Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

PSR

The Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR) is a core philosophical axiom asserting that every fact, entity, event, or truth must have an adequate explanation or cause accounting for why it exists or holds rather than otherwise.^[1] Formulated most influentially by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, it demands that no proposition can be true and no state of affairs real without a determining ground sufficient to necessitate it.^[1]^[2] The PSR undergirds key arguments in metaphysics and rationalist philosophy, rejecting brute facts—unexplained contingencies—as incoherent and supporting inferences to necessary beings or ultimate explanatory unities, such as in Leibniz's cosmological demonstrations for divine existence.^[1] It has shaped debates on contingency, modality, and the structure of reality, influencing thinkers from Spinoza to contemporary metaphysicians who invoke it to argue against infinite causal chains or arbitrary cosmic initial conditions.^[3]^[1] Despite its explanatory power, the PSR provokes ongoing controversy, with detractors claiming it entails vicious regresses or clashes with empirical observations of apparent indeterminacy, as in quantum mechanics' probabilistic outcomes, though defenders counter that such phenomena still admit rational grounds in laws or ensembles rather than genuine inexplicability.^[1]^[4] Empirical and first-principles adherence to causality bolsters its intuitive appeal in ordinary reasoning, where unexplained events are systematically doubted, yet philosophical skepticism persists regarding its universal scope.^[4]^[1]

Philosophy

Principle of Sufficient Reason

The Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR) maintains that for every fact, event, or true proposition, there exists an adequate explanation or ground determining why it is so and not otherwise, ruling out brute facts without causal or logical basis. This axiom demands that explanations terminate in necessity, either logical or empirical, rather than contingency or inexplicability. Formulated systematically by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in works such as the Monadology (1714), the PSR states that "no fact can be real or existent, no statement true, unless there is a sufficient reason why it should be so and not otherwise," pairing it with the Principle of Contradiction to underpin rational inquiry.^[1] In metaphysical terms, the PSR bolsters causal realism by insisting on deterministic chains of explanation, where effects arise from prior causes grounded in the nature of things, countering views that posit acausal occurrences or irreducible probabilities. Leibniz employed it to argue for a pre-established harmony in the universe, where divine choice provides the ultimate sufficient reason for contingent truths, ensuring no arbitrary existence. This aligns with first-principles reasoning, prioritizing comprehensive causal accounts over probabilistic dismissals that evade explanatory demands.^[1] Historically, the PSR influenced continental rationalism, shaping Spinoza's necessitarianism—wherein a simple cause yields only one effect—and Leibniz's critiques of contingency, extending medieval precedents from thinkers like Avicenna while rejecting unexplained primitives. It fueled debates on the Identity of Indiscernibles and God's existence as the necessary explainer of the cosmos. Critiques emerged with Hume's skepticism toward necessary causal connections and Kant's restriction of the PSR to phenomenal experience, yet it persists in challenging brute facts in metaphysics.^[1] Contemporary discussions invoke the PSR against quantum indeterminacy, where apparent randomness in measurement outcomes prompts proposals like hidden-variable theories (e.g., Bohmian mechanics) to restore underlying deterministic causes, preserving explanatory sufficiency over intrinsic chance. Such interpretations maintain that probabilities reflect epistemic limits or ensemble properties rather than violations of causal necessity, though empirical tests like Bell inequality violations constrain local hidden variables without conclusively refuting nonlocal or superdeterministic variants.^[5]^[6]

Science and technology

Pulsars in astronomy

Pulsars, abbreviated as PSR in astronomical nomenclature, are highly magnetized, rapidly rotating neutron stars that emit beams of electromagnetic radiation, primarily in radio wavelengths, from regions near their magnetic poles.^[7]^[8] The misalignment between the neutron star's rotation axis and magnetic axis causes these beams to sweep across the observer's line of sight periodically, producing the observed pulses with periods ranging from milliseconds to seconds.^[7] This lighthouse-like effect arises from the extreme conditions post-supernova, where the remnant core collapses into a neutron star with densities exceeding that of atomic nuclei and surface magnetic fields up to 10^12 gauss.^[8] The first pulsar, designated PSR B1919+21, was discovered on November 28, 1967, by graduate student Jocelyn Bell Burnell using a large radio array at the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory in Cambridge, England, under the supervision of Antony Hewish.^[9] Initial signals, with a period of 1.337 seconds, were detected amid interstellar scintillation studies but revealed precise periodicity inconsistent with terrestrial interference, confirming astrophysical origin after further observations.^[10] PSR naming follows the convention PSR BHHMM±DD (for the 1950.0 epoch) or PSR JHHMM±DD (for J2000.0), where HHMM and DD denote right ascension in hours/minutes and declination in degrees, respectively, enabling systematic cataloging via coordinates.^[11] This format, managed in databases like the Australia Telescope National Facility Pulsar Catalogue, has documented over 3,000 pulsars, supporting large-scale analyses of galactic populations and evolution.^[11] Pulsars have provided empirical tests of general relativity through precise timing measurements, which track pulse arrival deviations to probe spacetime curvature and propagation effects.^[12] In binary systems, orbital decay rates match predictions of gravitational wave emission, as verified in the 1974 Hulse-Taylor pulsar PSR B1913+16, where energy loss aligns with quadrupole formula to within 0.2%.^[13] Pulsar timing arrays, networks of millisecond pulsars monitored for correlated residuals, detect nanohertz gravitational waves; the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves (NANOGrav) reported evidence in June 2023 from 15 years of data on 67 pulsars, revealing a stochastic background consistent with supermassive black hole binaries, with a Bayesian odds ratio favoring the signal over noise by 10^4 to 1.^[14]^[15] A landmark empirical contribution came from PSR B1257+12, a millisecond pulsar where radial velocity variations in pulse timing revealed the first confirmed exoplanets in 1992, with masses of approximately 0.015 and 4.3 Earth masses orbiting at 0.19 and 0.36 AU, respectively, detected by Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail using the Arecibo Observatory.^[16]^[17] These "pulsar planets," surviving the supernova progenitor phase, demonstrated planetary system resilience under extreme radiation and validated timing techniques for sub-Earth-mass detections, predating main-sequence star discoveries.^[16] Such findings underscore pulsars' role in probing post-supernova dynamics and exotic astrophysical environments.^[17]

Computing technologies

Panel Self Refresh (PSR) is a display power-saving technology integrated into Embedded DisplayPort (eDP) standards, enabling LCD and OLED panels in laptops and monitors to independently refresh static screen content using an onboard frame buffer, thereby allowing the graphics processing unit (GPU) to enter a low-power state without continuously transmitting data.^[18]^[19] This mechanism reduces link activity between the GPU and panel during periods of unchanging imagery, such as desktop use or paused video, minimizing transmitter and receiver power draw while maintaining visual continuity.^[20]^[21] Intel first demonstrated PSR in September 2011 as part of eDP enhancements, with practical implementations appearing in hardware like Intel's Haswell processors by 2013, supporting features such as selective frame updates in later iterations (PSR2).^[20]^[22] The technology has since been adopted in VESA standards, including compatibility with Adaptive-Sync for variable refresh rate displays, where PSR complements frame rate synchronization by further optimizing idle power in certified monitors.^[23]^[19] Empirical testing on Intel-based laptops, such as Lenovo models with i915 drivers, demonstrates PSR yielding approximately 0.5 watts of additional power reduction in static display scenarios, contributing to overall battery life extensions by reducing GPU activity.^[24] Broader system-level evaluations confirm efficiency gains through minimized data transmission, though benefits diminish with dynamic content; PSR also lowers display latency in supported configurations by caching frames locally.^[25]^[26] Hardware requirements include PSR-capable panels and drivers, with Intel providing toggles via registry or kernel parameters for compatibility troubleshooting.^[22]^[25]

Radar and surveillance

Primary Surveillance Radar

Primary surveillance radar (PSR) is a radar system that detects and tracks aircraft or other airborne targets by transmitting high-powered radio frequency pulses and analyzing the echoes reflected from the target's surface, deriving range from the time delay and azimuth from the antenna's pointing direction.^[27] This non-cooperative method operates independently of any onboard aircraft equipment, such as transponders, enabling detection of unresponsive or hostile targets that secondary surveillance radar (SSR) cannot reliably track.^[28] PSR systems scan mechanically or electronically through 360 degrees, providing raw position data that requires processing to mitigate false returns from ground clutter, birds, or weather phenomena.^[28] Early PSR development accelerated during World War II, with systems like the U.S. Army's SCR-584 anti-aircraft radar introduced in 1943, operating in the S-band (2.7-2.9 GHz) at peak powers sufficient for tracking aircraft at altitudes up to 50,000 feet.^[29] Postwar adaptations formed the basis for civil air traffic control, including the SCR-545, an S-band surplus military radar repurposed for airport surveillance with detection ranges extended to support terminal operations. By the 1950s, dedicated systems like the Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR) emerged for en-route monitoring, evolving into modern variants such as the ARSR-4, which processes primary returns alongside multilateration data for enhanced utility in low-traffic airspace analysis.^[30] Key operational features include S-band frequencies (typically 2.7-2.9 GHz) for superior propagation through precipitation compared to higher bands, with airport surveillance radars (ASR) like the ASR-11 achieving 60-nautical-mile ranges at 25 kW peak power against civil airliners.^[27] Long-range PSR variants, such as ARSR models, extend to over 200 nautical miles for strategic airspace coverage, though effective detection of small targets (1 m² radar cross-section) diminishes beyond 40-60 nautical miles without amplification.^[31] Monopulse processing in contemporary systems improves angular accuracy to under 1 degree in cluttered environments, outperforming older conical-scan methods by summing signals from multiple antenna feeds to resolve ambiguities empirically validated in operational trials.^[30] In military contexts, PSR integrates into layered air defense networks for initial target acquisition, as in naval surface surveillance radars like the AN/SPS-67(V), which combines search functions with station-keeping at ranges supporting fleet operations.^[32] Its independence from target cooperation allows detection of stealth platforms with minimized radar cross-sections, where SSR fails due to non-response, though PSR's active emissions render it vulnerable to electronic countermeasures like noise jamming, which can saturate receivers and degrade signal-to-noise ratios below detection thresholds. Empirical assessments highlight PSR's reliability against low-observable threats in non-jammed scenarios, prioritizing high-power illuminators over cooperative interrogation for causal detection chains in contested airspace.^[33]

Law, government, and military

Pre-sentence report

A pre-sentence report (PSR), also known as a presentence investigation report, is a document compiled by a federal or state probation officer following a defendant's conviction in the United States criminal justice system.^[34] Its primary purpose is to provide the sentencing court with verified information on the defendant's background to inform an appropriate punishment, including details on the offense conduct, prior criminal record, personal characteristics, and circumstances that may affect supervision or rehabilitation.^[35] In federal cases, preparation of the PSR is mandatory under Rule 32 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure unless the court finds it unnecessary, such as in minor misdemeanors.^[35] The practice of pre-sentence investigations originated in the early 20th century but was formalized in federal law with the adoption of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure in 1946, which codified the requirement for a presentence report to aid judicial discretion.^[35] By 1965, the Federal Probation System established standardized guidelines for PSR content via Publication 103, emphasizing factual reporting over speculative diagnosis to enhance reliability.^[36] State systems often mirror this federal model, with probation offices conducting interviews, reviewing records, and verifying data from sources like court documents and collateral contacts.^[37] Typical PSR contents include a factual summary of the offense resolved through investigation, the defendant's criminal history (categorized by prior convictions and supervised release violations), and social factors such as employment history, family ties, education, substance abuse, and financial condition.^[34] Risk assessments, often using validated tools, evaluate recidivism potential based on empirical predictors like age and prior arrests rather than subjective impressions.^[38] Defendants and counsel receive the report in advance, with opportunities to challenge inaccuracies, though non-disclosed diagnostic opinions may be withheld if they could harm rehabilitation.^[35] PSRs directly influence sentencing by supplying data for calculating offense levels and criminal history categories under the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual, which aim to promote uniformity and proportionality.^[38] United States Sentencing Commission analyses indicate that accurate PSRs contribute to guideline adherence in over 70% of cases, though departures often hinge on verified mitigating factors like family responsibilities.^[39] Empirical reviews show PSRs help mitigate disparities when focused on verifiable facts, as opposed to unconfirmed narratives.^[38] Criticisms of PSRs center on potential biases in subjective sections, such as social history interpretations, with some studies alleging racial or gender disparities in reported risk levels; however, causal analyses from the Department of Justice and National Institute of Justice emphasize that such claims often overlook confounders like offense severity and prior records, advocating instead for stricter factual verification to ensure objectivity.^[40] Reforms, including post-1987 guideline integrations, have shifted emphasis toward data-driven assessments, reducing reliance on probation officers' unverified opinions, as evidenced by lower dispute rates in resolved PSRs.^[41] Empirical evidence supports prioritizing empirical recidivism tools over rehabilitative speculation to align sentencing with public safety outcomes.^[40]

Payment Systems Regulator

The Payment Systems Regulator (PSR) is the United Kingdom's independent economic regulator responsible for overseeing payment systems to promote effective competition, support innovation, and ensure reliable service for users and wider economy interests. Established under Part 5 of the Financial Services (Banking Reform) Act 2013, the PSR began preparatory work in April 2014 and became fully operational on 1 April 2015 as a subsidiary of the Financial Conduct Authority.^[42]^[43] It regulates designated interbank systems such as Faster Payments, Bacs, and CHAPS, focusing on infrastructure resilience, access arrangements, and governance to address historical dominance by a few large banks that limited fintech participation.^[44]^[45] In recent years, the PSR has prioritized enforcement against authorised push payment (APP) fraud, mandating reimbursement for victims through Faster Payments and CHAPS systems effective 7 October 2024. Under these rules, sending and receiving payment service providers (PSPs) share reimbursement costs 50/50, with victims facing a maximum £100 contribution for higher-risk actions and a cap of £85,000 per Faster Payments claim (reduced from an initial £415,000 proposal after cost assessments showed it covered 99.8% of incidents by value).^[46]^[47] In 2023, APP scams totaled 252,626 cases worth £341 million, prompting the regime to incentivize PSPs to enhance fraud prevention, though empirical evidence on net scam reductions remains emerging as implementation data accrues.^[48] The PSR has facilitated greater fintech access to core systems, enabling non-bank providers to compete in a market previously controlled by incumbents and handling over £75 trillion annually at inception.^[49] However, critics, including industry bodies, argue its interventions like APP mandates represent overreach, potentially increasing PSP costs without proportional fraud deterrence and fostering user complacency toward scam risks, as evidenced by debates over behavioral incentives in reimbursement designs.^[50]^[51] In March 2025, the UK government announced plans to abolish the PSR and integrate its functions into the FCA to streamline regulation, reduce business burdens, and address perceived complexity stifling innovation, with consultations ongoing as of late 2025.^[52] This reflects empirical cost-benefit concerns prioritizing economic growth over expansive protections, amid accusations of regulatory duplication.^[53]

Organizations

Physicians for Social Responsibility (PSR) is a United States-based advocacy organization comprising physicians and health professionals dedicated to addressing global threats to public health, primarily through policy influence and public education. Founded in Boston in 1961 by a group of physicians alarmed by the health risks of atmospheric nuclear weapons testing, PSR initially focused on elucidating the medical consequences of radiation exposure and fallout from such tests.^[54] The organization played a foundational role in establishing the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) in 1980, co-founded by PSR's Bernard Lown and Soviet cardiologist Yevgeny Chazov, which received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985 for disseminating authoritative information on the catastrophic medical and environmental effects of nuclear war.^[55] Over time, PSR's mandate expanded beyond nuclear issues to encompass climate change, gun violence prevention, and environmental health, reflecting a broader interpretation of physicians' social responsibilities. Membership includes approximately 50,000 health professionals, activists, and chapters across the US, enabling coordinated campaigns for policy reforms such as arms control treaties and restrictions on fossil fuel extraction.^[56] Notable contributions include advocacy supporting the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, which curtailed atmospheric nuclear testing based on evidence of strontium-90 accumulation in human bones and milk supplies, and subsequent efforts toward the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.^[57] While PSR has advanced empirical understandings of nuclear radiation's long-term health impacts—such as increased leukemia rates among Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors—critics contend that its emphasis on unilateral disarmament overlooks the deterrent role of nuclear arsenals in maintaining relative peace among major powers since 1945, a period marked by no direct great-power conflicts despite ideological tensions.^[58] This perspective, drawn from strategic analyses, posits that PSR's advocacy aligns closely with progressive policy priorities, potentially politicizing medical discourse by prioritizing anti-nuclear and anti-gun stances without equivalent scrutiny of authoritarian regimes' nuclear programs or the energy reliability challenges in rapid fossil fuel phase-outs.^[58] Such selectivity has drawn scrutiny from sources highlighting institutional biases in advocacy groups toward disarmament narratives over balanced security assessments.

Political parties

The Partido Socialista Revolucionario (PSR) in Bolivia operates as a registered political organization, primarily active in the Potosí department and listed with the national electoral authority. It briefly allied with other groups in the Alianza Popular coalition for the 2025 elections, supporting figures like Andrónico Rodríguez, but withdrew in July 2025 amid accusations of leftist disunity and strategic divergences.^[59]^[60]^[61] Ideologically rooted in revolutionary socialism, Bolivian PSR and analogous parties in Latin America—such as historical iterations in Colombia (1926–1930) and Ecuador (post-1962 split from communists)—advocate proletarian uprising against capitalist structures, often drawing from Trotskyist influences prevalent in the region after the 1940s. These groups emphasize worker control of production and anti-imperialist struggle, positioning themselves left of mainstream socialists. However, their platforms align with policies empirically linked to economic distortion in governed contexts, including excessive state intervention that has fueled hyperinflation and scarcity, as evidenced by Bolivia's own socialist MAS party's tenure ending in 2025 amid soaring inflation rates exceeding 10% annually and fuel shortages.^[62]^[63] Electorally, PSR formations have remained marginal, with Bolivian branches securing negligible national representation despite regional alliances, mirroring the fragmentation of Trotskyist efforts in post-1940s Bolivia where groups like POR influenced labor but failed to sustain power.^[64] This pattern underscores causal factors like internal splits and voter rejection of radicalism, compounded by governance failures in ideologically proximate regimes—such as Venezuela's PSUV-led socialism yielding 1,698,488% hyperinflation in 2018 via currency controls and expropriations—contrasting PSR equity rhetoric with verifiable inefficiencies and authoritarian drifts in power consolidation. No PSR party has independently held national office long-term, limiting direct attribution but highlighting persistent ideological overreach absent market mechanisms.

Places

Geographical locations

Pescara International Airport, designated by the IATA code PSR, is situated approximately 4 km west of Pescara city center in the Abruzzo region of Italy, at coordinates 42°26′12″N 14°11′12″E and an elevation of 12 meters above sea level. It functions as the principal aviation gateway for central-southern Italy's Adriatic coast, accommodating domestic and international commercial flights on a 2,419-meter runway; the facility opened to civil traffic in 1957 and processed over 700,000 passengers in 2019 before pandemic disruptions.^[65]^[66] Pasir Ris MRT station, internally abbreviated PSR within Singapore's rail network, lies along Pasir Ris Central in the Pasir Ris planning area of eastern Singapore, serving as the terminus for the East West Line with connections to the Cross Island Line under development. The elevated station, operational since 16 December 1989, facilitates commuter access to residential, commercial, and recreational zones including Pasir Ris Park, with peak-hour frequencies supporting over 20,000 daily boardings.^[67] Pioneer Scout Reservation, commonly referred to as PSR, occupies 1,200 acres in rural Williams County, northwestern Ohio, United States, near the village of Pioneer at approximately 41°40′N 84°33′W. Established in 1969 by what became the Erie Shores Council of the Boy Scouts of America, the site features Camp Frontier for high-adventure programs, including waterfront activities on a 40-acre lake, and hosts annual summer camps for thousands of scouts emphasizing outdoor skills and leadership training.^[68]

Other uses

Project Status Report

A project status report (PSR) in project management is a periodic document that details project progress within a defined timeframe, contrasting actual outcomes with the baseline plan to highlight variances in scope, schedule, and budget.^[69] These reports serve as communication tools for project managers to apprise stakeholders of completed milestones, unresolved risks, resource utilization, and forward-looking forecasts grounded in current data.^[70] Frequency and detail vary by project scale and requirements, often issued weekly or monthly to maintain oversight without overwhelming recipients.^[71] PSRs align with established frameworks such as the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) Guide from the Project Management Institute (PMI), where they fall under the monitoring and controlling process group, emphasizing objective tracking over anecdotal updates.^[71] This practice traces to formalized project controls in the late 20th century, with PMI's standards evolving from its 1969 founding to incorporate systematic reporting by the 1990s.^[72] Core components include quantitative metrics from Earned Value Management (EVM), such as the Cost Performance Index (CPI), calculated as earned value divided by actual cost (CPI = EV / AC), which quantifies cost efficiency—a value above 1 indicates under-budget performance, while below 1 signals overruns.^[73] Similarly, the Schedule Performance Index (SPI), derived as earned value divided by planned value (SPI = EV / PV), assesses timeline adherence, with SPI greater than 1 denoting ahead-of-schedule progress and less than 1 indicating delays.^[73] Empirical variance analysis within PSRs examines root causes of deviations, such as supply chain disruptions or scope creep, enabling causal interventions rather than reliance on projections.^[74] By prioritizing verifiable data over qualitative assurances, PSRs foster accountability and mitigate risks of undetected slippage, as evidenced in their role in large-scale endeavors where EVM integration has improved forecast accuracy by up to 20-30% in controlled studies.^[74] This data-driven approach enhances stakeholder trust and supports informed reallocations, contrasting with less rigorous updates prone to bias or optimism.^[71]

Psychosocial Rehabilitation

Psychosocial rehabilitation (PSR) emerged in the 1970s as a community-based approach to support individuals with severe mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, by focusing on restoring social, vocational, and independent living skills rather than prolonged institutionalization.^[75] This model prioritizes personalized recovery goals, including skills training, supported employment, and housing assistance, aiming to enable participation in community life despite ongoing symptoms.^[76] Developed amid deinstitutionalization efforts in the United States and elsewhere, PSR sought to address the shortcomings of large asylums by promoting functional independence through multidisciplinary interventions like assertive community treatment.^[77] Guidelines from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) endorse PSR components, such as integrated treatment for co-occurring disorders and peer support, for managing serious mental illness in community settings.^[78] Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrate moderate efficacy in specific domains; meta-analyses of supported employment programs, a core PSR element, show participants are 2.4 times more likely to achieve competitive employment than controls receiving standard vocational services.^[79] These interventions correlate with reduced psychiatric hospitalizations, with some studies reporting over 50% decreases in rehospitalization rates and associated costs due to sustained community tenure.^[77]^[80] However, evidence highlights limitations when PSR downplays biological causality in mental disorders, such as neurochemical imbalances in psychosis, favoring social adaptation over targeted pharmacotherapy.^[81] RCTs indicate improvements in functioning but minimal impact on core symptoms without adjunctive biological treatments, underscoring that psychosocial skills alone insufficiently address underlying etiologies.^[82] Deinstitutionalization, which PSR partially supplanted, has been linked to rises in homelessness, with scoping reviews finding strong correlations between psychiatric bed reductions—from over 550,000 in the U.S. in 1955 to under 40,000 by 2016—and increased homelessness and incarceration among the severely mentally ill, often due to inadequate community infrastructure.^[83] Institutional biases in academia toward psychosocial determinism may overstate environmental fixes, as peer-reviewed data prioritize integrated models balancing causal biology with rehabilitation for optimal outcomes.^[84]

References

[1]
Principle of Sufficient Reason - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 14, 2010 · The Principle of Sufficient Reason is a powerful and controversial philosophical principle stipulating that everything must have a reason, cause, or ground.Leibniz · The PSR before Spinoza and... · The PSR in Eighteenth... · Bibliography
[2]
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's Principle of Sufficient Reason
Mar 27, 2018 · Leibniz's Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR) entails that the bike mechanic's claim is patently false: “No fact can hold or be real, and no proposition can ...
[3]
The Principle of Sufficient Reason: A Reassessment - PhilPapers
The Principle of Sufficient Reason says that all contingent facts must have explanation. In this 2006 volume, which was the first on the topic in the English ...
[4]
No brute facts: The Principle of Sufficient Reason in ordinary thought
In philosophy, the PSR is said to yield proof of the existence of God, the truth of causal determinism, and more because every fact must be explained and not ...
[5]
[PDF] What Quantum Mechanics Doesn't Show - PhilArchive
Principle of Sufficient Reason is False. The principle of sufficient reason (PSR) says that there is an explana- tion, a reason, for every true proposition.<|separator|>
[6]
Hidden Variables in Quantum theory - The Information Philosopher
In this way we show that the notion of hidden variables is not compatible with the interference properties of matter, which are both experimentally observed and ...
[7]
Neutron Stars, Pulsars, and Magnetars - Imagine the Universe! - NASA
Pulsars are rotating neutron stars observed to have pulses of radiation at very regular intervals that typically range from milliseconds to seconds. Pulsars ...
[8]
Chapter 6 Pulsars
Pulsars are magnetized neutron stars that appear to emit periodic short pulses of radio radiation with periods between 1.4 ms and 8.5 s.
[9]
First pulsar discovered | Guinness World Records
On 28 November 1967 British astronomers Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discovered ... The pulsar now has a more modern name of PSR B1919+21.
[10]
Pulsars – PULSE@Parkes - CSIRO Research
Aug 11, 2021 · The pulsar discovered by Bell and Hewish is now called PSR B1919+21. PSR stands for Pulsating Source of Radio and B1919+21 indicates the ...<|separator|>
[11]
The ATNF Pulsar Catalogue
The ATNF Pulsar Catalogue includes pulsar name, right ascension, declination, proper motion, timing solution, binary system, distance, and derived parameters.Missing: convention HHMM+
[12]
Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing - PMC - NIH
The best-known uses of pulsars for testing the predictions of gravitational theories are those in which the predicted strong-field effects are compared directly ...
[13]
Gravity experiments with radio pulsars - ADS
Using radio pulsars, it could be shown that additional aspects of the Strong Equivalence Principle apply to the dynamics of strongly self-gravitating bodies, ...
[14]
The NANOGrav 15 yr Data Set: Evidence for a Gravitational-wave ...
Jun 29, 2023 · We report multiple lines of evidence for a stochastic signal that is correlated among 67 pulsars from the 15 yr pulsar timing data set ...
[15]
[2306.16217] The NANOGrav 15-year Data Set: Observations ... - arXiv
Jun 28, 2023 · NANOGrav is a pulsar timing array (PTA) experiment that is sensitive to low-frequency gravitational waves. This is NANOGrav's fifth public data ...
[16]
A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar PSR1257 + 12
The pulsar is orbited by two or more planet-sized bodies, with masses at least 2.8 and 3.4 Earth masses, at distances of 0.47 and 0.36 AU, with orbital periods ...
[17]
How the first exoplanets were discovered - Astronomy Magazine
Oct 8, 2019 · The first exoplanets ever discovered were found orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. It took years for astronomers to find exoplanets around sun-like stars.
[18]
Display Power Savings Technologies - ID:655258 | Core™ Processors
Mar 16, 2022 · Panel Self-Refresh feature allows the Processor Graphics core to enter low-power state when the frame buffer content is not changing constantly.Intel® Seamless Display... · Intel® Display Power Saving...Missing: explanation | Show results with:explanation
[19]
Saving Power in Displays for Electronics | Synopsys Blog
Apr 2, 2018 · PSR saves power by using a Remote Frame Buffer to refresh static images locally, reducing the power of the DisplayPort transmitter and receiver.
[20]
Intel demos Panel Self-Refresh power-saving tech - The Register
Sep 14, 2011 · PSR incorporates a frame buffer into the display's own electronics, allowing it to refresh the screen's pixels directly rather than continuously ...Missing: explanation | Show results with:explanation
[21]
Embedded DisplayPort: Increased flexibility and power savings ...
Panel Self Refresh (PSR). Introduced in eDP v1.3, the PSR function provides a means to lower display-related system power by allowing portions of the GPU and ...
[22]
How to Enable and Disable Panel Self Refresh - Intel
Panel self refresh can save power by allowing the panel to refresh independently. Follow these steps to enable or disable panel self refresh.Missing: explanation | Show results with:explanation
[23]
[PDF] VESA Adaptive-Sync Display CTS r1.0 -- 4/29/22
Apr 29, 2022 · Table 2: Revision History. Date. Revision. Description. April 29 ... • Panel Self Refresh (PSR; see eDP Standard). • Panel Replay (PR; see ...
[24]
Improving Linux battery life, enabling PSR by default, testers wanted
Feb 1, 2018 · Testing on a Lenovo T440s and X240 has shown that enabling Panel Self Refresh (PSR) by setting i915.enable_psr=1 saves another 0.5W.
[25]
With Linux 6.6, Intel Restoring Panel Self Refresh For Aging Haswell ...
Aug 3, 2023 · Panel Self Refresh is a power-savings feature that can lower device power by letting the laptop display panel refresh independently when the screen contents ...
[26]
Testing Panel Self Refresh with the SV5C-eDP Series
Dec 7, 2022 · Panel Self Refresh, commonly known as PSR, is what enables system-level power conservation for devices that have embedded displays.
[27]
Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR-11) - Federal Aviation Administration
Sep 22, 2025 · The primary surveillance radar is a 60 nautical mile S-Band radar (2700 to 2900 MHz) with peak effective power of 25kW. The radar uses a ...
[28]
Section 5. Surveillance Systems - Federal Aviation Administration
ARSR is a long-range radar system designed primarily to provide a display of aircraft locations over large areas. Surveillance radars scan through 360 degrees ...
[29]
Radar - WWII, Detection, Technology | Britannica
Sep 6, 2025 · The SCR-584 operated in the frequency range from 2.7 to 2.9 GHz (known as the S band) and had a parabolic reflector antenna with a diameter of ...Missing: Primary | Show results with:Primary
[30]
A study of primary surveillance radar traffic and its utility via ADS-B ...
This paper presents an in-depth analysis of primary radar targets from an Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR-4) in Finley, North Dakota to help gain insight to ...
[31]
[PDF] Next Generation Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR-( )) Definition Study
The operational requirements developed for the ASR-() include coverage on a small aircraft (one square meter radar cross section) out to 40 nautical.
[32]
AN/SPS-67(V) Radar Set - Navy.mil
Sep 20, 2021 · The AN/SPS-67(V) is a search and surveillance radar is designed primarily for use on surface vessels. The radar performs the functions of navigation, station ...
[33]
[PDF] Study And Analysis of Improving the Detection Capability of the ...
To increase radar detection in jamming situations, this paper provides a methodology that combines adaptive signal processing and effective temperature control.<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
Presentence Investigations - United States Courts
The presentence report summarizes information gathered during the presentence investigation, including the offense, prior criminal history, social history, ...
[35]
Rule 32. Sentencing and Judgment - Law.Cornell.Edu
The probation officer must conduct a presentence investigation and submit a report to the court before it imposes sentence.
[36]
[PDF] PRESENTENCE INVESTIGATION REPORT
In 1965 the Federal Probation System initiated a new set of standards for the preparation of presentence investigation reports. Known as Publication 103, ...
[37]
The Presentence Report – U.S. Probation Office
The objective of this section is to report what happened as established by the probation officer's investigation, using the officer's best judgment to resolve ...
[38]
[PDF] Federal Sentencing: The Basics
It involves a lengthy adversarial process that revolves around the presentence report (PSR), which includes a proposed application of the sentencing guidelines.
[39]
[PDF] Sentencing Resources Guide
These resources can help to guide judges and court personnel in understanding and applying the federal sentencing guidelines and determining appropriate ...
[40]
[PDF] Assessing Consistency and Fairness in Sentencing
Examining whether women receive more lenient sentences than men can illustrate this potential for bias. It may be that systematic bias causes women to be ...
[41]
https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1266&context=lawreview
[42]
PART 5 - UK - Financial Services (Banking Reform) Act 2013
This Part contains provision for the establishment of a new body (the “Payment Systems Regulator”) to exercise functions in relation to payment systems.
[43]
Background to the PSR - Payment Systems Regulator
Following HM Treasury's consultation Opening Up UK Payments in March 2013 the PSR was officially created under the Financial Services (Banking Reform) Act 2013.Missing: date | Show results with:date
[44]
Access to payment systems
Interbank payment systems: The UK's interbank payment systems include CHAPS (operated by the Bank of England), Faster Payments, BACS and the Image Clearing ...
[45]
Designation of payment systems for regulation by the ... - GOV.UK
Mar 18, 2015 · It will be fully operational from April 2015. The 2013 Act provides that the Payment Systems Regulator will be able to oversee all domestic ...<|separator|>
[46]
[PDF] PS24/7 Faster Payments APP scams reimbursement requirement
Oct 7, 2024 · The maximum reimbursement for Faster Payments APP scams is £85,000 per claim, effective from 7 October 2024. This covers 99.8% of scams by ...Missing: £415M | Show results with:£415M
[47]
PSR APP scams reimbursement policy statement
Dec 20, 2023 · On 19 December 2023, the Payment Systems Regulator (PSR) published a ... Setting the maximum level of mandatory reimbursement at £415,000.
[48]
Mandatory reimbursement for APP fraud - BCLP Perspectives
Aug 20, 2024 · For context, the PSR's latest APP scams performance report for 2023 reported a total of 252,626 cases of APP scams totalling almost £341m.Missing: £415M | Show results with:£415M
[49]
New payment systems regulator will open up ... - FinTech Futures
Last week saw the launch of the Payment Systems Regulator, the first time the UK gets a regulatory body overseeing the £75 trillion a year payments systems.Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
[50]
What are the potential unintended consequences of PSR rules ...
Jul 18, 2024 · There is debate on whether PSR changes will make customers more ambivalent to scams, knowing they are covered by their payment providers.
[51]
UK Government to Shut Down Its Payments Regulator
Mar 12, 2025 · Some have felt that the PSR overstepped its bounds, particularly with the introduction of a mandatory refund system for authorized push payment ...
[52]
UK payments regulator to be folded into financial watchdog
Mar 14, 2025 · The PSR – which exists to 'make sure payment systems serve everybody as well as they can' – became fully operational in April 2015, having been ...Missing: establishment | Show results with:establishment
[53]
UK Payment Systems Regulator to be abolished - what's next?
Mar 13, 2025 · UK Government plans to abolish the Payment Systems Regulator, aiming to boost growth and ease business burdens, but firms face uncertainty.
[54]
History | Greater Boston PSR
PSR was founded in 1961 by a group of Boston physicians who played a critical role in raising public awareness of the human health risks associated with the ...
[55]
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
The IPPNW was only five years old when it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Two cardiologists, Bernhard Lown (USA) and Yevgeny Chazov (Soviet Union), became ...
[56]
Physicians for Social Responsibility - Summary from LegiStorm
PSR's 50,000 health professionals and concerned citizen members and e-activists, 31 PSR chapters, and 41 student PSR chapters at medical and public health ...
[57]
Guide to the Physicians for Social Responsibility, Pittsburgh, Pa ...
The group began in the early 1960s in response to atom bomb testing. PSR was instrumental in the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963 and has worked ...<|separator|>
[58]
Physicians for Social Responsibility - InfluenceWatch
Physicians for Social Responsibility is an advocacy organization established in 1961 to oppose the development and testing of nuclear weapons.
[59]
PSR - Órgano Electoral Plurinacional
Partido Socialista Revolucionario · Formulario SOP · Estatuto orgánico ... La Paz - Bolivia. © 2025 Órgano Electoral Plurinacional de Bolivia.
[60]
PSR de Potosí rompe con Alianza Popular y acusa a Andrónico de ...
Jul 18, 2025 · El Partido Socialista Revolucionario de Potosí anunció su retiro de la Alianza Popular, responsabilizando al candidato Andrónico Rodríguez ...
[61]
ANF El Partido Socialista Revolucionario (PSR) del norte de Potosí ...
May 7, 2025 · GrupoFides | #ANF El Partido Socialista Revolucionario (PSR) del norte de Potosí oficializó su invitación a Andrónico Rodríguez para que sea ...
[62]
This weekend could mark an end for the leftist party in Bolivia - NPR
Aug 15, 2025 · Inflation is soaring. Many voters blame the socialist MAS Party, which has dominated Bolivian politics for 20 years. JORGE DERPIC: We'd go to a ...Missing: PSR | Show results with:PSR
[63]
Bolivia set to elect first non-left wing president in two decades - BBC
Aug 17, 2025 · Senator Rodrigo Paz Pereira and former president Jorge Quiroga came in first and second place respectively in Sunday's presidential elections.Missing: PSR | Show results with:PSR
[64]
International Trotskyism-Bolivia - Marxists Internet Archive
Feb 13, 2005 · The founder of Bolivian Trotskyism was Gustavo Navarro, better known as Tristan Marof. He was a one-time Bolivian diplomat who had abandoned ...Missing: PSR | Show results with:PSR
[65]
Pescara International Airport Airport (PSR) Charter Flights | Linear Air
IATA Code, PSR. ICAO Code, LIBP. State, 65. latitude, 42° 26' 12'' N. Longitude, 14° 11' 12'' E. Runway Length, 7936ft (2419m) ...
[66]
Abruzzo Airport | SKYbrary Aviation Safety
Abruzzo Airport (IATA: PSR, ICAO: LIBP) is an international airport serving Pescara, Italy.
[67]
Station Abbreviation List - Spotters by SGTrains
Use this list for the official station abbreviation of MRT stations ... Pasir Ris, PSR, EWL. EW8 CC9, Paya Lebar, PYL, EWL CCL. EW28, Pioneer, PNR, EWL. NE10 ...
[68]
Camp Frontier | Pioneer Scout Reservation | Erie Shores Council
... -picture. (opens a new window). Link to video owner's profile. PSR Scouts BSA Promo. Steve Porter. More options. More options. Like. Add to Watch Later. Share.Leader's/Parent's GuideRegister for Summer CampScouts BSA Summer CampMaps and DirectionsCalendar
[69]
Project Status Reports (Example & Template Included)
A project status report is a document that describes the progress of a project within a specific time period and compares it against the project plan.
[70]
What is Project Status Report? Types, Examples, Best Practices
Jul 29, 2025 · A project status report is a document that describes the current project status and progress. These reports are used by project managers to update stakeholders.
[71]
Project controls - A healthy pulse on your projects - status - PMI
The level of detail and frequency required for a project status report can vary according to various factors. Project size, risk, client requirements and ...
[72]
A History of PMI & Its Role in Project Management - ProjectManager
Dec 12, 2018 · By 1996, PMI produced the first Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). During the 1990s, PMI tripled its membership to 90,000 in 120 ...
[73]
Earned value management systems (EVMS) - PMI
It is the ratio of earned value (EV) to planned value (PV). The SPI is equal to earned value divided by planned value, SPI = EV/PV.
[74]
Using Earned Value Management to Measure Project Performance
Oct 8, 2024 · Earned value management is a great method for project managers to measure the scope, cost, performance and progress of their projects.Using Earned Value... · What Is Earned Value... · Measure Performance With...
[75]
Tracing the development of psychosocial rehabilitation from its ...
It was started with the aim of providing mental health services and psychosocial rehabilitation to persons with mental illness. They also work with women ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[76]
Psychosocial rehabilitation of people living with mental illness
Psychosocial rehabilitation is the process that facilitates opportunities for persons with chronic mental illness to reach their optimal level of independent ...
[77]
Psychosocial Rehabilitation Services in Community Support Systems
Cost-effectiveness studies of psychosocial rehabilitation show an average reduction of more than 50 percent in cost of care due to reduced hospitalizations.
[78]
[PDF] Psychosocial Interventions for Older Adults With Serious Mental Illness
The guide presents psychosocial interventions for older adults experiencing serious mental illness, including: Assertive Community Treatment, Cognitive ...
[79]
Supported employment: Meta-analysis and review of randomized ...
Feb 20, 2019 · Supported employment is a treatment whereby those with severe mental illness (or other disabilities) receive aid searching for competitive ...
[80]
Long-Term Effectiveness of Supported Employment: 5-Year Follow ...
Nov 1, 2014 · Nonvocational Outcomes. Participants in supported employment had significantly fewer psychiatric hospital admissions than those in traditional ...
[81]
Biological Reductionism as an Obstacle to the Advancement of the ...
The point is that biologizing approaches are fundamentally insufficient to achieve the final goal of providing the most effective comprehensive therapy for ...
[82]
The Effectiveness of Mental Health Rehabilitation Services - Frontiers
This systematic review included international studies evaluating the effectiveness of inpatient and community rehabilitation services.
[83]
Moving psychiatric deinstitutionalization forward: A scoping review ...
The first suggests a strong correlation between decreasing psychiatric beds and increasing homelessness or imprisonment among people with mental health problems ...
[84]
Deinstitutionalization of People with Mental Illness: Causes and ...
This paper reviews trends in the transinstitutionalization of people with SMI and proposes that it is time we offer asylum, in the best sense of the word.Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence