In youth programs, consistent recognition for positive actions elicits external behavioral improvements, but systemic implementation requires training to ensure specificity and equity across groups.^[23]

Effects on Motivation and Self-Perception

Praise influences motivation by reinforcing desired behaviors and signaling competence, with empirical evidence indicating that verbal praise typically enhances intrinsic motivation compared to tangible rewards. A meta-analysis of reinforcement studies found that verbal praise produces a positive effect on intrinsic motivation, particularly when it attributes success to controllable factors like effort rather than uncontrollable traits.^[22] This aligns with self-determination theory, where informational praise satisfies autonomy and competence needs, fostering sustained engagement without undermining internal drive.^[24] However, the type of praise critically determines its motivational impact. Person praise, which attributes outcomes to innate abilities (e.g., "You're so smart"), often reduces persistence and intrinsic motivation following setbacks, as it promotes a fixed mindset where failure threatens self-perception of worth. In experiments with children, those receiving person praise exhibited greater helplessness and lower task enjoyment after failure compared to peers receiving process praise focused on effort or strategies (e.g., "You worked hard").^[25] A synthesis of studies confirms that person praise can backfire by shifting focus from mastery to self-validation, decreasing resilience and long-term motivation.^[26] Regarding self-perception, praise generally elevates self-esteem and perceptions of ability, with a meta-analysis showing a medium positive correlation between praise and children's self-evaluation.^[27] Yet, person praise ties self-worth contingently to performance, increasing vulnerability to criticism or failure; children praised for intelligence displayed heightened contingent self-esteem and maladaptive coping, such as avoidance, in response to negative feedback. Process praise, conversely, builds stable self-perceptions rooted in agency, enhancing pride and expectations of future success without fostering dependency on external validation. For children with low self-esteem, excessive or insincere praise may exacerbate skepticism and reduce motivation, as they perceive it as manipulative rather than genuine. These effects underscore that praise's benefits on self-perception hinge on its specificity and sincerity, with poorly calibrated praise potentially distorting accurate self-assessment.

Dimensions of Praise

Person Versus Process Praise

Person praise attributes an individual's achievements to inherent, stable traits such as intelligence or talent, implying these qualities are fixed and largely unchangeable.^[28] Process praise, by contrast, highlights modifiable elements like effort, strategies, or persistence, suggesting abilities can be developed through dedication.^[25] This dichotomy, central to research on achievement motivation, stems from Carol Dweck's investigations into implicit theories of intelligence, where person praise fosters an entity view (abilities as static) and process praise promotes an incremental view (abilities as malleable).^[29] A seminal experiment by Claudia M. Mueller and Carol S. Dweck in 1998 involved 412 fifth-grade students who completed an initial set of easy puzzles.^[28] Participants were randomly assigned to receive praise for intelligence ("You did really well—that's a sign that you're a smart child"), effort ("You did really well—that's a sign that you worked hard"), or no praise (control).^[29] Intelligence-praised children subsequently prioritized performance goals over learning goals, selected easier subsequent puzzles to avoid failure, reported lower task enjoyment, and exhibited reduced persistence.^[28] Following a manipulated failure on a subsequent test, their performance declined by approximately 20% compared to initial scores, whereas effort-praised children improved by about 30% and displayed greater task persistence and positive affect.^[29] These differential outcomes arise because person praise ties self-worth to uncontrollable traits, heightening vulnerability to setbacks and discouraging risk-taking, as failure threatens the praised attribute.^[25] Process praise, however, signals that success stems from controllable actions, encouraging resilience and adaptive coping. A follow-up study by Dweck in 1999 extended this to criticism, finding that person-trait feedback (e.g., "You're a disappointment") elicited more helpless responses than process feedback (e.g., "That was a careless way to do it"), with effects mediated by contingent self-worth.^[25] Subsequent research has replicated and nuanced these findings across age groups. For instance, a 2011 study on college students showed process praise enhanced intrinsic motivation and mastery orientation more than person praise, particularly as students transitioned to higher autonomy.^[30] In children, process praise correlates with sustained engagement post-failure, though effects may interact with baseline self-esteem, where low-esteem children benefit disproportionately from avoiding person praise to prevent defensiveness.^[31] Longitudinal data indicate that early exposure to process praise predicts greater academic persistence into adolescence, underscoring causal links to motivational trajectories via reinforced growth-oriented attributions.^[32] While some critiques note variability in real-world applications due to contextual factors like teacher delivery, meta-analytic evidence supports process praise's superiority for fostering long-term achievement without undermining initial confidence.^[33]

Controlling Versus Informational Praise

Controlling praise refers to verbal feedback that emphasizes external evaluation or pressure to conform, such as statements implying the recipient's value derives from meeting the praiser's expectations, like "You made me so proud by doing it just right."^[34] In contrast, informational praise delivers objective feedback on performance or process without implying control, for example, "Your detailed explanation shows you understood the concept well."^[34] This distinction, rooted in self-determination theory (SDT), highlights how praise can either support or undermine psychological needs for autonomy and competence.^[35] Empirical studies demonstrate that informational praise bolsters intrinsic motivation by affirming competence through task-focused feedback, whereas controlling praise often fails to do so or reduces it by fostering perceived external regulation. In a 1983 experiment by Ryan et al., children receiving informational praise after solving puzzles exhibited higher free-play persistence compared to those given controlling praise, which equated to no praise in motivational impact.^[34] A synthesis by Henderlong and Lepper (2002) across multiple studies confirmed this pattern: informational praise enhanced task interest and enjoyment, while controlling praise, by signaling evaluation rather than genuine feedback, diminished long-term engagement.^[34] In educational settings, teachers' use of informational praise correlates with students' greater autonomy perception and self-endorsed motivation, per observational data analyzed through SDT lenses.^[36] Controlling praise, however, can evoke conditional regard, pressuring children toward extrinsic goals and potentially eroding self-directed behavior, as evidenced in parental control research where such praise backfires by prioritizing compliance over mastery.^[37] Longitudinal effects include reduced resilience to failure, with recipients of controlling praise showing heightened sensitivity to evaluation in subsequent tasks.^[34] These findings underscore the causal mechanism in SDT: praise supporting autonomy (informational) nurtures internalized motivation, while controlling forms introduce relational contingencies that prioritize approval over inherent interest.^[35]^[36] Social-comparison praise emphasizes a recipient's performance relative to peers, highlighting normative superiority, such as informing a child that their achievement surpasses most others in a group. Mastery praise, in contrast, focuses on the recipient's engagement with the task itself, commending attributes like effort, persistence, or strategic problem-solving that contribute to personal competence development, for example, "You figured out a great way to solve that puzzle." These distinctions arise within psychological research on praise's impact on intrinsic motivation, where social-comparison praise shifts attention to external standings, while mastery praise directs focus toward internal mastery processes.^[38] Empirical investigations, particularly two experiments involving 4th- and 5th-grade children (ages approximately 9-11), demonstrate divergent effects on intrinsic motivation. In these studies, participants succeeded on an initial set of novel puzzles, receiving either social-comparison praise ("You're better than most other kids"), mastery praise ("You worked really hard on those puzzles"), or no praise, before facing a subsequent task with uncertain outcomes. Mastery praise increased children's reported interest and enjoyment in the follow-up activity, enhancing persistence and task engagement, whereas social-comparison praise reduced these measures, particularly when children anticipated potential failure.^[39] The undermining effect of social-comparison praise intensified under conditions of self-doubt about ability, as children avoided challenges to preserve their perceived superior status, aligning with self-worth protection motives observed in achievement settings.^[40] Mechanisms underlying these outcomes involve attentional shifts: social-comparison praise fosters a performance orientation centered on validation through outperforming others, which can evoke pressure and reduce task enjoyment when success is not assured, whereas mastery praise promotes a competence-building orientation that sustains motivation via perceived control over improvement. Attributional style moderates these effects; children with internal attributional tendencies (viewing outcomes as stemming from personal factors) exhibited greater motivation gains from mastery praise, while those with external styles showed relatively better responses to social-comparison praise, though overall intrinsic motivation remained lower compared to mastery conditions for internals.^[41] Subsequent research reinforces that mastery praise supports long-term engagement by emphasizing controllable processes, avoiding the comparative contingencies that may foster fragility in self-perception, though individual differences like locus of control influence optimal praise types.^[42] These findings contribute to broader evidence that praise quality, rather than mere positivity, determines motivational outcomes, with mastery-oriented feedback proving more robust across uncertain performance contexts.^[43]

Applications in Specific Domains

Praise in Child Development and Education

In child development, praise from caregivers and educators influences children's motivation, self-efficacy, and behavioral persistence, with empirical evidence indicating that the form of praise critically determines its outcomes. Process-oriented praise, which highlights effort, strategies, or persistence (e.g., "You worked hard on that puzzle"), fosters adaptive responses such as resilience to failure and a malleable view of abilities, as demonstrated in longitudinal studies tracking children from early childhood.^[29] In contrast, person-oriented praise emphasizing innate traits (e.g., "You're so smart") correlates with heightened sensitivity to setbacks, reduced task enjoyment, and diminished performance on subsequent challenges, effects observed across multiple experiments involving school-aged children solving puzzles and problems.^[28] Educational applications of praise emphasize behavior-specific feedback to enhance classroom engagement and academic outcomes. Research on teacher-student interactions shows that targeted praise for on-task behaviors (e.g., "I appreciate how you stayed focused during group work") increases student compliance and reduces disruptions in elementary settings, with meta-analyses confirming small to moderate positive effects on social and academic behaviors without disabilities.^[44]^[45] However, inflated or excessive praise, particularly when undirected or overly effusive, can undermine intrinsic motivation, especially among children with low self-esteem or from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, leading to lower persistence and perceived competence after failure; experiments reveal such praise prompts avoidance of difficult tasks to protect self-image.^[46]^[47] Developmental trajectories highlight age-related nuances in praise efficacy. In preschoolers, contingent praise tied to specific actions supports early skill acquisition and emotional regulation, but by middle childhood, over-reliance on ability-focused praise risks entrenching fixed mindsets, impairing long-term learning as measured by standardized achievement tests.^[48] Interventions training educators to prioritize effort-based praise have yielded improved math and reading performance in elementary students, mediated by enhanced self-attributions of success to controllable factors.^[49] These findings underscore the need for calibrated praise to align with developmental stages, avoiding unintended demotivation from non-specific or trait-centric feedback.^[26]

Praise in Aesthetics and Beauty

Praise in the context of aesthetics and beauty primarily involves expressions of admiration for physical attractiveness or sensory qualities deemed visually or experientially pleasing, often influencing self-perception and social dynamics.^[50] Such praise, akin to person-focused reinforcement, can temporarily elevate mood and feelings of acceptance, particularly in interpersonal relationships where partners provide reassurances about appearance, leading recipients—especially women—to report reduced fear of rejection and improved body satisfaction.^[51] However, empirical studies highlight risks, as frequent compliments on looks may foster dependency on external validation rather than intrinsic aesthetic self-appraisal.^[52] Psychological research demonstrates that praise centered on physical beauty often correlates with adverse outcomes, including heightened anxiety and depressive symptoms. For instance, in a 2022 study of women undergoing job interviews, receiving compliments on appearance exacerbated psychological distress, independent of interview outcomes, suggesting such praise amplifies self-objectification and pressure to maintain aesthetic ideals.^[53] This aligns with broader findings that appearance-based praise promotes passive behavioral orientations, contrasting with effort-based praise that encourages agency and resilience; individuals praised for beauty tend to prioritize conformity to attractiveness norms over personal achievement.^[54] In adolescents, online compliments on looks have been linked to diminished self-esteem, as they intensify focus on superficial traits amid social comparison pressures.^[55] In aesthetic philosophy, praise functions as an outward manifestation of appreciation for beauty's intrinsic qualities, such as harmony or proportion, rather than utilitarian value. Thinkers like Plato viewed beauty as embodying ideal forms worthy of emulation and praise, evoking moral and cognitive elevation through its contemplation.^[56] Modern analyses frame aesthetic praise as an affective response signaling worth, distinct from mere pleasure, where admiration for beautiful objects or forms reinforces cultural standards of excellence without necessarily implying ethical endorsement.^[57] Yet, causal realism cautions that such praise, when overemphasized in beauty contexts, may distort motivations toward superficial enhancements, as evidenced by correlations between attractiveness-praise attributions and discounted internal efficacy in highly attractive individuals.^[58] Attributional effects further complicate praise's role: recipients of beauty compliments from dissimilar evaluators (e.g., opposite-sex peers) may internalize them as indicators of desirability, boosting short-term self-esteem but risking long-term fragility if standards shift.^[54] Conversely, in artistic aesthetics, praise for beauty in creations—such as symmetrical designs or evocative forms—can motivate iterative improvement, though evidence remains anecdotal compared to psychological domains. Overall, while praise affirms aesthetic value, its net impact hinges on context, with person-centric forms prone to reinforcing extrinsic dependencies over autonomous appreciation.^[59]

Influencing Factors

Age and Developmental Differences

In early childhood, particularly among children aged 1 to 3 years, parental praise emphasizing process (e.g., effort or strategy) rather than fixed traits predicts the development of growth-oriented mindsets and adaptive motivational frameworks by ages 7 to 8, as evidenced by longitudinal observations linking such praise to children's endorsement of malleable intelligence beliefs.^[60] Person-focused praise during this stage, by contrast, correlates with entity theories of ability, where children view traits as static, potentially limiting persistence in challenging tasks.^[60] Among school-aged children, such as fifth graders, experimental studies demonstrate that praise for intelligence fosters performance-oriented goals, heightened sensitivity to failure, and reduced task persistence compared to praise for effort, which enhances resilience and learning focus following setbacks.^[28] These effects emerge consistently across diverse settings, including inner-city and rural samples from ages 4 through adolescence, underscoring praise's role in shaping attributional styles during cognitive developmental transitions. Adolescents exhibit distinct responses, often interpreting effort praise as an indicator of adults' low ability expectations, which can undermine intrinsic motivation and lead to self-handicapping behaviors more than in younger children.^[61] Ability praise in this group may reinforce self-serving failure attributions, exacerbating avoidance strategies, though age moderates these outcomes alongside gender influences in long-term motivation.^[61]^[62] In adulthood and later life stages, responses shift toward greater ability-oriented interpretations of praise, with older individuals deriving motivational value from trait-affirming feedback over process-oriented comments, potentially due to entrenched self-concepts and reduced emphasis on malleability.^[63] This developmental trajectory highlights praise's diminishing efficacy for effort-focused reinforcement as cognitive maturity advances, favoring informational over controlling functions in mature self-regulation.^[64]

Gender Variations

Parents exhibit gender-specific patterns in the type of praise they provide to children. A longitudinal study tracking parent-child interactions from ages 1-3 to 7-8 found that parents directed more intelligence-focused praise (person praise) toward boys, with phrases emphasizing fixed traits like "You're so smart," occurring 1.5 times more frequently for sons than daughters, whereas girls received more effort-based praise (process praise) highlighting behaviors such as "You worked hard on that".^[65] This differential praise correlates with later attitudes toward challenges, potentially fostering fixed mindsets in boys and incremental mindsets in girls, though the causal direction remains debated given observational data limitations.^[65] Children's responses to praise also vary by gender, moderated by praise type and developmental stage. Girls demonstrate heightened sensitivity to evaluative praise, showing greater decreases in motivation and persistence after receiving person praise compared to boys, particularly in post-failure scenarios.^[66] ^[67] For instance, experimental studies reveal that person praise undermines older girls' task engagement more than boys', while process praise sustains motivation across genders but benefits girls' long-term resilience.^[67] Boys, conversely, exhibit stronger responsiveness to peer feedback over adult praise, leading to faster behavioral adjustments in reinforced tasks, whereas girls prioritize adult validation.^[68] ^[69] In educational settings, gender influences praise receipt and impact. Teachers issue praise notes more frequently to boys for behavioral compliance, but girls receive commendations emphasizing relational or appearance-based traits, potentially reinforcing stereotypes.^[69] Empirical tests of praise effects on undergraduates yield mixed results on gender moderation; one analysis found women altering task performance more readily in response to praise, suggesting greater situational adaptability, though overall task outcomes showed no significant sex differences.^[70] ^[71] Online experiments further indicate that while generic praise minimally affects persistence, encouragement-oriented feedback enhances female performance more than male.^[72] Among adults, women report higher receptivity to praise in professional contexts, with self-reported data linking positive feedback to increased behavioral change, though causal evidence from controlled trials remains limited.^[70] These variations underscore the need for tailored praise strategies, as unexamined gender biases in delivery—prevalent in academic sources despite their empirical rigor—may amplify differential outcomes without intentional adjustment.^[73]

Cultural and Societal Contexts

In individualistic cultures, such as those predominant in the United States and Western Europe, praise is frequently employed as a direct tool for reinforcing personal achievement and self-worth, aligning with societal emphases on autonomy and individual success. Psychological research indicates that parents and educators in these contexts deliver more unconditional and ability-focused praise to children, which correlates with higher self-esteem orientations but may foster dependency on external validation.^[74] For instance, American compliment practices often involve explicit, personal affirmations, with recipients expected to accept them graciously to encourage reciprocity and positivity.^[75] Conversely, collectivist cultures, including those in East Asia like Japan and China, exhibit more restrained and indirect praise practices to maintain social harmony, humility, and group cohesion over individual spotlighting. In these societies, overt praise can be perceived as disruptive to relational balance or even burdensome, leading to deflection through modesty responses rather than acceptance.^[76] Cross-cultural analyses of compliment responses reveal that Japanese individuals, for example, prioritize contextual subtlety in appreciation, where direct verbal praise carries heavier implications and is less common than nonverbal or group-attributed forms.^[77] Empirical studies on feedback efficacy further demonstrate that in high power-distance collectivist settings, positive reinforcement is more effective when tied to effort or collective outcomes rather than innate traits, reflecting cultural norms that value perseverance over talent attribution.^[78] Societal contexts amplify these differences; Western institutions, influenced by mid-20th-century self-esteem movements, have institutionalized frequent praise in education and workplaces, sometimes critiqued for diluting its motivational impact through overabundance.^[79] In contrast, traditional collectivist societies maintain praise as a scarce resource, reserved for exceptional group contributions, which sustains higher performance standards without the perceived risks of entitlement.^[80] These variations underscore how cultural frameworks causally shape praise's form and frequency, with individualistic systems prioritizing psychological uplift and collectivist ones emphasizing relational stability.^[81]

Empirical Evidence and Controversies

Positive Effects Backed by Research

Process-oriented praise, which highlights effort, strategies, or persistence, has been shown to foster greater intrinsic motivation and task enjoyment in children compared to praise focused on innate ability.^[5]^[82] In experimental settings, children receiving such praise exhibited higher persistence on challenging tasks and reduced attributions of failure to low ability, leading to improved post-task performance.^[5] Similarly, parental praise emphasizing effort correlates with children's enhanced self-belief and sustained engagement on difficult activities, as evidenced by longitudinal observations where effort-praised children outperformed peers on subsequent puzzles after initial failures.^[83] Praise delivered as positive feedback, particularly when perceived as informational and competence-enhancing, boosts intrinsic motivation through increased feelings of autonomy and efficacy.^[36] In educational contexts, verbal praise for specific behaviors promotes resilience by encouraging students to attribute success to controllable factors like hard work, thereby elevating persistence and recovery from setbacks.^[1] Ability-focused praise, when used judiciously, can temporarily elevate children's sense of efficacy, motivating initial learning engagement and reducing immediate discouragement after errors.^[61] Peer- or student-delivered behavior-specific praise increases positive social interactions and cooperative behaviors in classroom settings, particularly benefiting students with emotional or behavioral challenges by modeling reinforcement of prosocial actions.^[84] A balanced combination of process and personal praise has demonstrated positive outcomes in physical skill acquisition, predicting higher gross motor persistence and greater pleasure in mastery experiences among children.^[32] These effects underscore praise's potential to reinforce adaptive mindsets when aligned with verifiable achievements rather than unsubstantiated traits.

Negative Effects and Potential Backfires

Praise for innate traits such as intelligence, rather than effort or process, can foster a fixed mindset, leading children to avoid challenges and exhibit reduced persistence after setbacks. In a series of experiments involving fifth-grade students, those praised for intelligence following an initial easy puzzle task chose easier subsequent problems to maintain their perceived smartness and showed diminished enjoyment and performance on harder tasks compared to peers praised for effort, who persisted longer and improved more.^[28] This effect stems from interpreting intelligence praise as signaling a static trait, prompting risk aversion to protect self-image rather than embracing growth through failure.^[29] Excessive or inflated praise, particularly when portraying children as superior to others, correlates with increased narcissism over time, as it encourages overvaluation of the self without tying worth to realistic achievements. A longitudinal study of over 500 children aged 7-12 tracked from 2010 to 2013 found that parental tendencies to overvalue their offspring—such as believing them inherently better—predicted higher narcissism scores four to six months later, independent of self-esteem levels, with no similar link to positive outcomes like confidence. Researchers attribute this to social learning, where children internalize exaggerated superiority, fostering entitlement and defensiveness against criticism rather than resilience.^[85] In contexts of low self-esteem, praise intended to boost confidence can paradoxically heighten performance anxiety and self-doubt, as recipients scrutinize their abilities more harshly to justify the commendation. Experimental evidence from studies on children showed that those with lower self-worth who received praise for a task exhibited worse subsequent performance and lower self-evaluations than unpraised peers, interpreting the praise as pressure to meet inflated expectations rather than genuine feedback. This "praise paradox" highlights how well-meaning verbal reinforcement can undermine motivation when mismatched with the recipient's self-perception, shifting focus from task mastery to external validation. Praise functioning as an extrinsic reward can trigger the overjustification effect, diminishing intrinsic interest in activities by attributing engagement to the commendation itself rather than inherent enjoyment. Meta-analyses of behavioral studies indicate that verbal praise, akin to tangible incentives, reduces subsequent voluntary participation in praised tasks, particularly when perceived as controlling, with effect sizes stronger in educational settings where children already show baseline intrinsic motivation.^[86] For instance, children praised for drawing showed less interest in drawing afterward compared to those receiving neutral feedback, as the praise crowded out internal drives.^[26] This backfire is more pronounced in person-focused praise, which lowers persistence relative to process-oriented feedback.^[32]

Debates on Overpraise and Long-Term Outcomes

Research by psychologist Carol Dweck and colleagues has demonstrated that praising children for intelligence, rather than effort, fosters a fixed mindset, leading to diminished persistence and performance following setbacks. In a seminal 1998 study involving 412 fifth-grade students, those praised for intelligence after an initial easy task chose simpler puzzles and showed steeper declines in scores (from 80% to 67% accuracy) when faced with harder problems, compared to effort-praised peers who improved by 30% despite similar initial failures.^[28] This pattern persists longitudinally, as mindset interventions promoting effort attribution predict sustained academic gains; for instance, a multi-year study of junior high students found growth-mindset training correlated with higher GPAs and reduced achievement gaps over time.^[87] Debates intensify around excessive or "inflated" praise—lavish, non-contingent affirmations—which empirical evidence links to maladaptive traits like narcissism and eroded self-esteem. A 2017 longitudinal study of 357 children aged 7-12 tracked parental praise via interviews and found inflated praise predicted increased narcissism scores over a year, particularly among children with preexisting high self-esteem, while simultaneously lowering overall self-esteem levels; non-inflated praise showed no such effects.^[88] Critics of overpraise argue it creates entitlement and fragility, as children internalize unconditional superiority without building resilience, potentially contributing to rising narcissism rates documented in a 2008 meta-analysis of 85 studies spanning 1982-2006, which revealed generational increases in narcissistic traits among Western youth.^[85] Proponents of moderated praise counter that withholding affirmation risks demotivation, but evidence favors specificity: process-oriented praise enhances intrinsic motivation and challenge-seeking, whereas vague or excessive praise undermines it by shifting focus to external validation. A synthesis of studies indicates that over-reliance on praise for innate abilities correlates with higher cheating rates and helplessness in failure, as seen in experiments where intelligence-praised children were more likely to misreport scores to preserve self-image.^[26] Long-term outcomes hinge on praise quality; vocational education research replicating Dweck's paradigm in 108 adolescents confirmed effort praise sustains motivation better than ability praise, with the latter yielding poorer task endurance.^[5] Thus, debates underscore causal risks of overpraise in cultivating brittle self-views, urging evidence-based restraint over indiscriminate positivity.

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Praise for ability is commonly considered to have beneficial effects on motivation. Contrary to this popular belief, six studies demonstrated that praise ...
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[PDF] Effects of person versus process praise on student motivation
May 26, 2011 · Indeed, effectively administered praise can increase intrinsic motivation (Corpus & Lepper,. 2007; Deci, et al., 1999; Harackiewicz, 1979), ...
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The 'praise balance': Uncovering the optimal recipe for mastery ...
A balance between process and personal praise predicts higher levels of gross motor persistence and mastery pleasure.
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Praise for Intelligence Can Undermine Children's Motivation and ...
Oct 9, 2025 · Six studies demonstrated that praise for intelligence had more negative consequences for students' achievement motivation than praise for effort.
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[PDF] The Effects of Praise on Children's Intrinsic Motivation - Reed College
According to these principles, praise is thought to increase the frequency of behavior because the positive experience of being praised becomes associated with ...
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[PDF] Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory ...
Apr 9, 2020 · Self-determination theory (SDT) is a broad framework for understanding factors that facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation, autonomous ...
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[PDF] Understanding-the-complexity-of-praise-through-the-lens-of-self ...
One informative theory providing a detailed account of the processes involved in praise is self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017).
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Wendy S. Grolnick - The Psychology of Parental Control - Scribd
are an angel" versus "Your behavior was good today." CONTROLLING VERSUS INFORMATIONAL PRAISE Just as with any communication, praise can be conveyed in a ...
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[PDF] The effects of praise on children's intrinsic motivation: a review ...
Psychology ... versus mastery praise on 4th- and 5th-grade children's intrinsic motivation. Children received a high score and either social-comparison praise,…
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The Effects of Social-Comparison Versus Mastery Praise on ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Mastery praise enhanced intrinsic motivation and social-comparison praise curtailed it when uncertainty about children's subsequent ...
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Attributional style, comparison focus of praise, and intrinsic motivation
... social comparison praise. A parallel set of effects were found for ... mastery praise, whereas externals showed the reverse pattern. Recommended ...
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[PDF] The Effects of Praise on Children's Intrinsic Motivation Revisited ...
Praise can support autonomy by encouraging a focus on self-determined reasons for engaging in a task rather than reasons driven by others (e.g., “Wow – it ...Missing: types | Show results with:types<|control11|><|separator|>
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The effects of praise: Evidence-based tips for better outcomes
Praise can boost good feelings and increase motivation. It can inspire kids to be more cooperative, persistent, and hard-working.
[44]
Behavior-specific praise: empowering teachers and families to ...
Feb 28, 2023 · In this article, we introduce behavior-specific praise as a portable, feasible strategy for teachers and families to increase student engagement.
[45]
[PDF] Praise Research Trends and Future Directions: Characteristics and ...
Examining the influence of teacher behavior and classroom context on the behavioral and academic outcomes for students with emotional or behavioral disorders.
[46]
“You did incredibly well!”: teachers' inflated praise can make ...
Sep 1, 2023 · These studies provide converging evidence that teachers' inflated praise, although well-intentioned, can make children from low-SES backgrounds seem less smart.Results · Discussion · Methods
[47]
[PDF] When and why praise backfires in children with low self-esteem
Praise refers to explicit verbal positive evaluations of another person's products, actions, or traits, where the evaluations are based on the evaluator's ...
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Effects of Ability and Effort Praise on Children's Failure Attribution ...
Oct 1, 2018 · Ability praise is a common way to provide feedback on good performance that can boost children's sense of efficacy and motivate their learning ( ...
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How children's self-esteem affects teachers' praise
Aug 29, 2024 · Mediation analyses showed that process praise had a positive effect on the children's maths and reading performance in elementary school, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Sep 4, 2012 · Beauty has traditionally been counted among the ultimate values, with goodness, truth, and justice. It is a primary theme among ancient Greek, Hellenistic, and ...
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The Power of Words: Appearance Comments from One's Partner ...
Sep 3, 2021 · Receiving compliments and reassurances about weight and appearance from one's partner can help people develop a more accurate perceived partner ...
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The negative effects of appearance compliments on ... - APA PsycNet
"You look so beautiful… But why are you so distressed?": The negative effects of appearance compliments on the psychological well-being of individuals in the ...
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The Negative Effects of Appearance Compliments on the ...
Nov 9, 2022 · The compliments on participants' physical appearance increased both anxiety and depression, while the result of the interview selection did not ...
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Physical attractiveness and self-esteem: Attributions for praise from ...
In prior research, only weak correlations were found between self-esteem and physical attractiveness.Missing: impact compliments studies
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When Compliments Just Make You Feel... Worse - VICE
Dec 1, 2023 · They found that teenage girls often felt worse about themselves when their looks were complimented online.<|control11|><|separator|>
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The philosophy of beauty - Honeysuckle Walks
Nov 23, 2024 · At most, beauty is a quality that evokes pleasure—something (or someone) is nice to look at or listen to. It carries no deeper meaning. But from ...The Objective View: Plato's... · The Subjective View: Hume's... · Kant's Refinement Of The...<|separator|>
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Full article: Admiration, Appreciation, and Aesthetic Worth
Aesthetic appreciation, I suggest, consists in an aesthetically worthy affective response. After unpacking the proposal, I show that it has non-trivial ...2. Moral Worth · 3. Aesthetic Worth · 4. Aesthetic Appreciation
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Physical Attractiveness and Self-Esteem - Sage Journals
As predicted, high attractive individuals discounted the praise when they had been seen by the evaluator, attributing it less to the quality of their work or ...
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The Concept of the Aesthetic - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 11, 2009 · It follows, according to Budd, “the aesthetic appreciation of nature is endowed with a freedom denied to the appreciation of art” (Budd 2003, ...
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Parent Praise to 1-3 Year-Olds Predicts Children's Motivational ... - NIH
Laboratory studies have established that using person versus process praise can impact children's beliefs and behaviors in the short term (Cimpian, Arce, ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
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Effects of Ability and Effort Praise on Children's Failure Attribution ...
Oct 2, 2018 · In China, the conventional wisdom holds that praise is harmful for child development as it may make children feel complacent. In the 1990s ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
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The Effects of Person Versus Performance Praise on Children's ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Two studies were conducted to determine how gender and age moderate the long-term and post-failure motivational consequences of person versus performance ...<|separator|>
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The Paradoxical Effect of Praise and Blame: Age-Related Differences
May 31, 2013 · The present results suggest that older individuals are more ability-oriented when interpreting teacher-student interactions. In fact, age- ...
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Developmental psychology of praise. - APA PsycNet
From the first stages of life, children are often positively evaluated, or praised, by other people. Praise can be a powerful tool for parents, educators, ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
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Parents' Praise Predicts Attitudes Toward Challenge Five Years Later
Feb 12, 2013 · That's the finding of a new longitudinal study that also found gender differences in the kind of praise that parents offer their children.
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Is praising our kids good or bad? - The University of Sydney
Oct 1, 2024 · Research has found person praise can decrease young children's motivation to challenge themselves and lead to feelings of helplessness if they fail.<|separator|>
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EJ771475 - The Effects of Person versus Performance Praise ... - ERIC
Two studies were conducted to determine how gender and age moderate the long-term and post-failure motivational consequences of person versus performance ...Missing: research | Show results with:research
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Sex and locus of control as determinants of children's responses to ...
Boys were most responsive to peer feedback and girls were most responsive to adult feedback, as revealed by faster problem-solving rates on reinforced tasks.
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[PDF] Praise Notes: A Gender Study - BYU ScholarsArchive
This study of praise notes was completed to determine if school adults provided more praise notes or different types of praise to male and female students. The ...
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Effects of Gender and Type of Praise on Task Performance Among ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Our results imply that women are more sensitive to praise, more situational, and more likely to change their behavior, particularly in a ...
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[PDF] Effects of Gender and Type of Praise on Task Performance Among ...
We also predicted that gender differences would contribute to the effect of praise. However, the data collected failed to support this hypothesis.
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Gender differences in the effect of subjective feedback in an online ...
We find some evidence of gender differences: while praise has little impact, encouragement has a positive impact on the persistence and performance of females ...
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[PDF] exploring gender differences in the praise and punishment of
The current study investigated gender differences in the praise ... The findings of this study implicate that education on the effects of gender attitudes.
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Giving Feedback Across Cultures - Harvard Business Review
Feb 15, 2013 · How direct and to-the-point are you expected to be? How important is it to protect the face or social standing of others when delivering ...
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The Uncertain Art of the American Compliment - JSTOR Daily
Jul 11, 2018 · Americans tend to share the belief that compliments will make the hearer feel good about themselves and will want to reciprocate. Considering ...<|separator|>
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In some cultures, compliments can sound like insults - DW
Mar 1, 2017 · The differences in the culture of complimenting are vastly different, for instance, between the East and the West. The Japanese are a ...
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Compliment and compliment response research: A cross-cultural ...
Mar 17, 2019 · This paper provides a comprehensive survey of cross-cultural research on compliment and compliment response.<|separator|>
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Cultural Variation in the Effectiveness of Feedback on Students ...
Jan 21, 2020 · We hypothesized that feedback based on students' mistakes may have more positive effects in cultures where teachers have greater authority over students.
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Coping with the culture of praise - PMC
However, for those raised in the culture of praise, praise that comes only from the top might not be enough.
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A cross‐cultural examination of elementary students' perceptions of ...
Feb 20, 2025 · Our findings suggest that students' perceptions of feedback may be culturally specific and context-dependent. Students in both populations ...
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Compliments and cultural intelligence - Management-Issues
Aug 9, 2012 · The giving and receiving of "compliments" is a classic example of leadership mantras falling short when mindlessly applied to all cultures.
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https://reed.edu/psychology/motivation/assets/downloads/Haimovitz_Corpus_2011.pdf
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Parents who praise effort can bolster children's persistence, self-belief
Feb 12, 2013 · Researchers have found that parental praise based on effort leads to children who exhibit greater persistence and better performance on challenging tasks.
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Student-delivered behavior-specific praise: a systematic literature ...
Sep 12, 2024 · Behavior-specific praise is an easy-to-implement, teacher-delivered strategy that supports academic engagement while preventing and reducing disruptive ...
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Too Much Praise Promotes Narcissism - Scientific American
Jun 1, 2015 · Too Much Praise Promotes Narcissism. The first longitudinal study in ... “It might be well intended,” he adds, “but it actually backfires.
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A QUANTITATIVE REVIEW OF OVERJUSTIFICATION EFFECTS IN ...
The overjustification hypothesis suggests that extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic rewards are common in strengthening behavior.
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[PDF] Mindsets and Skills that Promote Long-Term Learning
Longitudinal research shows that students' mindsets about intelligence predict their academic performance in real-world settings. Lisa Blackwell of Columbia ...
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When Parents' Praise Inflates, Children's Self‐Esteem Deflates - 2017
Aug 30, 2017 · Noninflated praise predicted neither self-esteem nor narcissism. Thus, inflated praise may foster the self-views it seeks to prevent. Supporting ...