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Philosophical skepticism

Philosophical skepticism is a family of philosophical views that question the possibility or extent of knowledge, often asserting that humans cannot attain certain or justified beliefs about the world, and advocating the suspension of judgment (epochē) to achieve intellectual tranquility (ataraxia).^[1] It encompasses both radical forms that deny all knowledge and moderate variants that promote humility in epistemic claims, influencing epistemology, ethics, and methodology across philosophical traditions.^[2] The roots of philosophical skepticism trace back to ancient Greece in the Hellenistic period, around the third century BCE, with two primary schools: Pyrrhonian skepticism, founded by Pyrrho of Elis, which emphasized equipollence (equal strength of opposing arguments) leading to suspension of judgment, and Academic skepticism, developed within Plato's Academy under Arcesilaus and Carneades, which rejected dogmatic assertions in favor of probabilistic beliefs based on what is reasonable (pithanon).^[1] These ancient traditions, later preserved by Sextus Empiricus in works like Outlines of Pyrrhonism, argued against the reliability of senses and reason through modes (tropoi) highlighting contradictions in perceptions and infinite regresses in justification.^[3] During the medieval era, skepticism largely lay dormant in Western philosophy, though it influenced Islamic thinkers like al-Ghazali and reemerged in the Renaissance via translations of Sextus Empiricus, prompting a "skeptical crisis" that challenged Aristotelian scholasticism and religious dogmas.^[3] In early modern philosophy, skepticism became a methodological tool rather than an endpoint, as seen in René Descartes's Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), where hyperbolic doubt—via skeptical hypotheses like the evil demon or dream argument—served to dismantle uncertain beliefs and establish indubitable foundations like the cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am").^[3] Michel de Montaigne, influenced by Pyrrhonism, explored doubt in his Essays (1580), blending it with fideism to question human pretensions to knowledge while affirming faith.^[3] David Hume advanced a mitigated skepticism in A Treatise of Human Nature (1739–1740) and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748), distinguishing antecedent skepticism (preliminary doubt) from consequent skepticism (post-inquiry humility), rejecting metaphysical certainties but accepting probabilistic knowledge from experience and custom.^[2] Immanuel Kant responded to Humean skepticism in Critique of Pure Reason (1781) by limiting knowledge to phenomena while positing noumena beyond reach, thus critiquing both dogmatism and radical doubt.^[1] Contemporary philosophical skepticism includes Cartesian skepticism, revived through modern scenarios like the "brain-in-a-vat" hypothesis, which challenges knowledge of the external world, and ongoing debates in epistemology about responses like externalism (e.g., reliabilism) that aim to refute global skeptical arguments.^[2] Other forms encompass local skepticism targeting specific domains, such as ethical or religious claims, and mitigated approaches promoting epistemic virtues like intellectual humility and tolerance.^[1] Skepticism's enduring impact lies in its role as a critical practice that fosters inquiry, though critics argue it risks undermining practical decision-making if taken to extremes.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Classification

Philosophical skepticism is a philosophical position that raises doubts about the possibility, reliability, or extent of human knowledge, asserting that certain beliefs or propositions cannot be known with certainty or justification.^[4] Unlike everyday doubt, which involves temporary uncertainty in practical matters, or cynicism, which implies distrust of motives without systematic inquiry into knowledge itself, philosophical skepticism employs rigorous argumentation to challenge epistemic claims across various domains.^[5] This view emphasizes the limits of human cognition, often leading to suspension of judgment rather than outright denial of truth.^[6] The term "skepticism" derives from the ancient Greek word skepsis, meaning "inquiry" or "investigation," reflecting its origins as a method of critical examination rather than mere negation.^[6] In philosophical contexts, skeptics are thus "inquirers" who probe the foundations of belief to avoid unfounded assertions.^[6] Skepticism is broadly classified into three major forms based on its scope and purpose. Global or radical skepticism questions the possibility of knowledge in all areas, maintaining that no beliefs can be justified or certain, as exemplified by arguments that undermine universal epistemic standards.^[5] Local skepticism, by contrast, targets knowledge in specific domains, such as the external world or the minds of others, while allowing certainty elsewhere.^[5] Methodological skepticism treats doubt as a provisional tool for inquiry, systematically questioning assumptions to establish more secure foundations of knowledge, without committing to the permanent denial of all epistemic claims.^[5] Philosophical skepticism differs from related concepts like agnosticism and nihilism. Agnosticism specifically concerns the unknowability of God's existence or certain metaphysical truths, suspending judgment on those issues without broadly challenging knowledge.^[7] Nihilism, meanwhile, extends beyond epistemology to deny inherent meaning, value, or purpose in existence, often embracing a pessimistic rejection of all norms rather than focused inquiry into justification.^[8]

Core Arguments and Scenarios

Philosophical skeptics employ several core arguments to challenge the justification of beliefs. The underdetermination argument posits that the available evidence is compatible with multiple conflicting hypotheses, leaving no decisive reason to prefer one over another, such as everyday perceptions versus skeptical alternatives like a simulated reality.^[9] This creates an evidential impasse, undermining confidence in conclusions drawn from sensory data or inductive inference.^[10] The regress argument, also known as the infinite regress problem, contends that any justification for a belief requires further justification, leading to an endless chain of reasons without a foundational stopping point, or alternatively to circular reasoning or arbitrary termination, none of which provide secure epistemic grounding.^[11] As part of Agrippa's trilemma, this argument highlights the apparent impossibility of achieving non-circular justification for knowledge claims, particularly those reliant on empirical observation.^[12] The criterion argument, or problem of the criterion, asserts that there is no reliable method to distinguish true beliefs from false ones without presupposing a standard of truth that itself requires validation, resulting in a foundational dilemma for epistemology.^[13] Roderick Chisholm formalized this as a trilemma between skepticism (denying knowledge), particularism (starting with particular beliefs), and methodism (starting with a method), each facing circularity issues. These arguments collectively motivate skepticism by exposing vulnerabilities in justificatory structures, often manifesting as global skepticism about all knowledge or local skepticism toward specific domains like perception. Skeptical scenarios further illustrate these challenges through hypothetical situations that cast doubt on sensory reliability. The dream argument, introduced by René Descartes, questions whether current experiences can be trusted as veridical, since dreams can produce vivid sensations indistinguishable from waking life, thereby eroding the evidential weight of sensory input for distinguishing reality from illusion.^[14] Similarly, Descartes' evil demon hypothesis imagines a powerful deceiver systematically manipulating perceptions to foster false beliefs, rendering inductive generalizations from past experiences unreliable, as no observation can rule out ongoing deception.^[14] The brain-in-a-vat scenario, a modern extension popularized by Hilary Putnam, supposes that a brain disconnected from the body and immersed in a nutrient vat receives simulated inputs from scientists, mimicking ordinary experiences; this underdetermines whether one's environment is genuine or fabricated, directly attacking the reliability of sensory evidence without providing a resolution.^[15] Cartesian doubt encompasses these and other methodical doubts, systematically withholding assent from all propositions susceptible to reasonable skepticism to seek indubitable foundations, though it primarily serves to highlight epistemic fragility rather than conclusively establish doubt.^[14] These arguments and scenarios do not aim to prove skepticism irrefutably but function as dialectical tools to motivate it by demonstrating how sensory perceptions and inductive processes can be radically undermined, prompting deeper inquiry into the limits of knowledge.^[16] While applicable to global skepticism doubting all beliefs, they also inform local variants targeting specific faculties like perception.^[17]

Epistemological Dimensions

Philosophical skepticism poses profound challenges to foundational theories of epistemology by questioning the adequacy of standard analyses of knowledge in the face of radical doubt. The traditional account of knowledge as justified true belief (JTB), articulated by Plato and refined through centuries, was disrupted by Edmund Gettier's 1963 demonstration of cases where a belief is true and justified yet fails to constitute knowledge due to elements of luck or irrelevant factors.^[18] These Gettier problems reveal that JTB requires additional conditions to exclude such counterexamples, yet skeptics argue that even augmented versions remain vulnerable to radical skeptical hypotheses, such as the possibility of being deceived by an evil demon or existing as a brain in a vat, which undermine the certainty of justification.^[4] Similarly, reliabilism, which posits that a belief is justified if produced by a reliable cognitive process, struggles against these scenarios because reliability cannot be internally verified; Alvin Goldman's 1979 formulation emphasizes causal reliability but concedes that skeptical doubts about the actual world erode confidence in process reliability.^[19] Coherentism, as defended by Laurence BonJour in his 1985 work, views justification as deriving from the mutual support among beliefs in a coherent system, but it faces the isolation objection: even a perfectly coherent set of beliefs could be entirely mistaken if disconnected from reality, as radical doubt illustrates.^[20] Thus, skepticism exposes the fragility of these foundationalist and non-foundationalist approaches, suggesting that no epistemological framework can fully insulate knowledge claims from the specter of global error. The epistemological dimensions of skepticism are further illuminated by distinguishing between its Pyrrhonian and Academic variants, each offering distinct attitudes toward belief and judgment. Pyrrhonian skepticism, as systematized by Sextus Empiricus in his Outlines of Pyrrhonism (c. 200 CE), advocates for epoché, or the suspension of judgment on all non-evident matters, achieved through modes of argument like the Agrippan trilemma (infinite regress, circularity, or arbitrary assumption), leading to tranquility (ataraxia) without affirmative beliefs.^[6] In contrast, Academic skepticism, particularly as presented by Cicero in his Academica (45 BCE), rejects absolute suspension in favor of provisional beliefs based on probability (probabilitas or pithanon), allowing agents to act on what appears most plausible while acknowledging fallibility, thus permitting degrees of assent without claiming certainty.^[21] These variants highlight skepticism's spectrum: Pyrrhonism's radical withholding challenges any doxastic commitment, whereas Academic approaches integrate probabilistic reasoning to navigate practical life, influencing modern debates on the rationality of partial beliefs. Skeptical hypotheses, such as those invoking undetectable deceptions, have significantly shaped debates over the nature of epistemic justification, particularly the tension between internalism and externalism. Internalism maintains that justification depends solely on factors accessible to the subject's consciousness, such as reasons or evidence, but skeptical arguments reveal that even impeccable internal evidence cannot rule out error scenarios, leading to underdetermination of external world beliefs.^[22] Externalism, conversely, grounds justification in external relations like reliability or causal connections to truth, as in reliabilist theories, offering a potential bulwark against skepticism by decoupling justification from subjective access; however, this invites the "new evil demon" problem, where a deceived subject's beliefs are unreliable yet internally indistinguishable from veridical ones.^[4] These debates underscore skepticism's role in forcing epistemologists to reconsider whether justification requires defeaters to be internally addressable or externally guaranteed. Skepticism connects deeply to fallibilism, the view that knowledge, if possible, is always provisional and liable to revision, lacking infallible foundations. Fallibilism accepts that beliefs can be justified and true despite the logical possibility of error, aligning with skeptical pressures by rejecting Cartesian demands for indubitable certainty while affirming epistemic progress through critical inquiry.^[23] This connection tempers radical doubt: whereas skepticism questions the attainability of knowledge, fallibilism posits it as achievable but non-absolute, as seen in responses to skeptical scenarios that emphasize contextual warrant over universal proof.^[4]

Responses and Criticisms

One prominent criticism of philosophical skepticism, particularly radical forms that deny the possibility of knowledge, is the charge of self-refutation. If skepticism asserts that no propositions can be known, then this very assertion cannot itself be known, rendering the skeptical position incoherent or unable to claim truth.^[24] This objection traces back to ancient debates but persists in contemporary epistemology, where skeptics are accused of undermining their own epistemic claims without a stable foundation.^[25] Another common critique highlights the pragmatic impracticality of skepticism. Even if skeptical arguments are logically compelling, adopting them would paralyze everyday decision-making and inquiry, as it implies groundless beliefs and inaction in the face of uncertainty.^[26] For instance, skepticism's implications for empirical science or moral reasoning are seen as untenable, leading critics to argue that such a view fails as a viable epistemology despite its theoretical allure.^[27] G.E. Moore's "here is one hand" argument offers a direct realist response to external world skepticism. By holding up his hands and asserting, "Here is one hand, and here is another," Moore contends that ordinary perceptual knowledge—such as the existence of physical objects—is more certain than skeptical hypotheses like dreaming or deception, thereby prioritizing common sense over abstract doubt. This approach shifts the burden back to skeptics to justify why such evident propositions should be doubted.^[28] In response, epistemic contextualism posits that standards for knowledge attribution vary by context, allowing ordinary claims to count as knowledge in everyday scenarios while acknowledging skeptical challenges in philosophical ones. Keith DeRose argues that utterances like "I know I have hands" are true in low-stakes contexts but false when skeptical alternatives are salient, thus dissolving the apparent conflict without denying skepticism's force in heightened doubt.^[29] The relevant alternatives theory similarly counters skepticism by maintaining that knowledge requires ruling out only relevant error-possibilities, not every conceivable one. Proponents like Gail Stine hold that skeptical scenarios, such as brain-in-a-vat cases, are not relevant in normal contexts, so perceptual beliefs can constitute knowledge without addressing remote doubts.^[30] This framework preserves epistemic closure for practical purposes while limiting the skeptic's scope.^[31] Ludwig Wittgenstein's On Certainty introduces hinge propositions—fundamental certainties like "The earth exists" that underpin inquiry and cannot be doubted without rendering language and thought incoherent. These hinges form the unshakeable framework of our epistemic practices, making radical skepticism not a viable position but a misunderstanding of how certainty operates in human life.^[32] Some philosophers adopt a therapeutic view of skepticism, treating it not as an insurmountable problem but as a tool to dissolve pseudo-problems arising from misguided philosophical demands for absolute justification. John McDowell, for example, sees skepticism as prompting a reconceptualization of experience that avoids infinite regress by recognizing perceptual content's direct normative grip on belief.^[33] This perspective reframes doubt as beneficial for clarifying conceptual boundaries rather than eroding all knowledge claims. Despite these rebuttals, philosophical skepticism endures as a vital force in epistemology, compelling refinements in theories of justification and knowledge while highlighting the limits of human cognition. Barry Stroud emphasizes its role in exposing tensions between common sense and rigorous inquiry, ensuring that epistemological progress remains attuned to profound uncertainties.^[34]

Foundations in Western Philosophy

Ancient Greek Traditions

Philosophical skepticism in ancient Greece originated with Pyrrhonism, a school founded by Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360–270 BCE), who advocated suspending judgment on all matters to attain mental tranquility. Pyrrho's approach, influenced by his travels and encounters with diverse views, emphasized epochē—the suspension of assent in the face of equipollent arguments—and aimed at ataraxia, a state of undisturbed peace free from dogmatic disturbances.^[35] This practical philosophy rejected the pursuit of absolute truth, instead promoting a life guided by appearances and customs to avoid the anxiety of unresolved beliefs.^[36] Later Pyrrhonists, such as Aenesidemus in the 1st century BCE, developed systematic tools like the ten modes of skepticism, which highlighted perceptual relativism across senses, cultures, and conditions to induce doubt and epochē. Agrippa's five modes, developed later in the Pyrrhonian tradition (late 1st to early 2nd century CE), further targeted justificatory problems such as infinite regress, circularity, hypothesis, relation to the observer, and reciprocal dependency, reinforcing the impossibility of secure foundations for belief.^[36] In contrast, Academic skepticism arose within Plato's Academy under Arcesilaus (c. 316–241 BCE), who initiated a skeptical turn by arguing against the Stoics' claim of infallible kataleptic impressions, asserting that all perceptions are indistinguishable from false ones.^[37] Arcesilaus promoted the eulogon—what seems reasonable—as a provisional guide for action without committing to truth, thereby challenging dogmatic certainty while enabling practical life. His successor, Carneades (c. 214–129 BCE), refined this into the pithanon, a graded criterion of probable impressions based on vividness, lack of interference, and thorough examination, allowing skeptics to act on likelihoods while maintaining epochē on ultimate reality and avoiding the charge of apraxia (inability to act).^[38] This approach opposed Stoic rationalism and Epicurean empiricism by underscoring the fallibility of their criteria—Stoic logic and Epicurean senses—without asserting skepticism as a doctrine.^[3] Pyrrhonism and Academic skepticism differed from contemporaneous dogmatic schools like Stoicism and Epicureanism, which both claimed secure knowledge for ethical ends: Stoics through virtue and rational comprehension for eudaimonia, and Epicureans through sensory evidence and pleasure for tranquility.^[39] Skeptics, by suspending judgment, sought ataraxia as a byproduct of doubt rather than through affirmative beliefs, viewing dogmatism as a source of disturbance.^[3] The primary surviving source for Pyrrhonism, Sextus Empiricus' Outlines of Pyrrhonism (c. 200 CE), preserves these arguments and modes, influencing later philosophical thought by demonstrating skepticism's role in critiquing certainty.^[36] These Greek traditions exemplify global skepticism, broadly questioning the attainability of knowledge across domains.

Early Christian and Medieval Developments

In the early Christian era, philosophical skepticism encountered significant adaptation and critique as thinkers sought to reconcile it with emerging Christian doctrine. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE), building on ancient Greek Academic skepticism as a precursor, engaged deeply with its arguments in his work Contra Academicos (Against the Academics), written around 386 CE. There, he employs skeptical methods to expose the limitations of unaided reason in attaining indubitable truth, such as the challenges in verifying sensory perceptions or logical deductions without error.^[40] However, Augustine refutes radical Academic doubt by affirming the certainty of self-evident truths—like the existence of oneself as a thinking being—and the role of divine illumination in providing reliable knowledge, ultimately prioritizing faith as the foundation for epistemic certainty beyond rational skepticism.^[40] This approach transformed skepticism from a destructive force into a tool for underscoring the necessity of Christian revelation.^[41] During the medieval period, skepticism faced suppression within scholasticism, particularly through the integration of Aristotelian philosophy, which emphasized demonstrative certainty. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE), in works like the Summa Theologica, synthesized Aristotle's epistemology to counter radical doubt by grounding knowledge in self-evident principles and sensory experience, arguing that human intellect can achieve certain understanding of the natural world and moral truths without succumbing to pervasive uncertainty.^[42] Aquinas viewed skepticism as incompatible with the pursuit of truth, dismissing it as an exaggeration of human limitations rather than a viable philosophical stance, and instead promoted a realist framework where reason and faith converge to refute claims of universal unknowability.^[42] This Aristotelian turn, dominant in medieval universities, largely marginalized skeptical inquiry, associating it with heresy or intellectual frivolity.^[42] Islamic philosophers exerted a subtle influence on Western medieval epistemology through translations of their works, introducing cautious approaches to knowledge that tempered both dogmatism and outright doubt. Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980–1037 CE), in his Kitab al-Shifa (Book of Healing), developed an epistemology centered on intuitive certitudes and the distinction between necessary and contingent truths, addressing potential skeptical challenges by justifying belief through intellectual principles while acknowledging the provisional nature of empirical knowledge.^[43] Averroes (Ibn Rushd, 1126–1198 CE), in his commentaries on Aristotle, critiqued overly speculative epistemologies—including aspects of Avicenna's—and advocated a restrained skepticism toward unprovable claims, emphasizing demonstrative science as the path to reliable understanding while cautioning against absolute certainty in non-demonstrable matters.^[42] These ideas, transmitted to the Latin West via Toledo and other centers in the 12th century, informed scholastic debates on certitude, subtly encouraging a balanced view of human epistemic fallibility without endorsing full suspension of judgment.^[44] Amid this suppression, limited skeptical voices emerged, acknowledging human fallibility within a Christian framework. John of Salisbury (c. 1120–1180 CE), in his Policraticus (1159 CE), drew on Ciceronian moderate skepticism to highlight the unreliability of human perception and judgment in political and ethical affairs, arguing that rulers and scholars must recognize their proneness to error to foster humility and prudent governance.^[45] He portrayed knowledge as inherently limited by sensory deception and intellectual bias, yet compatible with faith, using this acknowledgment to critique tyrannical certainty and advocate for dialectical inquiry as a check against dogmatism.^[46] John's approach represented a rare medieval endorsement of practical skepticism, influencing later humanist thought without challenging core theological certainties.^[42]

Renaissance and Early Modern Revival

The Renaissance revival of philosophical skepticism in the 16th century was sparked by the rediscovery and dissemination of ancient texts, particularly the works of Sextus Empiricus, which had been largely forgotten in medieval Europe. In 1562, the French humanist Henri Estienne published the first Latin translation of Sextus's Outlines of Pyrrhonism, followed by an expanded edition in 1569 by Gentian Hervet that included additional skeptical writings. These translations introduced Pyrrhonian skepticism—emphasizing the suspension of judgment (epochē) in the face of equally balanced arguments—to a broader intellectual audience, fueling debates on the limits of human knowledge. This revival aligned with Renaissance humanism's emphasis on returning to classical sources, as scholars like Erasmus integrated skeptical ideas into pedagogical reforms and critiques of dogmatic authority, promoting a more tentative approach to truth.^[47] Amid the turmoil of the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598), skepticism emerged as a philosophical response to intense doctrinal conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots, where competing claims to absolute religious truth led to widespread violence and intellectual crisis. Humanist thinkers, facing the failure of reason to resolve sectarian disputes, used Pyrrhonian arguments to undermine dogmatic certainties and advocate for tolerance and moderation, often termed the "Middle Way." For instance, skepticism highlighted the relativity of beliefs shaped by custom and culture, challenging the imposition of uniformity and encouraging coexistence through suspended judgment rather than enforced orthodoxy. This context transformed ancient skepticism from a theoretical exercise into a practical tool for navigating Europe's religious schisms, influencing political efforts like the Edict of Nantes (1598) that granted limited religious freedoms.^[48] Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) exemplified this revival in his Essays (first published 1580), where he drew heavily on Sextus Empiricus to promote a personal, anti-dogmatic skepticism encapsulated in his motto "Que sçay-je?" (What do I know?), inscribed on a medal he commissioned around 1576. Montaigne adapted Pyrrhonian equipollence—the balancing of opposing arguments—to argue for intellectual humility, famously stating in his "Apology for Raymond Sebond" that human reason is limited and prone to error, urging readers to abstain from rash judgments. He extended this to cultural relativism, illustrating how customs vary across societies without any being inherently superior; in "Of Cannibals," he compared New World practices to European ones, noting, "I think there is more barbarity... in eating a man alive than... eating him dead," to critique ethnocentrism and reveal the contingency of moral norms. Through such examples, Montaigne's essays made skepticism a literary and ethical practice, influencing later modern philosophy by emphasizing lived experience over abstract certainty.^[49] In response to this skeptical surge, Marin Mersenne (1588–1648), a Minim friar and key figure in early scientific circles, offered a robust critique in his La Vérité des sciences contre les sceptiques ou Pyrrhoniens (The Truth of the Sciences against the Skeptics or Pyrrhonians, 1625). Structured as a dialogue among an alchemist, a Pyrrhonian skeptic invoking Aenesidemus's ten modes of doubt, and a Christian philosopher, the work defends the certainty of mathematical and natural sciences against radical skepticism. Mersenne conceded sensory deceptions but argued they do not undermine indubitable truths, such as "the whole is greater than the part," asserting that doubt could even affirm basic knowledge: "at least one knows that the objects of the senses appear differently." Writing during the Counter-Reformation's re-catholization efforts, Mersenne integrated his defense with religious apologetics, using scientific reliability to counter atheists, deists, and heretics while aligning faith and reason to stabilize doctrine amid ongoing religious tensions.^[50]

Developments in Modern Western Philosophy

Seventeenth-Century Thinkers

In the seventeenth century, philosophical skepticism played a pivotal role in the emergence of rationalism and empiricism, serving as a methodological tool to dismantle unexamined beliefs and establish firmer epistemic foundations. Rationalists like Descartes utilized hyperbolic doubt to question sensory perceptions and intellectual assumptions, aiming to derive certain knowledge through innate ideas and deduction, while empiricists began challenging metaphysical claims by emphasizing experience, though full radicalization awaited later figures. This era's skepticism was not merely destructive but constructive, interacting with the scientific revolution to undermine traditional authorities and promote critical inquiry.^[51] René Descartes (1596–1650) exemplified methodological skepticism in his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), where he systematically doubted all previously held beliefs to identify indubitable truths. By invoking scenarios such as the possibility of dreaming or an evil deceiver manipulating perceptions, Descartes rejected sensory evidence and even mathematical certainties as potentially false, creating a provisional universal doubt to clear the ground for knowledge. This process culminated in the cogito ergo sum—"I think, therefore I am"—as the first undeniable certainty, since the act of doubting itself affirms the existence of a thinking self, providing a foundation resistant to skeptical challenges. Descartes resolved this doubt by later proving God's existence and benevolence, which guarantees the reliability of clear and distinct ideas, thus countering radical skepticism while advancing rationalist epistemology.^[52] Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) advanced a materialist form of skepticism, particularly toward immaterial souls and divine revelation, as articulated in his Leviathan (1651). Rejecting dualist notions of incorporeal substances, Hobbes argued that all phenomena, including thought, arise from bodily motion, dismissing talk of immaterial spirits as "insignificant speech" that leads to contradictions, such as an "incorporeal body." He extended this skepticism to revelation, interpreting reported visions and miracles as natural dreams or deceptions rather than supernatural events, thereby prioritizing empirical and mechanistic explanations over theological claims. Hobbes' views challenged Aristotelian and Cartesian metaphysics, aligning skepticism with emerging materialist science while cautioning against religious enthusiasm that could destabilize civil order.^[53] Pierre Bayle (1647–1706) employed historical and critical doubt in his Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (1697, revised 1702) to undermine rational theology, ultimately promoting fideism—the supremacy of faith over reason. In entries like "Pyrrho," Bayle highlighted the unreliability of human reason by showing how conflicting evidences and the absence of a clear criterion of truth make dogmatic assertions untenable, even for core Christian doctrines such as the Trinity. Similarly, in remarks on the Manicheans, he argued that the problem of evil defies rational resolution, as no theodicy can reconcile a perfect God with worldly suffering, leading to the conclusion that faith must transcend reason's limitations. Bayle's skeptical method, drawn from Pyrrhonian traditions revived during the Renaissance, encouraged readers to suspend judgment on philosophical controversies, fostering religious tolerance through humble submission to divine mysteries.^[54] The interaction between skepticism and emerging science further amplified doubt toward established authorities in the seventeenth century, as seen in Galileo Galilei's (1564–1642) challenges to Aristotelian cosmology and ecclesiastical dogma. Galileo's telescopic observations, detailed in Sidereus Nuncius (1610), empirically contradicted geocentric models endorsed by the Church, prompting his defense of Copernican heliocentrism in the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632) and his subsequent 1633 trial for heresy. This conflict exemplified how scientific evidence could fuel philosophical skepticism by questioning scriptural interpretations and traditional proofs, inspiring thinkers like Descartes and Hobbes to prioritize methodical doubt and materialism over unquestioned authority, thus bridging skepticism with the mechanistic worldview of the era.^[55]

Enlightenment Figures

David Hume (1711–1776) advanced philosophical skepticism during the Enlightenment through his empiricist framework, particularly in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748), where he articulated the problem of induction by arguing that inferences about future events based on past experiences lack rational justification, as no observation can demonstrate the uniformity of nature.^[56] He contended that causal beliefs arise not from reason but from custom or habit, a psychological propensity formed by repeated associations that inclines the mind to expect similar outcomes without logical necessity.^[57] This led Hume to endorse a form of mitigated skepticism, which tempers radical doubt by accepting the practical utility of customary beliefs within the bounds of human experience, while suspending judgment on metaphysical claims beyond empirical verification.^[57] Building on seventeenth-century methodological doubt, Hume's approach shifted skepticism toward an empirical critique of knowledge claims.^[57] Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) responded to Humean skepticism in his Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787) by employing it as a tool to delineate the limits of human reason, arguing that pure reason alone cannot yield knowledge of transcendent realities but must be constrained to the realm of possible experience.^[58] To counter the inductive skepticism that undermined synthetic judgments, Kant introduced the concept of synthetic a priori knowledge, asserting that the mind's innate structures—such as the forms of intuition (space and time) and categories of understanding—enable necessary and universal truths about the phenomenal world prior to empirical data.^[58] Central to this resolution is the distinction between phenomena (appearances shaped by human cognition) and noumena (things-in-themselves, inherently unknowable), which preserves skepticism's insights by confining theoretical knowledge to appearances while allowing room for moral and practical reason in the noumenal domain.^[58] Hume's skepticism extended to ethics, where he emphasized moral sentiment over rational doubt, positing that judgments of virtue and vice derive from feelings of approval or disapproval aroused by sympathy, rather than from reason's discovery of objective moral properties.^[59] This anti-rationalist stance implies a skepticism about practical reason's ability to motivate action or establish moral truths independently, as reason serves only as the "slave of the passions" in directing means to ends.^[59] In the broader Enlightenment context, figures like Voltaire (1694–1778) wielded skepticism ironically to combat superstition and religious fanaticism, using satirical works such as Candide (1759) to mock dogmatic beliefs and advocate for reason's corrective power against clerical authority.^[60]

Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Evolution

In the nineteenth century, Friedrich Nietzsche advanced a form of active skepticism through his doctrine of perspectivism, which rejected the notion of absolute, objective truths in favor of viewing knowledge as inherently shaped by individual perspectives and human drives.^[61] Nietzsche argued that all seeing is perspectival, stating, "There is only a perspectival seeing, only a perspectival 'knowing'," and criticized traditional philosophy for pretending to access an unbiased "view from nowhere."^[61] This approach transformed skepticism from passive doubt into a tool for critiquing moral and metaphysical absolutes, such as those rooted in Christianity, which he saw as life-denying constructs imposed by human psychology rather than discovered realities.^[61] By emphasizing the creation of values through diverse perspectives, Nietzsche's ideas marked a shift toward a more dynamic, anti-foundationalist skepticism in the late nineteenth century.^[61] The early twentieth century saw skepticism evolve within American pragmatism, particularly through the works of Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, who prioritized practical consequences over unattainable certainty in knowledge and truth. Peirce's pragmatic maxim clarified concepts by their conceivable practical effects, rejecting Cartesian universal doubt and advocating fallibilism, where truth emerges from ongoing scientific inquiry and communal agreement rather than absolute foundations.^[62] James extended this by defining truth instrumentally as what "works" in experience, arguing that beliefs are validated by their expediency in connecting ideas to reality, thus countering skepticism by grounding epistemology in lived utility rather than speculative certainty.^[62] This pragmatic turn reframed skepticism as a methodological tool for testing beliefs experimentally, influencing philosophy to focus on actionable outcomes amid the uncertainties of modern science and society.^[62] Logical positivism, developed by the Vienna Circle in the 1920s and 1930s, introduced the verification principle as a criterion for meaningful statements, requiring empirical verifiability, which inadvertently led to self-skepticism by challenging its own foundational claims. Key figures like Rudolf Carnap and Moritz Schlick posited that only analytically true or empirically confirmable propositions hold cognitive significance, aiming to dismantle metaphysics as meaningless.^[63] However, the principle faced internal critiques, as it could not itself be conclusively verified, prompting debates over its scope and leading to liberalizations like confirmability for universal laws.^[63] These challenges exposed the movement's skeptical undercurrents, evolving into broader empiricist frameworks by the mid-twentieth century and highlighting the difficulties of erecting anti-skeptical barriers through strict logical criteria.^[63] Existentialism in the nineteenth century, exemplified by Søren Kierkegaard, integrated skepticism through the concept of the leap of faith, portraying doubt as an inescapable aspect of human finitude that demands a passionate, subjective commitment beyond rational proof. Kierkegaard viewed objective certainty as illusory, arguing in works like Concluding Unscientific Postscript that faith requires a decisive "leap" amid existential anxiety and the absurdity of paradoxes such as the incarnation.^[64] This approach transformed skepticism into a precursor for authentic existence, where doubt propels the individual toward personal truth in the face of uncertainty, influencing later twentieth-century thought by emphasizing subjective passion over evidentialism.^[64]

Contemporary Western Skepticism

Postmodern and Analytic Approaches

In postmodern philosophy, Jacques Derrida's method of deconstruction critiques logocentrism, the Western metaphysical tradition that privileges speech and presence as the origin of meaning, revealing it as an illusion sustained by binary oppositions and deferral.^[65] Through the concept of différance—a neologism denoting both difference and deferral—Derrida argues that meaning is never fully present but traces an endless chain of signifiers, undermining claims to stable truth and fostering a skeptical openness to textual instability.^[65] This approach extends skepticism by questioning the metaphysics of presence, where philosophy assumes immediate access to reality, instead portraying knowledge as playful and interpretive rather than foundational.^[65] Richard Rorty's neopragmatism further rejects foundationalism, dismissing the Platonic quest for absolute, objective truths as a failed enterprise that no longer serves philosophical progress.^[66] Influenced by thinkers like Quine and Sellars, Rorty proposes replacing objectivity with solidarity, defining truth as "what it is better for us to believe" within a community, thereby sidestepping skepticism's challenge by prioritizing intersubjective agreement over transcendent reality.^[66] This ethical anti-foundationalism avoids relativism through shared hope and tolerance, viewing knowledge as a tool for social cooperation rather than metaphysical certainty.^[66] In analytic philosophy, Edmund Gettier's 1963 paper provides counterexamples demonstrating that justified true belief (JTB) is insufficient for knowledge, challenging the traditional definition and intensifying epistemological skepticism.^[18] In one case, Smith justifiably believes Jones will get a job and has ten coins in his pocket, leading him to infer truly that the job recipient has ten coins—yet Smith himself gets the job and has ten coins, making his belief accidentally true without knowledge.^[18] A second example involves a disjunctive belief about Jones owning a Ford or Brown being in Barcelona, justified by false evidence about Jones but true due to Brown's location, again yielding JTB without knowledge.^[18] These cases, building on analyses by Chisholm and Ayer, spurred decades of debate on additional conditions like reliability or defeasibility to counter skepticism about knowledge attribution.^[18] Barry Stroud employs transcendental arguments to confront skepticism, seeking a priori premises about thought or experience that skeptics cannot deny to establish truths about the external world.^[67] He critiques ambitious versions, like Kantian idealism, for collapsing into verificationism or compromising objectivity, arguing they fail to bridge mind and world without circularity.^[67] Stroud favors modest transcendental arguments, such as Strawson's conceptual connections, which reveal necessary conditions for coherent experience but do not fully refute skepticism, leaving room for doubt about independent reality.^[67] This approach highlights skepticism's persistence while limiting its scope to psychological rather than ontological claims.^[67] Feminist skepticism critiques universal knowledge claims as masking gender biases embedded in traditional epistemology, arguing that objectivity often reflects male-dominated perspectives on reality and reasoning.^[68] Standpoint epistemologists like Sandra Harding advocate starting from women's lived experiences to generate less partial knowledge, rejecting neutral, timeless abstractions that ignore social construction.^[68] Postmodern feminists, including Jane Flax and Judith Butler, extend this by viewing universal truths as ethnocentric power relations that homogenize diverse subjectivities, promoting situated knowledges over singular authority.^[68] Postcolonial skepticism, exemplified in Walter Mignolo's epistemology of coloniality, challenges universal knowledge as a Eurocentric hegemony that delocalizes and suppresses subaltern perspectives through colonial power structures.^[69] Drawing on Foucault's power-knowledge nexus and Quijano's coloniality of power, Mignolo argues that Western epistemology organizes epistemic resources imperialistically, rendering non-European knowledges invisible.^[69] He proposes "border thinking" from hybrid, decolonial loci to counter this, fostering epistemic disobedience that questions universality and embraces plural gnoseologies.^[69] In the philosophy of science, debates between realism and anti-realism intersect with skepticism over unobservable entities' existence.^[70] Realists assert that successful theories approximate truth about unobservables, explaining phenomena via referential success, while anti-realists (instrumentalists) treat theories as predictive tools without ontological commitment, skeptical of hidden realities.^[70] Howard Stein's skeptical analysis reveals the debate's ambiguity, noting that rigid adherence to either hinders progress—as in historical cases such as Huygens's rejection of Newtonian gravitation or Kelvin's skepticism toward Maxwell's electromagnetic theory—and suggests a pragmatic synthesis where both views inform scientific practice without contradiction.^[70] This underscores ongoing skepticism about whether science yields metaphysical truth or mere empirical adequacy.^[70]

Skepticism in Science and Technology

In the philosophy of science, skepticism manifests through critiques of how scientific knowledge progresses and the authority of established methodologies. Thomas Kuhn's concept of paradigms, introduced in his seminal work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, posits that scientific communities operate within shared frameworks of theories, methods, and standards that guide "normal science," but these paradigms are disrupted by anomalies leading to revolutionary shifts.^[71] Kuhn's notion of incommensurability further argues that competing paradigms are not directly comparable due to differing conceptual and linguistic structures, challenging the idea of cumulative, objective progress in science.^[72] Building on this, Paul Feyerabend's epistemological anarchism, outlined in Against Method, rejects rigid methodological rules in favor of a "anything goes" approach, asserting that scientific advancement often relies on counter-induction, proliferation of theories, and even pseudoscientific influences to foster creativity and avoid dogmatism.^[73] Feyerabend's critique underscores skepticism toward the notion of science as a monolithic, rational enterprise, emphasizing historical contingencies over universal norms.^[74] In artificial intelligence and cognitive science, philosophical skepticism questions the foundations of machine intelligence and the reliability of algorithmic systems. John Searle's Chinese Room argument, presented in his 1980 paper "Minds, Brains, and Programs," illustrates doubts about strong AI by imagining a person following rules to manipulate Chinese symbols without understanding them, thereby simulating intelligent behavior without genuine comprehension or consciousness.^[75] This thought experiment highlights skepticism toward claims that computational syntax alone suffices for semantic understanding or intentionality, influencing debates on whether AI can achieve true cognition.^[76] Complementing this, concerns over algorithmic bias raise epistemological doubts about AI's fairness and objectivity; biases embedded in training data and design choices can perpetuate systemic inequalities, as analyzed in philosophical examinations of how such systems amplify historical prejudices in decision-making processes like hiring or policing.^[77] These critiques prompt ongoing scrutiny of AI's epistemic reliability, urging diverse data practices and transparency to mitigate unjust outcomes. Skepticism in climate and medical sciences often pits scientific consensus against policy-driven doubts, revealing tensions between evidence-based knowledge and societal application. In climate change debates, philosophical analysis distinguishes constructive epistemic skepticism—questioning evidence to refine understanding—from denialism that rejects near-universal consensus on anthropogenic causes, as seen in evidentialist frameworks evaluating belief formation amid political polarization.^[78] This skepticism influences policy by highlighting uncertainties in models and projections, yet it risks undermining collective action when ideologically motivated.^[79] Similarly, in medicine, debates center on therapeutic skepticism toward biased evidence, such as in pharmaceutical trials where publication biases inflate efficacy claims, prompting philosophers to advocate for rigorous, pluralistic evaluation to counter overconfidence in interventions like vaccines or treatments.^[80] These discussions emphasize the need for balanced doubt that enhances scientific integrity without eroding public trust. Emerging ethical inquiries extend skepticism to big data and speculative technologies, probing their foundational assumptions. Critiques of big data reliability question its epistemological validity, arguing that vast datasets often harbor inaccuracies, privacy erosions, and overreliance on correlations mistaken for causation, as explored in ethical analyses calling for cautious interpretation to avoid misleading inferences in fields like epidemiology or marketing.^[81] The simulation hypothesis, formalized by Nick Bostrom in his 2003 paper "Are You Living in a Computer Simulation?", posits a trilemma where advanced civilizations likely simulate realities, casting doubt on our world's base status and challenging assumptions about empirical reality in technology-driven epistemologies.^[82] Such skeptical perspectives in ethics demand interdisciplinary vigilance to ensure technological claims align with verifiable truths, fostering responsible innovation.^[83]

Skepticism in Non-Western Traditions

Ancient Indian Schools

In ancient Indian philosophy, the Ajñana school, active during the 6th–5th century BCE, represented a radical form of agnosticism and skepticism within the Śramaṇa movement. Led by Sanjaya Belatthiputta, this tradition refused to affirm or deny metaphysical claims regarding existence, non-existence, both, or neither, employing evasive responses to questions about the self, the afterlife, and karma to avoid dogmatic commitments. This approach, known as ekaṃsavāda (one-sided assertion avoidance), extended to ethical implications, promoting akiriya (non-action or inaction) by suspending judgment on moral causality, thereby challenging the action-oriented doctrines of contemporary Brahmanical and other Śramaṇa schools. Buddhist philosophy, particularly through Nāgārjuna's Madhyamaka school in the 2nd century CE, developed sophisticated skeptical dialectics to undermine dogmatic extremes. Nāgārjuna utilized the tetralemma (catuṣkoṭi), a fourfold logical structure—affirmation, negation, both, and neither—to deconstruct essentialist views on reality, demonstrating that all phenomena lack inherent existence (svabhāva) due to their dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda). This method, as outlined in the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, reveals the emptiness (śūnyatā) of fixed truths, fostering a middle way that avoids eternalism and nihilism. Furthermore, the doctrine of impermanence (anicca) erodes certainty by asserting that all conditioned things are transient and unreliable, encouraging practitioners to relinquish attachments to absolute knowledge in pursuit of liberation.^[84] The Cārvāka or Lokāyata school, emerging around the 6th century BCE as a materialist tradition, exhibited skepticism toward supernatural and scriptural authority. Rejecting the afterlife, karma, and mokṣa (liberation), Cārvākas posited that consciousness arises solely from the combination of material elements (earth, water, fire, air), dismissing Vedic scriptures and inference as unreliable sources of knowledge in favor of direct perception (pratyakṣa) alone. This epistemology led to an anti-dogmatic stance, critiquing religious rituals and transcendental claims as inventions for exploitation, while advocating a hedonistic ethics grounded in empirical enjoyment of life. Primary tenets are reconstructed from critiques in texts like the Sarvadarśanasaṃgraha, highlighting Lokāyata's role as a dissenting voice against orthodox Indian philosophies.^[85] Jainism's doctrine of anekāntavāda (many-sidedness), developed from the 6th century BCE onward, embodies relativistic skepticism by rejecting absolutist assertions about reality. This principle holds that truth is multifaceted, with every standpoint (naya) capturing only partial aspects of an entity's infinite qualities, thus promoting syādvāda (conditional predication) where statements are qualified as "somehow" (syāt) true from specific perspectives. Anekāntavāda counters dogmatism through the saptabhaṅgī (sevenfold predication), which includes possibilities like "is," "is not," "is and is not," and indeterminate forms, underscoring the complexity of existence and encouraging intellectual non-violence (ahiṃsā) in discourse. Rooted in the teachings of Mahāvīra and elaborated in canonical texts like the Āgamas, it fosters doubt toward singular truths while affirming the knowability of reality through comprehensive viewpoints.^[86]

Ancient Chinese Thinkers

In ancient Chinese philosophy, skeptical elements emerged prominently within Daoist thought, challenging dogmatic assertions about knowledge and reality through relativism and epistemic humility. The Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi (c. 369–286 BCE), a central figure in this tradition, exemplified these ideas in his eponymous text, where he questioned the boundaries of self and other, as well as the limits of human understanding.^[87] One of his most famous anecdotes, the "butterfly dream," illustrates this relativism: Zhuangzi dreams he is a butterfly, fluttering freely, only to awaken unsure whether he is a man dreaming of being a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming it is Zhuangzi, thereby blurring distinctions between subjective perspectives and underscoring the fluidity of identity and perception.^[88] This parable highlights epistemic skepticism by suggesting that fixed knowledge of one's own reality is illusory, promoting instead a tolerance for multiple viewpoints without privileging any as absolute.^[89] Zhuangzi further explored the limits of knowledge in the "happiness of fish" dialogue, where he claims to know the joy of fish swimming in a stream, prompting his interlocutor Hui Shi to retort that one not of the fish's kind cannot know their happiness.^[90] Zhuangzi counters by noting his knowledge stems from his position "here above the Hao," emphasizing that understanding is context-dependent and indexed to perspectives rather than universally accessible.^[90] This exchange reinforces Daoist relativism, portraying knowledge as inherently limited by one's standpoint and advocating epistemic modesty in the face of infinite possibilities, where attempts to impose singular truths falter against the diversity of experiences.^[89] Later, during the Eastern Han dynasty, Wang Chong (27–c. 100 CE) advanced a form of empirical skepticism in his Lunheng ("Balanced Discussions"), a collection of essays critiquing prevailing superstitions and metaphysical doctrines through reasoned doubt and observation.^[91] Wang rejected beliefs in ghosts and divine intervention, arguing, for instance, that if the dead became ghosts, sightings would vastly outnumber living people, yet empirical evidence shows otherwise; he similarly dismissed fate as a deterministic force, attributing outcomes to natural qi (vital energy) rather than moral merit or heavenly will.^[92] His method involved systematic questioning (nan) and challenging (wen) traditional claims with verifiable evidence, favoring simplicity and direct observation over unexamined authority, thus embodying a naturalistic skepticism that prioritized empirical testing to dispel unfounded assumptions.^[93] Daoist philosophy, particularly through concepts like wu wei (non-action or effortless action), offered a practical response to epistemic uncertainty by encouraging alignment with the natural flow of the Dao rather than forceful assertions of knowledge.^[94] In Zhuangzi's framework, wu wei embodies epistemic humility, advising against rigid conceptualizations or interventions in the face of the world's inherent ambiguity, as human understanding remains partial amid an infinite Dao.^[95] This approach contrasts sharply with Confucian dogmatism, which upheld rituals (li) as unquestionable foundations for moral and social order, viewing deviations as threats to harmony and knowledge derived from authoritative texts and traditions.^[96] Daoists, by rejecting such prescriptive rituals, promoted a fluid, anti-authoritarian stance that embraced doubt as a pathway to genuine adaptability.^[95]

Islamic Philosophical Skepticism

Islamic philosophical skepticism emerged during the medieval period as a tension between rational inquiry and religious revelation, particularly within the intellectual milieu of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Mu'tazila, an early rationalist school founded in the 8th century, exemplified this by emphasizing human reason ('aql) as a tool for interpreting the Quran, often leading to epistemic scrutiny of literal or anthropomorphic readings. They argued that divine justice and unity required rational analysis to resolve apparent contradictions in scripture, such as the created nature of the Quran, which challenged traditionalist views and introduced doubt about unexamined theological dogmas.^[97]^[98] A more radical form appeared in the works of Ibn al-Rawandi (c. 827–911), whose lost treatises, known primarily through adversaries' accounts, critiqued the foundations of prophecy and miracles. In texts like Kitab al-Zumurrud, he portrayed prophetic miracles as illusions or deceptions, equating figures such as [Moses](/page/M Moses) and Jesus with magicians rather than divine messengers, and rejected the Quran's inimitability as proof of revelation. This skepticism extended to denying the necessity of prophecy, arguing that human reason sufficed for ethical guidance, positioning him as a freethinker who undermined orthodox reliance on supernatural validation.^[99] Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058–1111) employed skepticism strategically to bolster Sunni orthodoxy against Aristotelian rationalism in his Incoherence of the Philosophers (1095). He targeted philosophers like Avicenna for overreliance on demonstrative reason, denying necessary causation and asserting that events occur through God's direct will (occasionalism), thus rendering natural laws illusory without divine intervention. In Deliverance from Error, al-Ghazali detailed his personal crisis of doubt, questioning the reliability of senses through illusions and dreams, and the intellect's limits in grasping metaphysical truths, ultimately resolving it via mystical intuition (dhawq) and revelation. This selective skepticism critiqued philosophical hubris while affirming faith's supremacy.^[100] Translations of Islamic texts, including al-Ghazali's works and those of related thinkers, profoundly shaped Western medieval philosophy during the 12th and 13th centuries. Latin renditions by figures like Gerard of Cremona introduced skeptical motifs—such as doubt in causation and sensory knowledge—into Scholastic debates, influencing thinkers like Roger Bacon and contributing to the epistemological foundations later echoed in Descartes. This transmission, often via Toledo and Sicily, bridged ancient Greek Academic skepticism indirectly through Islamic intermediaries, enriching Latin discussions on reason's boundaries.^[42]^[101]

African and Latin American Perspectives

In African philosophical traditions, skepticism manifests through practices that emphasize probabilistic rather than absolute knowledge, as seen in the Yoruba Ifá divination system. Ifá employs a binary method of generating verses from 256 possible odù (chapters), using tools like the opele chain to produce outcomes based on propensity probabilities, which mitigates bias and underscores the inherent uncertainty in human understanding of destiny and natural secrets.^[102] This approach fosters a cautious epistemology, where predictions are interpretive and contingent, challenging dogmatic certainty in favor of dialogic verification between diviner and client. Ghanaian philosopher Kwasi Wiredu advanced this skeptical orientation through his advocacy for conceptual decolonization, a process of critically examining and divesting African thought from undue Western influences. Wiredu argued that Western universals, such as the categories of "religion" or "psyche," often distort indigenous concepts like the Akan "okra" (personal spirit), requiring Africans to investigate their applicability through independent evaluation rather than uncritical adoption.^[103] He emphasized a doubly critical stance toward Western philosophy due to its colonial imposition, urging reflection on linguistic and conceptual mismatches to reclaim authentic African frameworks, without wholesale rejection of useful foreign ideas.^[104] In Latin American philosophy, Enrique Dussel's philosophy of liberation embodies skepticism toward Eurocentric reason, positioning it as an ideological tool of domination originating in the "ego conquiro" ("I conquer") paradigm of colonial expansion since the 16th century. Dussel critiqued Western ontology—from Aristotle's justification of slavery to Hegel's totalizing Being—as equating European centrality with universality while relegating peripheral peoples to non-Being or barbarity, thereby enabling imperialism and alienation of the "other."^[105] He proposed starting philosophical inquiry from the periphery and exteriority of the oppressed, rejecting Eurocentric totality in favor of a dialectical method that prioritizes lived struggles over abstract universals. This critique aligns with dependency theory's skepticism toward developmentalism, which rejected Eurocentric models of linear progress and universal capitalist stages as inapplicable to Latin America. Thinkers like those in the dependentista tradition argued that underdevelopment stems from structural center-periphery relations in the global capitalist system, not internal archaic deficiencies, thus denying the coevalness of development and underdevelopment as sequential rather than simultaneous processes.^[106] Indigenous epistemologies in the Andes further exemplify such skepticism through sumak kawsay, or "good living," which questions Western linear progress by promoting cyclical harmony between humans, nature, and community. This cosmovision critiques reductionist developmental paradigms, integrating complexity theory to emphasize interconnected, non-unidirectional systems over hierarchical advancement, thereby challenging the nature-society dichotomy inherent in Eurocentric thought.^[107] Contemporary discourses in the Global South address epistemic injustice as a form of skepticism toward dominant knowledge regimes, highlighting how abyssal thinking—rooted in colonial modernity—divides reality into visible (Western scientific and philosophical) and invisible (Southern indigenous and popular) sides, perpetuating epistemicide.^[108] Philosophers like Boaventura de Sousa Santos advocate ecologies of knowledges and intercultural translation to counter this, recognizing suppressed Southern epistemologies (e.g., in Latin American indigenous movements) as valid alternatives to Northern universality, fostering cognitive justice amid postcolonial struggles.^[108]

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Hume's Moral Philosophy
Oct 29, 2004 · Interpreters disagree as to whether Hume is an instrumentalist or a skeptic about practical reason. Either way, Hume denies that reason can ...
[60]
Voltaire - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 31, 2009 · Voltaire was a French writer and public activist who played a singular role in defining the eighteenth-century movement called the Enlightenment.
[61]
Friedrich Nietzsche - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 17, 2017 · Nietzsche's perspectivism thus connects to his “genealogical” program of criticizing philosophical theories by exposing the psychological ...
[62]
Pragmatism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 16, 2008 · Both James and Peirce used 'pragmatism' as the name of a method, principle, or 'maxim' for clarifying concepts and hypotheses and for ...
[63]
Vienna Circle - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jun 28, 2006 · The Vienna Circle was a group of early twentieth-century philosophers who sought to reconceptualize empiricism by means of their interpretation of then recent ...Missing: skepticism | Show results with:skepticism
[64]
Søren Kierkegaard - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 22, 2023 · A rough characterization of the unity Kierkegaard himself sees could be summarized as follows: Kierkegaard believes that genuine religious faith ...Missing: doubt | Show results with:doubt
[65]
[PDF] Of Grammatology - Monoskop
Page 1. Of Grammatology. ; ,. Page 2. of. Granunatology. BY. Jacques. Derrida ... logocentrism-the belief that the first and last things are the Logos, the \Vord ...
[66]
On Richard Rorty's Ethical Anti-foundationalism
According to Rorty, skepticism seems to be central to the story, perhaps forcing the Greeks to challenge themselves, provoking that existential need to give ...
[67]
None
### Summary of Barry Stroud's Transcendental Arguments Against Skepticism
[68]
[PDF] FEMINIST EPISTEMOLOGY AND REPRESENTATION
Feminists may have abandoned knowledge claims based on universal categories, such as women, but looking merely at own experience is not helpful either.<|separator|>
[69]
(PDF) Mignolo's Epistemology of Coloniality - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · PDF | Walter Mignolo's epistemological claims about subaltern knowledge owe much for their inspiration to the work of Michel Foucault.
[70]
[PDF] Some Skeptical Remarks on Realism and Anti-Realism
Summary. This paper argues that the much discussed issue between "scientific realism" and "instru- mentalism" has not been clearly drawn.
[71]
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: 50th Anniversary Edition ...
... paradigm and incommensurability, and applies Kuhn's ideas to the science of today. ... “So long as there are still paradigms among us, the achievements of Thomas ...
[72]
The Incommensurability of Scientific Theories
Feb 25, 2009 · In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), Thomas Kuhn used the term 'incommensurable' to characterize the holistic nature of the ...
[73]
Paul Feyerabend - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 26, 1997 · Against Method explicitly drew the “epistemological anarchist” conclusion that there are no useful and exceptionless methodological rules ...A Brief Chronology of... · Feyerabend's Early Work... · Feyerabend's Later Work...
[74]
Against Method | The Anarchist Library
The following essay is written in the conviction that anarchism, while perhaps not the most attractive political philosophy, is certainly excellent medicine for ...7 · 11 · 14 · 15
[75]
The Chinese Room Argument (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Mar 19, 2004 · The argument and thought-experiment now generally known as the Chinese Room Argument was first published in a 1980 article by American philosopher John Searle.Overview · The Chinese Room Argument · Replies to the Chinese Room...
[76]
[PDF] The Chinese Room - rintintin.colorado.edu
The Chinese Room by John Searle excerpted from: Minds, Brains, and Programs (1980) … I have no objection to the claims of weak AI, at least as far as this ...
[77]
Algorithmic bias: Senses, sources, solutions - Compass Hub - Wiley
Jun 12, 2021 · This research includes work on identification, diagnosis, and response to biases in algorithm-based decision-making.2 Senses Of Bias · 3 Sources Of Bias · 4 Solutions To Bias
[78]
Good To Be Skeptical? Evidentialism and Climate Change
Apr 17, 2023 · However, those who reject the near-consensus about anthropogenic climate change also claim the “skeptic” title. This raises an important ...
[79]
Science and the Public: Debate, Denial, and Skepticism
We outline the distinction between true skepticism and denial with several case studies. We propose some guidelines to enable researchers to differentiate ...
[80]
Therapeutic Skepticism - Oxford Academic - Oxford University Press
Oct 20, 2025 · This chapter examines varieties of therapeutic skepticism that are motivated by the ubiquity of biased medical evidence.
[81]
Ethics & Big Data - ScienceDirect.com
The point being made by Zoldan is that the use of Big Data necessarily requires skepticism and caution to avoid statistical false positives and incorrect ...
[82]
[PDF] Are You Living in a Computer Simulation?
This paper argues that at least one of the following propositions is true: (1) the human species is very likely to go extinct before reaching a.
[83]
[PDF] Critiquing Big Data: Politics, Ethics, Epistemology
Above all, we need new critical approaches to big data that begin with deep skepticism of its a priori validity as a naturalized representation of the social ...
[84]
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400052
[85]
(PDF) Studies on the CĀrvĀka/LokĀyata - ResearchGate
Aug 16, 2025 · PDF | I started writing on the Cārvāka, the most uncompromising materialist school of philosophy in ancient India, from 1995 and have continued
[86]
[PDF] Seven -Valued Logic in Jain Philosophy
The opposite of Buddhist Madhyamika, which rejects all theories as false, Jain anekantavada accepts all theo- ries as true-somehow. Anekantavada (non-absolutism) ...
[87]
Zhuangzi - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 17, 2014 · He doesn't know if Zhuangzi dreamt of being a butterfly or a butterfly is dreaming of being Zhuangzi—though there must be a difference. This ...Zhuangzi's Life and Times · Modern Philosophical... · Bibliography
[88]
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zhuangzi/#4.7
[89]
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zhuangzi/#2
[90]
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zhuangzi/#4.8
[91]
Wang Chong (Wang Ch'ung) - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
He is often interpreted as offering a materialist and skeptical philosophical system. Wang's essays on physics, astronomy, ethics, methodology, and criticism ...Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[92]
https://iep.utm.edu/wangchon/#H3
[93]
The Philosophical Thought of Wang Chong
### Summary of Wang Chong's Philosophical Skepticism in *Lunheng*
[94]
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-epistemology/#3.2
[95]
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-epistemology/#3.4
[96]
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-epistemology/#1.1
[97]
Islamic and Non-Islamic Origins of Mu'tazilite Ethical Rationalism
Jan 29, 2009 · The ethical theory of the Mu'tazila is properly called 'rationalism', because it held that the values of human and divine actions are knowable ...Missing: skepticism | Show results with:skepticism
[98]
Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Religion
May 31, 2023 · This entry focuses on the historical sources and formative moments in the development of Islamic theology and philosophy of religion.
[99]
the blinding emerald: ibn al-rawandi's kitab al-zumurrud - jstor
Nevertheless, it is argued, Ibn al-Rawandi was indeed a heretic who denied the possibility of prophecy, and the K. al-Zumurrud was written in order to expound ...
[100]
al-Ghazali (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
### Summary of Al-Ghazali’s Skeptical Arguments
[101]
influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West
Sep 19, 2008 · The introduction of Arabic philosophy into Latin Europe led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines. The influence is ...Missing: skepticism | Show results with:skepticism
[102]
[PDF] Propensity Probability and Its Application of Knowledge in Ifa
In the Ifá system, a disposition to probability is used in order to remove any bias that may arise from the preconceptions of the priest who tosses the ọ̀pẹ̀lẹ̀.Missing: skepticism | Show results with:skepticism
[103]
[PDF] Toward Decolonizing African Philosophy and Religion
Let me begin by defining what I mean by decolonization in African philosophy. By decolonization, I mean divesting African philosophical thinking of all ...Missing: doubting | Show results with:doubting
[104]
Wiredu on Conceptual Decolonisation - Berghahn Journals
Jun 26, 2023 · Abstract: Kwasi Wiredu defines conceptual decolonisation as an activity in which Africans divest themselves of undue colonial influences, ...
[105]
[PDF] Philosophy of Liberation ofthe Periphery - Enriquedussel
A philosophy of liberation must always begin by pre- senting the historico-ideological genesis of what it attempts to think through, giving priority to its ...
[106]
None
### Summary of Dependency Theory's Skepticism Toward Developmentalism in Latin America
[107]
A dialogue between the Sumak Kawsay and the epistemology of ...
This article discusses how the confluence between Sumak Kawsay—an ancestral Andean cosmovision—and the epistemology of complexity can enable us to rethink the ...
[108]
[PDF] Epistemologies of the South: Justice Against Epistemicide
Global social injustice is therefore intimately linked to global cognitive injustice. The struggle for global social justice must therefore be a struggle ...