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Particle velocity

Particle velocity, denoted as \vec{u}, is the velocity vector describing the local motion of individual particles within a medium as they oscillate due to the propagation of a wave, such as a sound wave in acoustics or a disturbance in fluid dynamics.^[1] This velocity represents the time derivative of particle displacement and is fundamentally distinct from the wave's phase velocity, which is the speed at which the wave profile advances through the medium.^[2] The SI unit of particle velocity is meters per second (m/s), and its magnitude is typically orders of magnitude smaller than the phase velocity; for example, in air at a sound pressure level of 70 dB and 1 kHz, the amplitude is approximately $2.20 \times 10^{-4} m/s, compared to the speed of sound at about 343 m/s.^[1] In acoustic wave theory, particle velocity is derived from the linearized Euler equation of motion, relating it to the acoustic pressure gradient: \frac{\partial \vec{u}}{\partial t} = -\frac{1}{\rho_0} \nabla p, where \rho_0 is the equilibrium density of the medium and p is the acoustic pressure.^[1] For a plane progressive sinusoidal wave in one dimension, the particle velocity takes the form u(x,t) = u_0 \sin(\omega t - kx), where u_0 is the amplitude, \omega = 2\pi f is the angular frequency, k = \omega / c is the wavenumber, f is the frequency, and c is the speed of sound.^[1] In such waves, the particle velocity is in phase with the pressure, and for a traveling plane wave, u_0 = p_0 / (\rho_0 c), with p_0 as the pressure amplitude.^[2] Particle velocity plays a central role in quantifying acoustic fields, particularly through its relation to acoustic intensity I, defined as the time-averaged product of pressure and particle velocity: I = \frac{p u}{2} for sinusoidal waves, or equivalently I = \frac{p_0^2}{2 \rho_0 c} in watts per square meter (W/m²).^[2] This connection underscores its importance in specific acoustic impedance Z = p / u = \rho_0 c for plane waves, which characterizes how media resist the flow of acoustic energy.^[2] Measurements of particle velocity are essential in applications like noise control, vibration analysis, and sound field mapping, often using specialized sensors such as pressure-velocity probes that capture both pressure and velocity components simultaneously.^[2] Beyond acoustics, the concept extends to other wave phenomena, including transverse waves on strings where particle velocity is the transverse component of motion, and shock waves in solids or fluids where it denotes the steady velocity behind the shock front.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition

Particle velocity is the velocity at which individual particles of a medium oscillate due to the passage of a wave through it, representing the local motion induced by the wave disturbance. It is mathematically defined as the time derivative of the particle displacement from its equilibrium position. This concept is fundamental in wave mechanics, where the particles experience periodic back-and-forth motion without undergoing net displacement or transport over time.^[3]^[4] In acoustic contexts, particle velocity primarily describes the oscillatory behavior of fluid parcels in media such as air or water, where sound waves cause compression and rarefaction without overall fluid flow. Similar principles apply to other wave types, including transverse waves in solids, such as vibrations along a string, where particles move perpendicular to the wave direction. The quantity is a vector, pointing in the direction of the particle's instantaneous oscillation, and its SI unit is meters per second (m/s).^[5]^[6] The concept of particle velocity originated in 19th-century developments in wave theory, with key contributions from physicists like Lord Rayleigh, who explored particle motions in acoustics in his influential work The Theory of Sound (1877–1878). Rayleigh's analyses laid foundational groundwork for understanding wave-induced particle dynamics in fluids and solids.^[7]^[8] Particle velocity describes the local, oscillatory motion of individual particles in a medium induced by a passing wave, in contrast to phase velocity, which is the speed at which a constant phase point, such as a wave crest, propagates through the medium, defined as v_p = \frac{[\omega](/page/Omega)}{[k](/page/K)}, where \omega is the angular frequency and [k](/page/K) is the wavenumber.^[9] Similarly, group velocity represents the propagation speed of the wave packet's envelope or the overall energy transport, given by v_g = \frac{d[\omega](/page/Omega)}{d[k](/page/K)}, and differs from phase velocity in dispersive media.^[9] Unlike these propagation speeds, particle velocity does not describe wave advancement but rather the amplitude-dependent vibration of the medium at each point, typically much smaller in magnitude.^[10] For instance, in acoustic waves in air at 20°C, the phase velocity is approximately 343 m/s, while the root-mean-square particle velocity for conversational speech at 70 dB sound pressure level and 1 kHz frequency is about $1.53 \times 10^{-4} m/s, highlighting the localized and minimal displacement of air particles relative to the wave's travel speed.^[11] In this context, the oscillatory particle velocity generates the pressure fluctuations perceived as sound, but the wave itself propagates via the phase velocity without net particle transport over distance.^[12] Particle velocity must also be distinguished from molecular thermal velocity, which quantifies the random, isotropic speeds of molecules arising from thermal energy, averaging around 500 m/s for air molecules at room temperature.^[13] While thermal motion is chaotic and underlies pressure in gases via kinetic theory, wave-induced particle velocity is a coherent, harmonic perturbation superimposed on this random background, with amplitudes orders of magnitude smaller in typical waves.^[12] This distinction ensures that acoustic particle velocity captures only the organized wave effect, excluding the underlying thermal agitation.^[11]

Mathematical Formulation

General Expression

Particle velocity is defined as the time derivative of the particle displacement, linking the oscillatory motion of medium particles to wave propagation. In vector notation, the instantaneous particle velocity \vec{u}(t) is expressed as

\vec{u}(t) = \frac{\partial \vec{\delta}(t)}{\partial t},

where \vec{\delta}(t) represents the displacement vector of the particles from their equilibrium positions.^[11] For propagation along a single direction, such as in plane waves, the expression reduces to the scalar form u(t) = \frac{\partial \delta(t)}{\partial t}, where \delta(t) is the one-dimensional displacement.^[11] In fluid dynamics for longitudinal acoustic waves, particle velocity arises from the linearized equations of motion. The continuity equation, \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \rho_0 \nabla \cdot \vec{u} = 0, relates density fluctuations \rho to the divergence of velocity, with \rho_0 as the ambient density. The momentum equation, \rho_0 \frac{\partial \vec{u}}{\partial t} = -\nabla p, connects velocity changes to pressure gradients p. Taking the time derivative of the continuity equation and substituting the momentum equation yields \frac{\partial^2 \rho}{\partial t^2} = \nabla^2 p. Using the linearized equation of state p = c^2 \rho, where c is the speed of sound, the acoustic wave equation \frac{\partial^2 p}{\partial t^2} = c^2 \nabla^2 p follows, thereby deriving \vec{u} as the response to propagating pressure disturbances.^[11] For time-dependent waves, the instantaneous particle velocity u(t) captures momentary motion, whereas the root-mean-square (RMS) particle velocity quantifies the effective amplitude as u_{\mathrm{RMS}} = \sqrt{\langle u^2(t) \rangle}, with \langle \cdot \rangle denoting the time average over a period. This RMS measure is essential for assessing the overall strength of oscillatory flows in broadband or irregular signals.^[14]

In Harmonic Waves

In harmonic waves, the particle velocity is obtained by taking the time derivative of the particle displacement, as established in the general formulation of wave motion.^[15] For a progressive sinusoidal wave propagating in the positive x-direction, the particle displacement is given by

\delta(x, t) = \delta_m \sin(kx - \omega t),

where \delta_m is the displacement amplitude, k is the wavenumber, and \omega is the angular frequency. The particle velocity is then

u(x, t) = \frac{\partial \delta}{\partial t} = -\omega \delta_m \cos(kx - \omega t).

The maximum particle velocity is u_m = \omega \delta_m. This expression shows that the particle velocity lags the displacement by 90 degrees. The angular frequency relates to the wave frequency f by \omega = 2\pi f, and the wavenumber to the wavelength \lambda by k = 2\pi / \lambda.^[15] In standing waves, formed by the superposition of two progressive waves of equal amplitude traveling in opposite directions, the displacement is

\delta(x, t) = 2 \delta_m \sin(kx) \cos(\omega t).

The particle velocity becomes

u(x, t) = \frac{\partial \delta}{\partial t} = -2 \omega \delta_m \sin(kx) \sin(\omega t),

with maximum amplitude $2 \omega \delta_m. Velocity nodes occur where \sin(kx) = 0 (i.e., x = n \lambda / 2 for integer n), coinciding with displacement nodes where particles remain stationary. Velocity antinodes occur where |\sin(kx)| = 1 (i.e., x = (n + 1/2) \lambda / 2), at the displacement antinodes, where particles oscillate with maximum speed. The relations \omega = 2\pi f and k = 2\pi / \lambda hold similarly.^[16]

Acoustic Properties and Measurement

Relation to Pressure and Impedance

In plane progressive acoustic waves propagating through a fluid medium, the acoustic pressure p is directly proportional to the particle velocity v, given by the relation

p = \rho c v,

where \rho is the density of the medium and c is the speed of sound.^[17] This linear relationship derives from the Euler equation of motion linearized for small-amplitude perturbations in acoustics, assuming no viscosity or thermal conduction effects.^[18] The specific acoustic impedance Z, which quantifies the medium's resistance to the wave, is defined as the ratio of acoustic pressure to particle velocity:

Z = \frac{p}{v} = \rho c.

This characteristic impedance is a real, positive quantity intrinsic to the medium, independent of the wave's direction or amplitude in ideal plane waves.^[19] For common media at standard conditions, such as air at 20°C, Z \approx 415 rayls (kg/m²·s).^[17] For harmonic waves, complex notation is commonly employed to represent the time-harmonic fields, where the pressure \hat{p} and particle velocity \hat{v} are complex phasors such that

\hat{p} = Z \hat{v}.

In progressive plane waves, the pressure and particle velocity are in phase, meaning their phase difference is zero, which ensures maximum energy transfer along the propagation direction.^[18] ^[20] This phase alignment contrasts with standing waves, where a 90° phase shift occurs between pressure and velocity nodes. The time-averaged acoustic intensity I, representing the power per unit area carried by the wave, connects particle velocity to energy flow via

I = \frac{1}{2} \rho c v_m^2,

where v_m is the peak magnitude of the particle velocity.^[21] Equivalently, since p_m = \rho c v_m with p_m the pressure amplitude, I = \frac{p_m v_m}{2}, highlighting the direct coupling between pressure, velocity, and impedance in determining acoustic energy propagation.^[22]

Particle Velocity Level

The particle velocity level L_v is a logarithmic quantity used to express the magnitude of acoustic particle velocity on a decibel scale, facilitating comparison with other acoustic levels such as sound pressure level. It is defined as

L_v = 20 \log_{10} \left( \frac{v}{v_0} \right)

in decibels (dB), where v is the root-mean-square (RMS) particle velocity and v_0 = 5 \times 10^{-8} m/s is the reference value.^[23] This reference corresponds to the particle velocity at the human hearing threshold for a sound pressure of 20 μPa at 1 kHz in air, derived from the characteristic acoustic impedance \rho c \approx 415 rayls via v_0 \approx p_0 / (\rho c).^[24] The use of RMS values aligns with standard acoustic conventions, ensuring consistency with time-averaged measurements; peak particle velocity levels, while occasionally employed in vibration contexts, differ by approximately 3 dB for sinusoidal signals due to the relation v_{\text{peak}} = \sqrt{2} \, v_{\text{RMS}}.^[24] In a plane progressive sound wave, the particle velocity level equals both the sound pressure level and the sound intensity level, as v = p / (\rho c) and the reference values are chosen accordingly, yielding a difference of 0 dB at the hearing threshold.^[24] This equivalence holds because the sound intensity I = p \, v (for RMS values) leads to L_I = 10 \log_{10} (I / I_0) simplifying to match L_v when I_0 = p_0^2 / (\rho c), with I_0 = 10^{-12} W/m². A common calibration point occurs at 94 dB, where L_v = 94 dB corresponds to v \approx 2.5 \times 10^{-3} m/s, equivalent to the particle velocity for a 1 Pa sound pressure in plane-wave conditions.^[25] Particle velocity level finds key applications in noise assessment, particularly for low-frequency and near-field measurements where direct particle velocity sensing outperforms pressure-based methods by reducing sensitivity to background noise and enabling accurate source localization.^[26] For instance, it supports sound intensity estimation and impedance evaluation in industrial environments, such as turbo-compressor noise analysis, without requiring anechoic conditions.^[27] The concept and reference value for particle velocity level have been formalized in international standards, with ISO 80000-8:2020 providing the definitive quantities and units for acoustics, building on earlier conventions tied to human auditory thresholds established in the late 20th century.

Measurement Techniques

Particle velocity can be measured using several experimental techniques, each suited to specific environments such as fluids, solids, or acoustic fields. These methods address challenges in capturing local velocity magnitudes and directions without significantly disturbing the medium. Non-intrusive optical approaches are particularly valuable for high-resolution measurements in dynamic flows, while acoustic-based methods leverage pressure-velocity relationships for sound propagation studies. Calibration against established standards ensures accuracy, especially in distinguishing near-field complexities from far-field plane-wave assumptions.^[28]^[29]^[30] Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), also known as laser Doppler anemometry, is a non-intrusive optical technique that measures particle velocity by detecting the Doppler shift in light scattered from tracer particles passing through the intersection of two coherent laser beams. The frequency of the scattered light fluctuations is directly proportional to the particle's velocity component in the plane of the beams, enabling point-wise measurements with high temporal resolution exceeding 1 kHz and spatial resolution below 1 mm. Applicable to both fluid flows with seeded particles and solid surfaces with entrained matter, LDV supports velocity ranges from zero to hypersonic speeds and detects flow reversal through phase analysis. Its non-contact nature minimizes flow perturbation, making it ideal for applications in aerodynamics and microfluidics.^[28]^[31] Microphone-based methods infer particle velocity from sound pressure measurements in controlled setups like impedance tubes, exploiting the relationship between pressure and velocity in plane-wave propagation. The two-microphone transfer function method, standardized in ISO 10534-2, positions two pressure microphones along the tube to capture the complex transfer function, from which the reflection coefficient and surface impedance are derived, allowing computation of particle velocity via the specific acoustic impedance. This approach is effective for normal-incidence acoustic testing up to several kilohertz, limited by tube diameter, and requires calibration to account for phase mismatches between microphones. An alternative, the two-velocity (2u) method uses paired particle velocity sensors to directly measure velocity transfer functions, offering complementary insights in near-field conditions where pressure-based estimates falter. Challenges arise in near-field measurements due to evanescent waves, contrasting with far-field plane-wave validity, necessitating precise positioning and broadband analysis for reliable results.^[29]^[30]^[32] Particle image velocimetry (PIV) provides a field-based visualization of particle velocity by tracking the displacement of seeded tracer particles in a flow illuminated by a laser light sheet, captured via high-speed cameras. Two-frame cross-correlation analysis computes instantaneous 2D or 3D velocity vectors from particle image patterns separated by a short time interval, yielding comprehensive flow field maps including vorticity and turbulence statistics. Stereo-PIV extends this to three-component measurements using angled cameras, while time-resolved variants enable dynamic analysis at high frame rates. Widely adopted in fluid mechanics for its non-intrusive, whole-field capability, PIV excels in complex flows like those in combustion or biofluids, though it requires optical access and suitable seeding density.^[33] Calibration of these techniques adheres to standards such as ISO 10534 for impedance tube setups, which specifies procedures for two-microphone measurements to ensure reproducibility in acoustic particle velocity derivation, emphasizing frequency limits and wave propagation assumptions. Near-field challenges, including non-plane wave effects near sources or boundaries, demand advanced corrections, while far-field conditions simplify validation against theoretical plane-wave models.^[30]^[29] Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)-based particle velocity probes, first developed in the late 1990s by Microflown Technologies, have seen ongoing advancements enhancing portability and high-frequency response for in-situ applications. These sensors, fabricated on silicon wafers with heated wire elements, directly transduce acoustic particle velocity via thermal anemometry principles, achieving broadband operation from 20 Hz to over 10 kHz in compact, robust packages suitable for noise mapping and structural health monitoring. Integration with pressure sensors in hybrid probes improves impedance measurements, addressing limitations of traditional methods in diffuse fields.^[34]

References

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[PDF] Chapter 5 – The Acoustic Wave Equation and Simple Solutions
This means that the particle velocity can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function: . Substituting back into the Euler's equation gives: or the ...
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Pressure level and particle velocity decrease linearly with range. U to. (r) = P o. (1m) / U c r. Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2.017. 2. Page 9 ...
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Particle Velocity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Particle velocity is defined as the velocity of an infinitesimal part of a medium at a specific instant, attributed solely to the sound wave, and is measured in ...
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Acoustics in the Time Domain - Wolfram Language Documentation
The movement of these particles is denoted by the sound particle displacement , and its time derivative gives the sound particle velocity : Note that the ...<|separator|>
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Particle Velocity, the particles of a medium are displaced from their random motion in the presence of a sound wave. The velocity of a particle during this ...
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Particle Velocities particle displacement, y (x,t) particle velocity, v y. = dy/dt (x held constant). (Note that v y is not the wave speed v ! ) Acceleration ...
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The theory of sound, as developed by Rayleigh, transcends the second law by its wavelike nature. It is interesting to note that Strutt (1872) discovered a ...Historical Introduction · Sound · 29.1 Introduction
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This is simply because, as Rayleigh noted, once "the velocity reaches the speed of sound in the orifice, a further reduction in the pressure in the ...<|separator|>
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Feb 21, 2013 · The particle velocity is influenced by wave amplitude, while phase velocity remains largely independent of amplitude, especially in linear waves ...Phase velocity and wave velocity - Physics ForumsUnderstanding for group velocity and phase velocity?More results from www.physicsforums.com
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[PDF] Chapter 5 – The Acoustic Wave Equation and Simple Solutions
This means that the particle velocity can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function: u =∇Φ r . Substituting back into the Euler's equation gives: ...
[13]
Air Molecule - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Although the mean free path between collisions is 60 nm, air molecules travel at an average speed of 500 m/s at room temperature so that each one experiences ...
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Volume velocity is the rate of alternating flow of the medium through a specified surface due to a sound wave. Note: Expressed mathematically the volume ...
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In other words, the volume velocity indicates how many particles (from a volume point of view) move past a certain plane.Missing: physics | Show results with:physics
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Specific acoustic impedance (Z) is defined as p/u, where p is the complex pressure, and u is the complex particle velocity. Equation 3.2, known as Euler's.
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Acoustic impedance is used to calculate reflection and transmission coefficients for sound waves. It can be defined as Z=p/U or as specific acoustic impedance ...
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Phase Relationships for Plane Waves
Nov 28, 2020 · The particle velocity and pressure are in-phase; maximum positive velocity (moving right) occurs when pressure is positive (compression).<|control11|><|separator|>
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### Summary of Acoustic Intensity Formula and Relation to Impedance
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... pressure for acoustic waves) divided by the velocity variable. In ideal plane waves and traveling waves, the wave impedance is a real, positive number. For ...
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Measurements that require both sound pressure as particle velocity like sound intensity, sound energy and acoustic impedance measurements complete this part.<|control11|><|separator|>
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at 94 dB particle velocity level (re. 50 nm/s). The sensitivity (the relative resistance variation per meter per second) can be calculated from this figure ...
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Jan 14, 2025 · Particle velocity measures the speed of air particle motion caused by a sound wave. It reflects the dynamic motion of particles in the medium, ...
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In contrast, particle velocity measurements performed near a rigid radiating surface are less affected by background noise and can potentially be used to ...
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Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) is a technique which allows the measurement of velocity at a point in a flow field with a high temporal resolution.
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This is because the particle velocity level is low close to a fully reflective plane (see also paragraph below: 'Signal to. (background)noise level'). Apart ...
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### Summary of ISO 10534-2:2023
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The Microflown sensor, a MEMS-based transducer, has the capability to measure acoustic particle velocity directly.Missing: 2020 advancements<|control11|><|separator|>