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PAP

The People's Action Party (PAP) is a political party in Singapore founded on 21 November 1954 by Lee Kuan Yew, Toh Chin Chye, and other pro-independence activists with the objective of achieving self-governance from British colonial rule and enhancing citizens' welfare through pragmatic policies.^[1]^[2] The party secured its first electoral victory in 1959, winning 43 of 51 legislative assembly seats and enabling Lee Kuan Yew to become the inaugural prime minister of self-governing Singapore, a position it has held uninterrupted through 14 successive general elections, including a landslide in 2025 with 87 of 97 parliamentary seats and 65.57% of the popular vote.^[3]^[4]^[5] Under PAP governance, Singapore transitioned from a resource-poor entrepôt to a high-income economy with sustained GDP growth averaging over 6% annually from 1965 to 2020, low corruption levels ranking consistently among the world's lowest, and marked improvements in infrastructure, education, and public housing that house about 80% of residents.^[6]^[7] The party's defining characteristics include a focus on meritocracy, multiracialism, and long-term planning, led successively by Lee Kuan Yew (1959–1990), Goh Chok Tong (1990–2004), Lee Hsien Loong (2004–2024), and Lawrence Wong since 2024, though it has drawn scrutiny for practices such as strategic electoral redistricting, defamation lawsuits against critics, and constraints on media and opposition that critics argue undermine pluralism despite strong voter mandates.^[2]^[8]

Politics and Government

People's Action Party (Singapore)

The People's Action Party (PAP) was inaugurated on 21 November 1954 at Victoria Memorial Hall in Singapore by a group of 14 founding members, including Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye, who served as the first chairman.^[3] ^[9] The party emerged amid anti-colonial agitation, drawing support from trade unions and advocating for self-governance, multiracial equality, and improved living standards in a resource-poor entrepôt facing ethnic tensions and communist influences.^[2] ^[10] Contesting the 1955 legislative elections as a united front with left-wing allies, the PAP secured three seats and formed a minority government by 1959, with Lee Kuan Yew becoming prime minister under limited self-rule from Britain.^[1] Following Singapore's brief merger with Malaysia in 1963 and subsequent separation in 1965, the PAP consolidated power through pragmatic policies emphasizing survival, meritocracy, and economic liberalization.^[10] The party has won every general election since 1959, often with supermajorities; in the 3 May 2025 election, it secured 87 of 97 parliamentary seats and 65.57% of the popular vote, up from 61.24% in 2020.^[5] ^[11] This dominance stems from institutional mechanisms like Group Representation Constituencies (introduced in 1988 to ensure ethnic minority representation) and a hybrid parliamentary system that favors incumbents, alongside rigorous candidate selection prioritizing competence over populism.^[12] Ideologically positioned as centre-right, the PAP promotes social conservatism, free-market economics, and multiracialism while rejecting welfare populism in favor of self-reliance and state-guided development.^[2] Key policies include aggressive anti-corruption enforcement via the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau (CPIB), public housing through the Housing and Development Board (HDB) covering over 80% of residents, compulsory savings via the Central Provident Fund, and foreign investment attraction that propelled GDP per capita from approximately US$500 in 1965 to S$113,779 (about US$84,000) in 2023.^[13] ^[14] Singapore consistently ranks among the least corrupt nations, with a 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index score of 83 out of 100, third globally, reflecting PAP-led institutional integrity that correlates with sustained 2-3% annual growth forecasts amid global volatility.^[15] ^[14] Leadership succession has been methodical to ensure continuity: Lee Kuan Yew led from 1959 to 1990, handing over to Goh Chok Tong (1990-2004), followed by Lee's son Lee Hsien Loong (2004-2024), and then Lawrence Wong, sworn in as prime minister on 15 May 2024 at age 51.^[16] ^[17] Wong, a U.S.-trained economist, represents the fourth generation of PAP leaders, emphasizing adaptation to challenges like aging demographics and geopolitical tensions while upholding core tenets of pragmatism and resilience.^[18] Critics, including opposition figures and international observers, argue the PAP's governance stifles pluralism through defamation lawsuits against detractors—often resulting in bankruptcy—and media regulations that limit dissent, fostering a de facto one-party state despite formal multiparty elections.^[19] ^[20] Electoral boundary adjustments ahead of votes have drawn gerrymandering accusations, potentially diluting opposition strongholds.^[8] PAP defenders counter that such measures preserve stability in a vulnerable city-state, pointing to empirical outcomes like low crime rates, high human development, and economic resilience as validation over Western-style liberal democracy, which they view as incompatible with Singapore's context of ethnic diversity and external threats.^[10] Reports from organizations like Freedom House note constrained opposition growth but acknowledge the system's delivery of prosperity, attributing success to disciplined rule rather than coercion alone.^[20]

Pan-African Parliament

The Pan-African Parliament (PAP) is a continental parliamentary body established as one of the organs of the African Union (AU) to facilitate the representation of African peoples in governance and promote continental integration. Inaugurated on March 18, 2004, in Midrand, South Africa, following the ratification of its protocol by a sufficient number of AU member states, the PAP derives its foundational authority from Article 17 of the AU Constitutive Act of 2002 and the 1991 Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic Community.^[21]^[22] Its permanent seat is at Gallagher Estate in Midrand, hosted by South Africa.^[21] The PAP's origins trace to pan-Africanist ideals of economic and political unity, articulated in the Abuja Treaty, which envisioned a parliamentary structure to involve citizens directly in continental decision-making. The enabling Protocol to the Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community Relating to the Pan-African Parliament, adopted in 2001 and entering force in 2003 after ratification by the required states, outlines its framework. As of 2024, 49 AU member states have ratified the original protocol, though progress on the 2014 Malabo Protocol—aimed at granting enhanced legislative powers—remains slow, with only limited ratifications.^[21]^[22] The institution currently operates in an advisory capacity, lacking binding authority, which limits its influence amid member states' emphasis on national sovereignty.^[23] Compositionally, the PAP consists of 275 members, with each of the AU's 55 member states represented by five parliamentarians, including at least two women to ensure gender balance as per the 2014 protocol amendments. Members are elected or designated by national parliaments for five-year terms, selected to reflect the political composition of those bodies, rather than through direct universal suffrage—a shift envisioned for future evolution into a fully legislative assembly.^[21]^[22] The Bureau, comprising a president, four vice-presidents, and other officers elected by secret ballot, oversees operations; as of 2024, Chief Fortune Charumbira of Zimbabwe serves as president. Plenary sessions occur biannually, supported by ten specialized committees on areas like rural economy, trade, and human rights.^[21]^[22] The PAP's mandate, per Article 11 of its protocol, includes receiving and discussing AU reports, recommending positions on policies affecting integration, human rights, and democracy, and promoting the harmonization of laws across member states. It has issued model laws on topics such as elections and data protection, conducted oversight of AU budgets, and advocated for peace initiatives, including endorsements of democratic transitions. However, its advisory role constrains enforcement, resulting in outputs like non-binding resolutions that often fail to alter state behaviors.^[21]^[22]^[23] Criticisms of the PAP center on its ineffectiveness stemming from structural weaknesses and internal dysfunctions. Lacking legislative or oversight powers over AU organs or states, it struggles to compel compliance, as evidenced by unheeded recommendations on governance and integration. Logistical challenges, including funding shortages, have hampered committee efficacy, while leadership crises—such as the 2021-2022 impasse in electing a president amid disputes over eligibility—have eroded legitimacy and operational continuity. Analysts attribute these issues to AU member states' reluctance to cede sovereignty, perpetuating a cycle where the PAP's potential for advancing accountability remains unrealized despite its representational intent.^[24]^[23]^[25]

Other Political Entities

In addition to the dominant People's Action Party in Singapore and the Pan-African Parliament, the acronym PAP has been adopted by several smaller or historical political entities worldwide. The People's Alternative Party (Parti Alternatif Rakyat, PAP) is a registered centrist party in Malaysia, established around 2014 and focused on liberal democratic principles; it has remained marginal in national politics, with internal challenges including the departure of its founder Zulkifli Mohd Noor and key leaders in February 2018.^[26]^[27] The Progressive Action Party (Partido de Acción Progresista) operated in Cuba from its founding on April 1, 1949, under the leadership of Fulgencio Batista, serving as a vehicle for his political coalition that included support from the Liberal Party and Radical Union Party in the lead-up to the 1958 elections.^[28]^[29] The party aligned with Batista's regime until his overthrow in the 1959 Cuban Revolution, after which it ceased to exist.^[30] In The Gambia, the People's Alliance Party (PAP), led by Ebrima Tabora Manneh as secretary-general, functions as an active opposition entity emphasizing trustworthy leadership and national unity; it has engaged in electoral activities, including withdrawing from a Half Die Ward by-election in April 2025 amid concerns over fairness, and continues to critique tribalism and governance issues as of October 2025.^[31]^[32]

Medicine and Biology

Papanicolaou Test

The Papanicolaou test, commonly known as the Pap smear or Pap test, is a cytological screening method used to detect abnormal cells in the cervix that may indicate precancerous or cancerous conditions, primarily squamous intraepithelial lesions associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Developed by Greek-American physician Georgios Papanikolaou, the test involves staining and microscopic examination of exfoliated cervical cells collected during a pelvic exam, enabling identification of cellular changes before invasive cancer develops.^[33]^[34] Papanicolaou first described the technique in a 1928 case report and refined it through studies in the 1930s and 1940s, with widespread adoption following demonstrations of its efficacy in reducing cervical cancer mortality by up to 80% in screened populations through early intervention.^[35]^[36] The procedure requires a healthcare provider to insert a speculum to visualize the cervix, followed by scraping cells from the ectocervix and endocervical canal using a spatula, brush, or broom-like device; the sample is then smeared onto a slide or preserved in liquid medium for laboratory analysis. Cells are fixed, stained with Papanicolaou's method—which highlights nuclear and cytoplasmic features—and classified using the Bethesda System, categorizing results as negative, atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS), low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL), or carcinoma.^[37]^[34] The test's sensitivity for detecting high-grade lesions ranges from 55% to 68%, with specificity around 96-97%, though false negatives occur due to sampling errors, obscuring factors like blood or inflammation, or interpretive variability; false-positive rates contribute to overdiagnosis of transient HPV-related changes that regress spontaneously in over 90% of cases.^[38]^[39]^[40] Current U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) guidelines recommend cervical cytology alone every 3 years for women aged 21-29, transitioning at age 30-65 to options including cytology every 3 years, high-risk HPV testing alone every 5 years, or co-testing (cytology plus HPV) every 5 years, with cessation after age 65 for those adequately screened and low risk.^[41] The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) endorses similar intervals, emphasizing that all strategies balance detection benefits against harms like unnecessary colposcopies from false positives, which affect 5-10% of screens and lead to anxiety, biopsies, and potential fertility impacts without proportional mortality reductions.^[42] Evidence from randomized trials indicates HPV primary screening outperforms cytology in sensitivity (88-100% vs. 52-94%) and long-term negative predictive value, detecting persistent infections causative of nearly all cervical cancers, though cytology retains a role in younger women where transient HPV is prevalent.^[43]^[44] Limitations of the Pap test include its reliance on operator skill and laboratory quality, with studies showing up to 20-30% false-negative rates for high-grade lesions in conventional smears, prompting shifts toward liquid-based cytology and HPV integration to mitigate misses.^[45] Controversies center on overdiagnosis, as co-testing detects low-risk abnormalities leading to overtreatment—such as excisional procedures for CIN1 lesions that resolve without intervention—potentially causing complications like preterm birth, with economic analyses estimating excess colposcopies in 1-2% of screened women annually.^[46]^[47] Despite these, the test's causal role in declining U.S. cervical cancer rates from 12.4 per 100,000 in 1975 to 7.5 in 2015 underscores its public health value when guidelines are followed, though primary HPV screening is increasingly favored for its superior evidence base in preventing invasive disease.^[48]^[49]

Positive Airway Pressure Therapy

Positive airway pressure (PAP) therapy is a non-invasive treatment modality that delivers pressurized air via a mask to maintain airway patency during sleep, primarily for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). It functions by providing a continuous or variable stream of air that acts as a pneumatic splint, preventing upper airway collapse in patients with recurrent pharyngeal obstruction.^[50] Introduced clinically in 1981 by Australian physician Colin E. Sullivan, PAP therapy revolutionized OSA management by offering an effective alternative to tracheostomy or surgical interventions previously dominant for severe cases.^[51] Sullivan's seminal work demonstrated that nasal application of continuous positive airway pressure reversed apneic episodes in OSA patients, establishing the foundational principle of using positive pressure to counteract anatomical vulnerabilities like reduced pharyngeal dilator muscle tone during sleep.^[52] The core mechanism relies on generating positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) to overcome the negative intraluminal pressure during inspiration that predisposes to airway occlusion in OSA. In spontaneously breathing individuals, the delivered pressure stabilizes the soft tissues of the oropharynx, hypopharynx, and larynx, reducing the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) by promoting oxygenation and minimizing arousals.^[50] PAP devices typically include a flow generator, tubing, and interface (nasal, full-face, or nasal pillows masks), with modern units incorporating humidifiers to mitigate mucosal drying and sensors for data tracking. Efficacy is evidenced by meta-analyses showing PAP reduces AHI by approximately 50-70% compared to no treatment, alongside improvements in excessive daytime sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Scale reductions of 2-4 points), systolic blood pressure (lowering by 2-4 mmHg), and motor vehicle accident risk.^[53]^[54] Common variants include continuous PAP (CPAP), which maintains fixed pressure throughout the respiratory cycle; auto-adjusting PAP (APAP), which modulates pressure in response to detected flow limitations or apneas; and bilevel PAP (BPAP), which alternates inspiratory and lower expiratory pressures to assist ventilation in cases of hypoventilation or central apneas. CPAP remains the gold standard for moderate-to-severe OSA, with randomized trials confirming superior AHI suppression over alternatives like oral appliances in severe disease.^[55] However, adherence poses a significant barrier, with long-term compliance (defined as >4 hours/night on >70% of nights) ranging from 30-60%, influenced by factors such as mask discomfort, nasal congestion, claustrophobia, and perceived treatment burden.^[56]^[57] Strategies to enhance adherence include patient education, pressure ramping, heated humidification, and behavioral interventions, though dropout rates can exceed 50% within the first year.^[58] While PAP effectively mitigates OSA pathophysiology—causally linking reduced arousals to improved neurocognitive function and cardiovascular strain relief—its impact on hard outcomes like all-cause mortality remains under scrutiny in large-scale analyses, with some evidence of cardiovascular risk reduction but inconsistent mortality benefits in adherent populations.^[59]^[60] Common adverse effects include aerophagia, skin irritation, and conjunctivitis, often transient with interface adjustments, underscoring the need for individualized titration via polysomnography to optimize therapeutic pressure (typically 4-20 cmH2O).^[50] Despite these challenges, PAP's empirical validation through decades of controlled trials positions it as first-line therapy for symptomatic OSA, particularly when comorbidities like hypertension amplify untreated risks.^[53]

Other Biological and Medical Uses

Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare respiratory disorder characterized by the accumulation of surfactant-derived lipoproteinaceous material in the alveoli, impairing gas exchange and leading to symptoms such as progressive dyspnea and cough.^[61] The condition affects approximately 0.2 to 0.5 cases per 100,000 adults annually, with autoimmune PAP accounting for about 90% of cases due to autoantibodies against granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), which disrupts alveolar macrophage function.^[61] Diagnosis typically involves bronchoalveolar lavage revealing milky fluid with periodic acid-Schiff-positive material, while treatment includes whole-lung lavage for symptom relief and inhaled GM-CSF therapy to restore surfactant clearance, achieving remission in up to 90% of autoimmune cases.^[62] Prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP), an enzyme produced primarily by prostate epithelial cells, serves as a biochemical marker elevated in prostate cancer, historically used for diagnosis and monitoring prior to the advent of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing.^[63] Serum levels rise in advanced or metastatic disease, with values exceeding 0.5-1.0 ng/mL indicating potential progression, though PSA has largely supplanted it due to greater sensitivity; PAP retains utility in predicting recurrence post-prostatectomy when combined with PSA.^[64] Beyond oncology, PAP exhibits phosphatase activity that modulates pain signaling via opioid receptor desensitization and has been investigated for roles in HIV entry inhibition through glycoprotein gp120 dephosphorylation.^[65] Phosphatidic acid phosphatase (PAP), also known as lipin, is a magnesium-dependent enzyme catalyzing the dephosphorylation of phosphatidic acid to diacylglycerol, a pivotal step in glycerolipid biosynthesis and glyceroneogenesis.^[66] In mammals, PAP isoforms regulate triglyceride storage, insulin signaling, and adipocyte differentiation, with deficiencies linked to rhabdomyolysis and lipodystrophy; for instance, mutations in LPIN1 cause recurrent myoglobinuria triggered by fasting or exercise.^[66] The enzyme's activity is transcriptionally controlled by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins, underscoring its role in lipid homeostasis under nutritional stress.^[66] The peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) method is an immunohistochemical technique employing a soluble complex of horseradish peroxidase and anti-peroxidase antibodies to amplify signal detection of tissue antigens, enhancing sensitivity over direct methods.^[67] Developed in the 1970s, it involves sequential application of primary antibody, secondary antibody, and PAP complex, followed by chromogenic substrate, enabling visualization of low-abundance proteins in fixed tissues for diagnostic pathology.^[67] Though largely replaced by avidin-biotin systems due to reduced non-specific binding, PAP remains valuable in scenarios minimizing endogenous biotin interference, such as certain viral antigen detections.^[67]

Computing and Technology

Password Authentication Protocol

The Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) is a simple authentication mechanism defined for use within the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framework, enabling a peer device to prove its identity to an authenticator by transmitting a username and password.^[68] Specified in RFC 1334, published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) on October 7, 1992, PAP operates via a two-way handshake initiated after PPP link establishment: the peer sends an authentication request packet containing its name and password in plaintext, and the authenticator responds with an acknowledgment or rejection based on verification against stored credentials.^[68] ^[69] This protocol assumes a trusted communication channel, as no encryption or obfuscation of credentials occurs during transmission.^[68] PAP's mechanism relies on Link Control Protocol (LCP) negotiation within PPP, where the authenticator specifies PAP as the desired authentication method (protocol number 0xC023), prompting the peer to submit credentials without challenge or hashing.^[68] Upon receipt, the authenticator compares the provided password directly against its database; success yields a positive response code (0x01), while failure results in rejection (0x02), potentially terminating the session after configurable retry limits.^[68] The protocol supports repeated authentications during the PPP session but lacks provisions for mutual verification or protection against replay attacks, limiting its applicability to environments where physical or lower-layer security suffices.^[68] A primary limitation of PAP is its transmission of passwords in clear text, rendering it vulnerable to eavesdropping, packet sniffing, and man-in-the-middle interception on unencrypted links, as demonstrated in network captures where credentials are directly readable.^[70] This insecurity prompted the contemporaneous development of the Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) in the same RFC, which employs one-way hashing to avoid plaintext exposure.^[68] Despite these flaws, PAP persists in legacy PPP implementations, such as dial-up modems, certain router configurations, and embedded systems where simplicity outweighs security needs or where overlying encryption (e.g., IPsec) mitigates risks.^[71] Modern standards discourage its standalone use, favoring extensible protocols like EAP or certificate-based methods for robust protection.^[70]

Other Technological Applications

In policy-based access control architectures, such as the XACML framework standardized by OASIS, PAP denotes the Policy Administration Point, a component that defines, stores, and manages authorization policies used to regulate resource access.^[72] The PAP interacts with other elements like the Policy Decision Point (PDP), which evaluates policies against access requests, by providing policy data in formats such as XML; this separation enables centralized policy governance in distributed systems, including enterprise identity management and cloud security platforms.^[73] Implementations, such as those in the Open Network Automation Platform (ONAP), deploy PAP as a standalone service or integrated module to handle policy lifecycle tasks, including creation, validation, and distribution to enforcement points, supporting scalable decision-making in telecom and SDN environments.^[73] In legacy network printing protocols, particularly Novell NetWare environments from the 1990s onward, PAP refers to the Printer Access Protocol, which facilitates remote queue management and job submission to printers over IPX/SPX or TCP/IP networks.^[74] This protocol operates at the application layer, allowing clients to bind to print servers, enumerate queues, and transmit print jobs with attributes like priority and form feeds, though it has been largely supplanted by modern standards such as IPP (Internet Printing Protocol) due to limited security features like unencrypted transmissions.^[74] NetWare's PAP supported up to 255 concurrent connections per server, emphasizing its role in enterprise LAN printing before widespread adoption of cross-platform alternatives.^[74]

Military and Firearms

Zastava PAP Series

The Zastava PAP series comprises semi-automatic sporting rifles and pistols manufactured by Zastava Arms, a Serbian company established in 1853 as the Kingdom of Serbia's state armaments factory. These firearms are civilian variants of Zastava's military designs, including the M70 (an AK-47 derivative) and M77B1, adapted with fixed stocks, semi-automatic actions, and other modifications to comply with export regulations in markets such as the United States. Production of the PAP models began in the late 1990s and continues today, emphasizing durability through features like stamped 1.5mm steel receivers, cold hammer-forged chrome-lined barrels, and compatibility with standard magazines from their military counterparts.^[75] ^[76] ^[77] Key variants in the series include the compact PAP M92 pistol, originally developed in 1992 as a "Krinkov"-style short-barreled weapon chambered in 7.62×39mm Soviet, with a 10-inch threaded barrel, overall length of 19.3 inches, weight of 6.6 pounds, and 30-round magazine capacity. The PAP M70 rifle mirrors the full-length M70 profile in 7.62×39mm, featuring a 16.3-inch barrel and fixed wooden stock for rifle configurations suitable for sporting use. The PAP M77, chambered in .308 Winchester (7.62×51mm NATO), provides enhanced long-range performance with a longer barrel and robust construction for recoil management. Additional models like the PAP M85 and PAP M90 accommodate 5.56×45mm NATO or .223 Remington, broadening appeal for users preferring smaller-caliber, higher-velocity rounds.^[78] ^[79] ^[80] ^[81] Zastava PAP firearms are imported to the U.S. by distributors including Century Arms and Zastava Arms USA, with model generations (initial PAP, improved NPAP, and current ZPAP) incorporating refinements such as enhanced furniture, better finish quality, and compliance with federal sporting criteria established under the 1989 import ban on certain military-style rifles. These weapons retain the AK platform's reputation for reliability in adverse conditions, owing to overbuilt components and simple gas-operated mechanisms, though they require standard AK maintenance like periodic cleaning of the piston system.^[82] ^[83]

Places and Geography

Locations Named Pap or PAP

The Pap of Glencoe is a prominent mountain peak in the Scottish Highlands, situated on the northern side of Glen Coe within Argyll and Bute council area. Rising to an elevation of 742 metres (2,434 feet), it forms the western terminus of the Aonach Eagach ridge and offers panoramic views over Loch Leven and the surrounding glens, attracting hillwalkers despite its steep, conical profile resembling a "pap" or breast shape.^[84] Ancient Pap refers to an archaeological site comprising an ancient settlement and associated urban burial ground on the right bank of the Syr Darya River in Kazakhstan's Turkistan Region. Dating back to early urban periods, the site reveals evidence of structured habitation and funerary practices, and it has been nominated to UNESCO's World Heritage Tentative List for its cultural significance in Central Asian history.^[85] The Porcupine Abyssal Plain (PAP) designates a vast abyssal plain in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean, approximately 4,850 metres deep, located southwest of Ireland between the Iberian Abyssal Plain and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Established as a sustained observatory since the 1980s, it supports long-term monitoring of deep-sea ecosystems, carbon flux, and climate impacts through deployments by institutions like the National Oceanography Centre.^[86] Smaller settlements named Pap exist in various countries, including a village in northern Albania near Shkodër at coordinates 42°10' N, 19°56' E, noted in geographic databases for its rural locale.^[87] Similar minor locales appear in regions like Uzbekistan's Namangan Province, though some references conflate it with the nearby town of Pop.^[88] These are typically rural hamlets with limited documentation beyond gazetteers.

People

Individuals with PAP Initials or Nicknames

Benjamin "Pap" Singleton (August 15, 1809 – 1900) was an American activist, businessman, and carpenter who led efforts to relocate freed African Americans from the post-Civil War South to Kansas, organizing migrations that involved up to 70,000 individuals between 1877 and 1880 as part of the "Exoduster" movement.^[89] He founded the Edge Tools Company in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1869 to train Black workers and later established settlements like Singleton Colony in Morris County, Kansas, promoting land ownership as a path to economic autonomy amid Southern disenfranchisement and violence.^[89] Singleton's nickname "Pap," derived from his community role as a paternal figure, complemented titles like "Father of the Exodus," reflecting his causal role in enabling self-reliant communities through practical emigration rather than reliance on federal aid, which he criticized as insufficient.^[89] No widely recognized historical or contemporary figures bear the exact initials P.A.P. in prominent records, though the term "Pap" regionally denotes a grandfather in Appalachian and Midwestern American dialects, often as an affectionate familial nickname without association to specific public individuals.^[90]

Other Uses

Food and Culinary Meanings

In Southern African cuisine, particularly in South Africa and Namibia, pap refers to a staple porridge made from finely ground maize meal (known as mielie meal), boiled with water to achieve varying consistencies such as runny for breakfast, soft for everyday meals, or stiff (called stywe pap) to accompany grilled meats like boerewors sausage.^[91]^[92] Introduced via maize cultivation in the 17th century by Portuguese traders and later adopted by Bantu-speaking populations, pap provides a calorie-dense base often paired with relishes like tomato-onion sauce (sheba) or stews, reflecting its role as an affordable, versatile carbohydrate source in daily diets.^[93] A crumbly variant, phuthu or krummelpap, involves steaming maize meal in a coarse texture, commonly served at barbecues (braai) and valued for its digestibility when fermented slightly for probiotic benefits.^[94] Historically in European and early American infant feeding practices from the 17th to 19th centuries, pap denoted a semi-solid gruel prepared by soaking bread crumbs or flour in water, milk, or broth, intended as a weaning food to transition infants from breast milk when maternal nursing was unavailable.^[95] This bland mixture, sometimes flavored with honey or sugar for palatability, was fed via specialized utensils like pap boats or spoons to prevent aspiration, though it often lacked sufficient nutrition, contributing to high infant mortality rates before commercial formulas emerged in the late 19th century.^[96] Distinct from the maize-based African pap, this earlier form prioritized digestibility over sustenance, as documented in period medical texts emphasizing its use for "invalid" or weakened individuals beyond infancy.^[97] In broader English culinary usage, pap generically describes any soft, mushy food resembling porridge, often critiqued as insipid or over-processed, a connotation tracing to 16th-century derivations from Latin pappare (to eat soft food).^[98] Modern recipes adapt traditional pap with additions like butter, cinnamon, or milk for breakfast porridges, maintaining its status as a simple, high-fiber staple in resource-limited settings.^[99]

Miscellaneous Acronyms and Slang

In internet and text messaging slang, particularly among teenagers and on social media platforms, PAP stands for "post a picture," often used to request or prompt the sharing of an image in conversations.^[100]^[101] This usage emerged in the mid-2010s alongside other abbreviated directives like "OOTD" for outfit of the day.^[101] In online gambling contexts, PAP refers to a Poker Affiliate Program, a marketing system where affiliates promote poker sites for commissions on referred players.^[102] The term "pap" (lowercase, not always acronymic) is also slang for worthless or insubstantial content, such as superficial entertainment or writing lacking intellectual value, deriving from its historical sense of soft, bland food.^[103]^[104] Additionally, as a verb, "to pap" means to photograph someone intrusively in the style of paparazzi, a shortening popularized in tabloid and celebrity culture since the early 2000s.

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Singapore: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report
The electoral and legal framework that the PAP has constructed allows for some political pluralism, but it constrains the growth of opposition parties and ...<|separator|>
[21]
About The Pan-African Parliament
The aim of the Pan-African Parliament is to evolve into an institution with full legislative powers, whose members are elected by universal adult suffrage.Missing: structure | Show results with:structure
[22]
The Pan-African Parliament
Promoting Africa's growth and economic development by championing citizen inclusion and increased cooperation and integration of African states. About the ...
[23]
[PDF] Enhancing the Pan-African Parliament's capacity to promote ... - SAFLII
Sadly, at the heart of the PAP's criticism is a weakness that is not of its own making, namely, its lack of legislative powers and concrete oversight over other ...
[24]
Pan-African Parliament's woes reflect a crisis in leadership - ISS Africa
Jun 10, 2021 · Chaotic scenes at the Pan-African Parliament (PAP) in Johannesburg last week have prompted a strong reaction from across the continent.
[25]
AU steps in to try and fix the Pan-African Parliament | PSC Report
Nov 3, 2021 · Many of PAP's 235 parliamentarians are not products of free and fair elections, which further complicates relations among members of diverse ...<|separator|>
[26]
PARTI ALTERNATIF RAKYAT (PEOPLE'S ALTERNATIVE ... - SPR
PARTI ALTERNATIF RAKYAT (PEOPLE'S ALTERNATIVE PARTY) (PAP). Facebook · Instagram · Twitter (X). Menara SPR, No.2, Jalan P2T, Presint 2 Pusat Pentadbiran ...
[27]
People's Alternative Party founder, leaders leave party - Malay Mail
A total 25 People's Alternative Party (PAP) leaders, including its founder, Zulkifli Mohd Noor, announced their ...
[28]
Tableware Glass Progressive Action Party - Propagandaworld
The Progressive Action Party was a Cuban political party led by Fulgencio Batista. The party was founded on 1 April 1949. It presented its first manifesto on 1 ...
[29]
CUBA: Peace & War | TIME
Last week his Progressive Action Party designated a candidate for the June 1 elections; barring a Castro military victory or some other upset, Batista's man is ...
[30]
[PDF] IMPENDING CUBAN ELECTIONS - CIA
Parties participating: Progressive Action, Liberal,. Radical Union, Democratic which comprise the National. Progressive Coalition supporting Batista; Cuban Revo ...<|separator|>
[31]
PAP Leader Says Gambia Deserves Trustworthy Leadership -
Oct 7, 2025 · By: Kemo Kanyi. The Secretary General and party leader for the People's Alliance Party (PAP), Ebrima Tabora Manneh, has stressed that The ...
[32]
The People's Alliance Party (PAP), led by Ebrima Tabora Manneh ...
Apr 11, 2025 · The People's Alliance Party (PAP), led by Ebrima Tabora Manneh, has withdrawn from the upcoming Half Die Ward by-election following ...
[33]
George Papanicolaou (1883–1962): Discoverer of the Pap smear
He is best known for creating the Papanicolaou test, commonly known as the Pap smear, which revolutionised the early detection of cervical cancer. EARLY CAREER.
[34]
Cervical Cytology (Pap Smear): Overview, Indications, Preparation
Feb 28, 2024 · The Papanicolaou test, also known as the Pap test or the Pap smear, was developed in the 1940s by Georgios Papanikolaou. It involves exfoliating ...
[35]
The history of the Papanicolaou smear and the odyssey of ... - PubMed
The Papanicolaou smear, a routine screening test for cancer of the uterine cervix, was reported in 1928, and its efficacy was proved by 1941.Missing: definition procedure
[36]
Cervical Cancer Screening (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version
Apr 18, 2025 · [1,2] Because of the usual slow-growing nature of cervical cancer, the sensitivity of a program of regular Pap testing is likely higher.
[37]
Pap smear - Mayo Clinic
Jul 20, 2024 · A Pap smear is a procedure that involves collecting cells from the cervix for testing. It also is called a Pap test.
[38]
Shifting from cytology to HPV testing for cervical cancer screening in ...
May 2, 2022 · Current screening approaches acknowledge that Pap testing has a high specificity of 96.8%4 but a low sensitivity (55.4%), which means that ...
[39]
Papanicolaou Test in the Detection of High-Grade Cervical Lesions
In false positives, the Pap test showed HGSIL while the biopsy showed less than a CIN2+. In false negatives, Pap tests displaying less than a HGSIL were ...
[40]
Cytology versus HPV testing for cervical cancer screening in the ...
Aug 10, 2017 · The results for the sensitivity of the tests were heterogeneous ranging from 52% to 94% for LBC, and 61% to 100% for HC2. Overall, the quality ...
[41]
Recommendation: Cervical Cancer: Screening - uspstf
Aug 21, 2018 · The USPSTF found convincing evidence that screening with cervical cytology alone, primary testing for high-risk HPV types (hrHPV testing) alone, ...
[42]
Updated Cervical Cancer Screening Guidelines - ACOG
Apr 12, 2021 · All three screening strategies are effective, and each provides a reasonable balance of benefits (disease detection) and potential harms (more ...
[43]
Cervical cancer screening for individuals at average risk: 2020 ...
Jul 30, 2020 · The evidence from RCTs and other studies showed that HPV-based cervical cancer screening has superior sensitivity and long-term negative ...
[44]
Performance of cervical cytology and HPV testing for primary ...
Sep 20, 2023 · There is ample evidence and agreement that HPV testing is a more sensitive and reproducible test for primary screening than cytology, which ...
[45]
Accuracy of the Papanicolaou test in screening for and follow ... - NCBI
Both studies found higher relative true-positive rates for ThinPrep (rates of 1.13 and 1.19, indicating greater sensitivity) and lower relative false-positive ...
[46]
Cervical Cancer Screening Tests Often Overused, Study Finds
May 24, 2021 · The problem is that detection of HPV and mild abnormalities often lead to more invasive procedures, like colposcopy and cervical conization, ...
[47]
Screening for Cervical Cancer With High-Risk Human ...
Aug 21, 2018 · Overall, screening with hrHPV primary or cotesting was associated with more false-positive results and higher colposcopy rates. Limited evidence ...Missing: controversies overdiagnosis<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
The Evidence Behind Testing Strategies for Cervical Cancer ...
Nov 12, 2020 · HPV‐based cervical cancer screening has superior sensitivity and long‐term negative predictive value compared with cytology‐alone screening ...
[49]
Human Papillomavirus DNA versus Papanicolaou Screening Tests ...
Oct 18, 2007 · The sensitivity of both tests used together was 100%, and the specificity was 92.5%. Triage procedures for Pap or HPV testing resulted in fewer ...
[50]
Continuous Positive Airway Pressure - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) delivers a continuous flow of air to open the airways in individuals who are spontaneously breathing.Missing: efficacy history
[51]
Reversal of obstructive sleep apnoea by continuous positive airway ...
Reversal of obstructive sleep apnoea by continuous positive airway pressure applied through the nares. Lancet. 1981 Apr 18;1(8225):862-5. doi: 10.1016/s0140 ...Missing: invention | Show results with:invention
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Nasal Positive Airway Pressure and Sleep Apnea. Reflections on an ...
Sep 24, 2017 · Nasal Positive Airway Pressure and Sleep Apnea. Reflections on an Experimental Method That Became a Therapy. Colin E. Sullivan.
[53]
Treatment of Adult Obstructive Sleep Apnea With Positive Airway ...
PAP compared to no treatment results in a clinically significant reduction in disease severity, sleepiness, blood pressure, and motor vehicle accidents.
[54]
Treatment of Adult Obstructive Sleep Apnea With Positive Airway ...
The efficacy of PAP in reducing OSA severity in adults was evaluated using a meta-analysis of studies that reported on the AHI or RDI. For this analysis, the ...
[55]
Treatments for obstructive sleep apnea: CPAP and beyond
Dec 1, 2023 · CPAP is a first-line therapy for moderate or severe obstructive sleep apnea and for mild obstructive sleep apnea associated with comorbidities ...Airway Pressure Therapy · Cpap Is The Mainstay · Surgical Options<|separator|>
[56]
Adherence to Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Therapy
When adherence is defined as greater than 4 hours of nightly use, 46 to 83% of patients with obstructive sleep apnea have been reported to be nonadherent to ...
[57]
Long term adherence to continuous positive Airway pressure in mild ...
Sep 1, 2023 · Observational studies suggest adherence(compliance) with CPAP therapy is between 30 to 60% [5]. In mild OSA, in which treatable symptoms are ...
[58]
Predictors for short-term and long-term automatic PAP compliance
Results: The acceptance rate of PAP was 92.5%. Compliance at 3 months and 12 months was 79.1% and 51.3%, respectively. Higher apnea- ...
[59]
Positive airway pressure therapy and all‐cause and cardiovascular ...
Mar 18, 2025 · We aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to test the hypothesis that PAP therapy is associated with reduced all-cause and cardiovascular ...
[60]
The Effect of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Treatment on ...
PAP treatment for OSA is associated with modest but significant reductions in diurnal and nocturnal SBP and DBP.
[61]
Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare lung disease involving surfactant accumulation within the alveoli resulting from decreased clearance, rather ...
[62]
Causes, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis of pulmonary ...
Nov 7, 2024 · Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP), also known as pulmonary alveolar phospholipoproteinosis, is a diffuse lung disease characterized by ...
[63]
Prostatic Acid Phosphatase (PAP) - Stanford Health Care
Testing for elevated levels of prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) in the blood may indicate prostate cancer, and is used to evaluate cancer treatment.
[64]
004747: Prostatic Acid Phosphatase (PAP) - Labcorp
PAP determination in conjunction with PSA measurements is useful in assessing the prognosis of prostate cancer.
[65]
Emerging Roles of Human Prostatic Acid Phosphatase - PMC
PAP is a non-specific phosphomonoesterase synthesized in prostate epithelial cells and its level proportionally increases with prostate cancer progression.
[66]
Phosphatidic Acid Phosphatase, a Key Enzyme in the Regulation of ...
The acronym PAP (also known as PAP1) is used to designate PA phosphatase, the enzyme that is specific for PA and that requires Mg2+ for activity (3). PAP is ...Phosphatidic Acid... · Pap In Yeast And Mammalian... · Regulation Of Pap Expression
[67]
The peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) method and other ... - PubMed
The peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) method and other all-immunologic detection methods. Methods Mol Biol. 2010:588:243-55. doi: 10.1007/978-1-59745-324-0_25 ...
[68]
RFC 1334 - PPP Authentication Protocols - IETF Datatracker
This document defines two protocols for Authentication: the Password Authentication Protocol and the Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol.
[69]
Information on RFC 1334 - » RFC Editor
This document defines two protocols for Authentication: the Password Authentication Protocol and the Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol.
[70]
Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) Security Explained - Okta
Sep 14, 2024 · It is an internet standard (RFC 1334opens in a new tab), password-based authentication protocol. Using PAP, data is not encrypted.
[71]
PPP Password Authentication Protocol | Junos OS - Juniper Networks
The Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) provides a simple method for the peer to establish its identity using a two-way handshake.
[72]
What Is a Policy Administration Point (PAP)? - StrongDM
A Policy Administration Point (PAP) is a crucial component in access control systems, responsible for defining and managing policies that regulate user ...
[73]
PAP Software Architecture — onap master documentation
PAP application software can run as a standalone application. But, to utilize its full features it needs at-least one running PDP instance connected to the PAP.
[74]
P.A.P. - Information Technology - Acronym Finder
What does P.A.P. stand for? ; PAP · Printer Access Protocol ; PAP, Private Access Provider ; PAP, Packet Authentication Protocol ; PAP, Post Affiliate Pro (software).
[75]
Zastava ZPAP M70: An Authentic AK For The U.S. Market
Dec 10, 2020 · The manufacturer of the M70, Zastava Arms, opened its doors in 1853 as the state armaments factory for the newly independent Kingdom of Serbia.
[76]
Zastava Arms History
Zastava Arms has 165 years of experience, moved to Kragujevac in 1851, and was a large factory before WWII, producing M48 rifles after the war.Missing: PAP | Show results with:PAP
[77]
Zastava AKs | Zastava Arms USA
Browse the full range of Zastava AKs, including ZPAPM70, M90, and M77 models. Durable, battle-proven, and built for performance.ZPAPM70 ZR7762WM Semi... · ZR77308OR PAP M77 Optics... · ZPAP85 ZP85556
[78]
Century Arms Zastava PAP M92 PV Review - International Sportsman
The PAP M92 PV as imported by Century Arms is a pistol format version of Zastava of Serbia's ultra-compact M92 “Krinkov” style AK, originally developed in 1992.
[79]
ZPAP92 ZP92762M - Zastava Arms USA
Mar 9, 2019 · 7.62x39mm caliber · Semi automatic action · 30 +1 round capacity · 10″ cold hammer forged chrome lined barrel · Stamped steel 1.5mm receiver with ...
[80]
Zastava PAP M92 7.62x39mm 10" Barrel 30+1 - Gunbuyer
SPECIFICATIONS ; Sights · Dual Aperature Krinkov Rear, Post Front ; Barrel Length · 10" ; Weight · 6.6 lbs ; Overall Length · 19.3" ; Finish · Black ...
[81]
PAP M77 Semi-Automatic Sporting Rifle - Zastava Arms USA
Chambered in the proven and powerful .308 caliber, the PAP M77 is an accurate, easy to control rifle platform for shooters of all types.
[82]
Zastava AK rifles | Zastava Arms USA
Zastava Arms USA is your official source for Serbian-made rifles, handguns, and accessories. Explore top-quality firearms backed by tradition and ...Catalog · Handguns · Engraved firearms · Zastava ZVUK TITANIUM AK...
[83]
Review: Zastava ZPAP M70 Rifle | An Official Journal Of The NRA
Nov 25, 2023 · Zastava Arms was established in 1853 in Yugoslavia (modern day Serbia) and has been producing arms of all types ever since. From cannons to ...
[84]
Overview of Pap of Glencoe - Gazetteer for Scotland
The Pap of Glencoe lies 2 miles (3 km) east of the foot of Glen Coe, to the west of the village of Glencoe and overlooking Loch Leven.
[85]
Ancient Pap - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
A site of ancient settlement Ancient Pap and adjoining urban burial ground are located on the right bank of Syrdarya River. A site of ancient settlement has ...
[86]
About PAP-SO | Porcupine Abyssal Plain Sustained Observatory
The Porcupine Abyssal Plain Sustained Observatory is a long running time series site, in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean. The map to the right shows the PAP-SO at ...Missing: geographical | Show results with:geographical
[87]
PAP Geography Population Map cities coordinates location - Tageo ...
Pap. Alternates names : Papi - Coordinates UTM : DM16 Geographical coordinates in decimal degrees (WGS84) Latitude : 42.173. Longitude : 19.927. Geographical ...
[88]
Pap Facts for Kids
Jun 13, 2025 · Pap (also called Pop) is a city located in the country of Uzbekistan. It is found in the eastern part of Uzbekistan, within the Namangan Region ...Missing: named | Show results with:named
[89]
Benjamin 'Pap' Singleton: The 'Moses' Who Helped Thousands of ...
Feb 5, 2021 · Helping many blacks get to freedom, Benjamin 'Pap' Singleton's efforts earned him the affectionate nickname “Moses of the Colored Exodus.”
[90]
Pap Pa Pappy | Blind Pig and The Acorn
Jun 13, 2018 · He and his siblings called his folks Pap and Mammy. My up bringing was a combination of “Tarheel” and “Okie”. My mother was raised in Oklahoma ...
[91]
Traditional African food in South Africa (AO)
Pap is a kind of porridge made from maize meal and can be cooked to be runny, soft or stiff. Any time of the day is a great time to enjoy pap - breakfast, ...
[92]
https://www.sedosnax.com/blog/mealie-pap-a-south-african-staple/
[93]
Namibian Pap and Fried Cabbage - International Cuisine
Rating 5.0 (2) · 30 minsJun 15, 2017 · Pap is considered to be the national dish of Namibia. It gets its name form the Dutch and means porridge. It is made from cornmeal which ...
[94]
Traditional South African Phuthu/Uphuthu/Krummel Pap
Sep 8, 2020 · Krummelpap, is dutch/afrikaans, literally meaning 'Crumbly Porridge' There are a few ways in which mealie meal(ground maize meal) can be ...
[95]
A History of Infant Feeding - PMC - NIH
Pap consisted of bread soaked in water or milk (Radbill, 1981), and panada consisted of cereals cooked in broth (Wickes, 1953b). Both substances were used as a ...
[96]
Pap, gruel, and panada: early approaches to artificial infant feeding
Most 17th to 19th century books on infant care contained detailed recipes for one or several of the following infant foods: pap, a semisolid food made of flour ...
[97]
Infant feeding in history: Pap, Pap Boats and Pap Spoons / Blog
Aug 3, 2023 · Pap generally consisted of animal milk or water thickened with bread (or some kind of cereal) with some additives for palatability - perhaps honey, then later ...
[98]
Pap (African cuisine) - Gastronomic
Pap (African cuisine): Pap (or mieliepap) means “corn porridge” in Afrikaans (*). It is a traditional South African dish.<|separator|>
[99]
Creamy Breakfast Mieliepap Recipe (Maize Meal Porridge)
Rating 4.1 (14) · 25 minAug 7, 2023 · Mieliepap is a South African maize meal porridge, similar to polenta or grits, made from dried white maize, and is flavored with cinnamon and ...
[100]
What does PAP stand for? - Slang.net
PAP stands for "Post a picture." See an example of how people use it.Missing: miscellaneous | Show results with:miscellaneous
[101]
Do you understand the teen slang on Ask.fm? - BBC News
Jan 19, 2016 · Goat (Greatest Of All Time), Ootd (Outfit Of The Day), Pap (Post A Picture) and "Netflix and chill" (a hook-up) all made the list. Bad means ...<|separator|>
[102]
PAP - Slang/Internet Slang - Acronym Finder
PAP. Poker Affiliate Program (gambling) showing only Slang/Internet Slang definitions (show all 101 definitions) Note: We have 250 other definitions for PAP in ...Missing: miscellaneous | Show results with:miscellaneous
[103]
PAP definition in American English - Collins Dictionary
If you describe something such as information, writing, or entertainment as pap, you mean that you consider it to be of no worth, value, or serious interest.Missing: miscellaneous | Show results with:miscellaneous
[104]
PAP Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of PAP is nipple, teat.