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Peramelidae

Peramelidae is a family of marsupials commonly known as bandicoots, comprising 19 extant species across seven genera in the order Peramelemorphia. These small to medium-sized, ground-dwelling omnivores are native to Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and nearby islands such as the Aru and Bismarck Archipelagos. Characterized by their elongated, pointed snouts adapted for foraging, powerful forelimbs equipped with strong claws for digging, and syndactylous hind feet (with the second and third toes fused), bandicoots exhibit a unique blend of primitive and derived marsupial traits, including a short gestation period of about 12.5 days and a rear-opening pouch in females.^[1]^[2] Taxonomically, Peramelidae is classified within the infraclass Marsupialia and distinguished from the related family Thylacomyidae (bilbies) by features such as shorter ears, less hairy tails, and the absence of rabbit-like adaptations. The family includes three subfamilies: Peramelinae (long-nosed bandicoots, such as genera Perameles and Isoodon), Echymiperinae (New Guinean bandicoots, including Echymipera, Microperoryctes, and Rhynchomeles), and Peroryctinae (Peroryctes). One genus, Chaeropus (pig-footed bandicoot), is considered extinct since the early 20th century. Bandicoots range in size from 150–560 mm in head-body length, with tail lengths of 120–340 mm and body masses of 200 g to 4.7 kg; their fur is typically short, coarse, and brindled in shades of brown or gray for camouflage.^[2]^[3] Bandicoots inhabit a wide array of environments, from tropical rainforests and woodlands to arid shrublands and urban fringes, demonstrating remarkable ecological flexibility. They are primarily nocturnal or crepuscular foragers, using their snouts to probe soil for invertebrates like earthworms and beetles, as well as fungi, seeds, and roots, often leaving distinctive conical diggings in their wake. Their diet is supplemented by small vertebrates, and they play a key role in soil aeration and nutrient cycling. Reproduction is prolific, with females bearing 2–5 young per litter and potentially multiple litters annually, supported by a polyprotodont dentition (multiple pairs of incisors) and tribosphenic molars suited to their omnivorous habits.^[1]^[2]^[3] Many Peramelidae species face significant conservation challenges, with habitat fragmentation, predation by introduced foxes and cats, and competition from livestock contributing to population declines since European settlement. At least eight species are listed as endangered or vulnerable under Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, including the eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii) and southern brown bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus), prompting national recovery plans focused on predator control, habitat restoration, and captive breeding. Ongoing research emphasizes their evolutionary significance and the need for integrated management to preserve this diverse marsupial lineage.^[4]^[5]^[6]

Taxonomy

Etymology and history

The family name Peramelidae was established by British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1825, in his publication outlining the classification of marsupials in the Annals of Philosophy. The name derives from the type genus Perameles, coined earlier by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1804, combining the Greek pēra ("pouch" or "bag") and Latin meles ("badger" or "marten"), reflecting the animal's marsupial pouch and badger-like features such as its burrowing habits.^[7]^[8] Bandicoots within Peramelidae were first encountered by Europeans during late 18th- and early 19th-century expeditions to Australia, including those led by George Bass and Matthew Flinders in 1799, and the French Baudin expedition around 1800–1804. Initial scientific descriptions emerged from Sydney region specimens, with George Shaw naming the southern brown bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus) in 1797 and Geoffroy describing the long-nosed bandicoot (Perameles nasuta) in 1804. These early accounts highlighted the animals' elusive, nocturnal nature in coastal woodlands and grasslands.^[2] Early recognition of Peramelidae as a distinct marsupial group was complicated by superficial resemblances to rodents, including small body size, elongated snouts, and fossorial behaviors, leading to initial misclassifications and the adoption of the vernacular "bandicoot" from the Telugu pandi-kokku ("pig-rat"), originally applied to an Indian rodent. Gray's 1825 work clarified their placement within marsupials, separate from placental mammals, though the family initially encompassed bilbies (now in Thylacomyidae).^[2]^[7] Key advancements in the late 19th century came from mammalogists like Oldfield Thomas, who, through his work at the British Museum (Natural History), refined genus-level distinctions in Peramelidae. In publications such as his 1888 catalogue of marsupials, Thomas delineated genera like Perameles and Isoodon based on cranial and dental morphology, resolving ambiguities from earlier descriptions and establishing a more precise taxonomic framework.^[2]

Classification

Peramelidae is a family of marsupials within the infraclass Marsupialia and order Peramelemorphia.^[9] The family was established by John Edward Gray in 1825, with the long-nosed bandicoot (Perameles nasuta) designated as the type species.^[9] It comprises six extant genera and 18 extant species, primarily distributed across Australia and New Guinea, encompassing both long-nosed and short-nosed forms as well as spiny varieties.^[7]^[10] The family is divided into three subfamilies. Peramelinae, the Australian bandicoots, includes the genera Perameles and Isoodon, characterized by long-nosed species adapted to diverse habitats.^[11] Echymiperinae, the spiny bandicoots of New Guinea, is represented solely by the genus Echymipera.^[12] Peroryctinae, also from New Guinea, encompasses the genera Peroryctes, Microperoryctes, and Rhynchomeles, featuring a mix of long- and short-nosed forms.^[13] The following table enumerates the extant genera and species, including common names and notable synonyms where applicable:

Subfamily	Genus	Species	Common Name
Peramelinae	Isoodon	I. auratus	Golden bandicoot (syn. Perameles aurata)
		I. macrourus	Northern brown bandicoot
		I. obesulus	Southern brown bandicoot (syn. Perameles obesula)
	Perameles	P. bougainville	Western barred bandicoot
		P. gunnii	Eastern barred bandicoot (syn. P. fasciata)
		P. nasuta	Long-nosed bandicoot
Echymiperinae	Echymipera	E. clara	Clara's spiny bandicoot
		E. davidi	David's spiny bandicoot (syn. E. leucura)
		E. echinista	Western spiny bandicoot
		E. kalubu	Common spiny bandicoot
		E. rufescens	Rufous spiny bandicoot
Peroryctinae	Microperoryctes	M. aplini	Arfak pygmy bandicoot
		M. longicauda	Long-tailed bandicoot
		M. murina	Mouse bandicoot
		M. papuensis	Papuan bandicoot
	Peroryctes	P. broadbenti	Giant bandicoot (syn. P. broadbentii)
		P. raffrayana	Raffray's bandicoot
	Rhynchomeles	R. prattorum	Seram bandicoot

This classification reflects the most recent authoritative compilation, though ongoing taxonomic revisions may adjust species boundaries based on genetic data.^[7]

Phylogenetic relationships

Peramelidae occupies a basal position within the marsupial order Peramelemorphia, forming the sister group to Thylacomyidae (bilbies), with the divergence between these lineages estimated at approximately 25–30 million years ago during the late Oligocene based on molecular clock analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences.^[14] This split is supported by total evidence phylogenies combining morphological and molecular data, which place the peramelemorphian crown origin near the Oligocene–Miocene boundary around 23–25 million years ago.^[15] The fossil record provides critical evidence for the early evolution of Peramelidae, with the earliest definitive fossils appearing in the late Oligocene of Australia, such as the genus Yalkaparidon (e.g., Y. burchfieldi and Y. kida) from the Riversleigh World Heritage Area in Queensland.^[16] These specimens, dated to around 26–24 million years ago, represent stem peramelemorphians basal to the crown group and highlight an initial diversification in arid to semi-arid environments.^[17] Key extinct genera include Chaeropus (pig-footed bandicoot), which recent total evidence analyses have reclassified into its own family, Chaeropodidae, outside the monophyletic Peramelidae, based on craniodental morphology and molecular data indicating an early divergence around 26 million years ago.^[15] Molecular clock estimates, calibrated with fossils like Galadi speciosus (17–19 million years ago), further indicate that the crown Peramelidae originated around 11.7–15.3 million years ago in the Miocene, with radiations of modern genera occurring from the late Miocene to early Pliocene (5–7 million years ago).^[15] Genetic evidence from mitochondrial DNA (e.g., cytochrome b) and nuclear genes (e.g., BRCA1, vWF) strongly supports the monophyly of Peramelidae, with high bootstrap and Bayesian posterior probability values in phylogenetic reconstructions.^[14] Within Peramelidae, Peramelinae (including Australian genera like Isoodon and Perameles) is positioned as the basal subfamily, while Peroryctinae (New Guinean rainforest bandicoots) and Echymiperinae form a derived clade that diverged around 13.8 million years ago in the middle Miocene.^[14] These relationships are corroborated by combined analyses showing Peroryctinae–Echymiperinae as sister to Peramelinae with strong support (83% maximum parsimony bootstrap, 1.00 Bayesian posterior probability).^[15] Peramelidae is distinct from other marsupial orders through convergent evolution with placental rodents, particularly in forelimb musculature and skeletal adaptations for digging, such as enlarged humeral attachments for powerful soil excavation, which parallel rodent-like omnivorous foraging behaviors despite their marsupial reproductive strategy.^[18] This convergence underscores the independent evolution of similar ecological niches in isolated Australian faunas.^[19]

Description

Physical characteristics

Members of the Peramelidae family exhibit a distinctive morphology adapted to their terrestrial lifestyle, featuring a stocky build with a compact body, short forelimbs equipped with strong claws suitable for excavation, elongated hind limbs that facilitate a characteristic hopping gait, a prominent pointed snout for probing soil, and large ears, often pointed or rounded depending on species.^[20] These animals typically measure 15 to 56 cm in head-body length and weigh between 0.2 and 4.7 kg, with smaller species like the mouse bandicoot at the lower end and larger ones approaching the upper range.^[21]^[22] Their pelage consists of coarse, bristly fur that varies in coloration from gray-brown to yellowish tones across species, often with darker barring or brindling on the hindquarters and a paler cream or white underbelly for camouflage in leaf litter.^[21] The tail, measuring 10 to 30 cm in length, is typically thin, sparsely haired, and bicolored, aiding in balance during movement.^[22] Peramelids possess a polyprotodont dentition with the formula typically I 5/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 4/4 = 48 teeth (varying across species, e.g., fewer incisors in some New Guinean genera), where the incisors are adapted for grasping and the dilambdodont molars enable efficient grinding of both insect exoskeletons and plant material.^[23] ^[24]^[2] They also feature syndactylous hind feet with the second and third toes fused, aiding in their terrestrial locomotion.^[2] Sensory adaptations in Peramelidae emphasize olfaction, supported by an extensive olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity that enhances detection of buried food items, while their large eyes provide good low-light vision suited to nocturnal activity; however, their hearing appears less specialized than in many other marsupials, relying more on visual and olfactory cues.^[25] Females feature a well-developed, rear-opening pouch containing eight teats to accommodate litters.^[20]

Reproduction

Peramelidae females possess a distinctive rear-opening pouch containing typically eight teats, which facilitates the rapid attachment of newborns immediately after birth.^[2] This anatomy supports polyestrous breeding, allowing females to reproduce year-round under favorable environmental conditions, with the potential for up to four litters annually depending on species and habitat quality.^[26] Gestation in Peramelidae is exceptionally brief, lasting approximately 12.5 days—the shortest among all marsupials and mammals—which results in the birth of highly altricial young that must independently crawl to the pouch using temporary forelimb claws.^[2] Litters generally consist of 1 to 5 joeys, with an average of 2 to 4 surviving to pouch attachment, though sizes can reach up to 7 in some cases influenced by maternal condition and season.^[27] These underdeveloped offspring remain attached to the teats within the pouch for about 50 to 60 days, during which they complete most embryonic development externally to the uterus.^[21] Post-pouch emergence around 55 days, joeys are weaned at approximately 2 months and transition to nest sites constructed by the female, marking the end of intensive pouch-based care.^[2] Sexual maturity is attained early, with females reaching reproductive age at 3 to 4 months and males slightly later at 4 to 6 months, contributing to their rapid life cycle.^[28] In the wild, individuals typically live 2 to 3 years, though captive animals can survive up to 5 to 7 years.^[29] Parental investment is primarily maternal, with females providing nourishment via lactation and protection in the pouch and subsequent nests, while males offer no post-mating involvement.^[2] This minimal extended care, combined with the short generation time and high reproductive output, enables Peramelidae populations to recover quickly from perturbations, though young may briefly follow the mother after weaning in some species.^[2]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Peramelidae, the family encompassing bandicoots, is endemic to Australasia, with species distributed across mainland Australia, Tasmania, offshore islands, and New Guinea, including associated islands such as the Aru Islands and those in the Bismarck Archipelago like New Britain.^[30]^[2] The subfamily Peramelinae occurs primarily in Australia, where its genera Isoodon and Perameles are found in coastal and eastern regions, with one species (Isoodon macrourus) extending to southern New Guinea.^[28] In contrast, the subfamilies Echymiperinae and Peroryctinae are confined to New Guinea and nearby islands, with Echymiperinae species like those in the genus Echymipera inhabiting areas from lowlands to highlands.^[31] Prior to European settlement, Peramelidae occupied a broader range across most of Australia, including inland and arid zones, but current distributions have contracted, with many species now absent from central deserts and limited to fragmented coastal populations.^[2]^[32] For example, Perameles nasuta is found along the eastern seaboard from northern Queensland through New South Wales to Victoria, while Isoodon species such as I. macrourus occur in northern and eastern Australia extending to southern New Guinea, and I. obesulus in southern coastal areas including Tasmania.^[22]^[28]^[33] In New Guinea, Echymipera species are present in highland forests, alongside distributions in lowland and island habitats.^[34]^[31]

Habitat types

Peramelidae species exhibit considerable habitat diversity across Australasia, occupying a range of environments from rainforests and sclerophyll forests to grasslands, heathlands, and semi-arid scrublands, though they generally avoid open deserts while tolerating their edges.^[2] In Australia, species such as the northern brown bandicoot (Isoodon macrourus) are commonly found in open eucalypt woodlands and disturbed areas, while the southern brown bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus) prefers coastal heathlands and shrublands with vegetative cover.^[28] In New Guinea, peramelids like the kalubu bandicoot (Echymipera kalubu) inhabit mid-montane rainforests, secondary forests, and even modified landscapes such as coffee gardens and abandoned agricultural plots.^[35] Microhabitat preferences among Peramelidae emphasize understory cover and friable soils suitable for digging, with nests typically constructed in shallow burrows, leaf litter accumulations, hollow logs, or dense grass tussocks to provide concealment and thermal regulation.^[2] For instance, the long-nosed bandicoot (Perameles nasuta) selects sites with dense understory vegetation and adequate leaf litter for diurnal shelter in urban-adjacent forests.^[36] In arid regions, the golden bandicoot (Isoodon auratus) relies on spinifex hummocks (Triodia spp.) as refuges, favoring sandy soils with low overstory cover for protection from predators and extreme temperatures.^[37] Adaptations to specific habitats vary across the family; New Guinea species, such as Echymipera rufescens, are adapted to montane forest understories with dense leaf litter, enabling foraging in humid, closed-canopy environments, whereas Australian coastal species like Isoodon obesulus thrive in heathlands and even urban fringes, utilizing backyard gardens and linear remnants for cover amid human-modified landscapes.^[2]^[28] These adaptations include specialized forelimbs for excavating in loose soils and cryptic pelage patterns that blend with scrub or litter substrates.^[2] Peramelidae generally thrive in temperate to tropical climates, with habitat use influenced by seasonal rainfall and temperature variations; however, many Australian species show sensitivity to altered fire regimes in eucalypt-dominated forests, where frequent or intense burns can reduce understory cover and nesting sites, leading to population declines.^[2]^[38] In semi-arid zones, aridity constrains distribution, favoring species resilient to periodic droughts through behavioral shifts in shelter selection.^[37]

Behavior and ecology

Foraging and diet

Peramelidae, commonly known as bandicoots, exhibit an omnivorous diet dominated by invertebrates, which typically comprise 50-70% of their food intake by volume or occurrence in fecal analyses, including beetles, earthworms, ants, and larvae.^[24]^[39] They supplement this with plant material such as seeds, fruits, roots, tubers, and grasses, as well as fungi—particularly hypogeous species—and occasionally small vertebrates like lizards or nestling birds.^[2]^[40] Seasonal shifts in diet are evident, with invertebrates peaking during wetter periods of high availability, such as summer in temperate regions, while drier or cooler seasons see increased reliance on subterranean plants and fungi for sustenance.^[39]^[40] Foraging primarily occurs nocturnally, with bandicoots using their strong front claws to dig conical pits in soil and leaf litter, typically 4-10 cm deep, to access buried prey.^[2]^[24] Their elongated snouts, equipped with keen olfaction, probe the ground to detect food odors, enabling efficient location of invertebrates and underground plant parts without extensive excavation.^[2] Individuals maintain home ranges of 1-5 hectares, patrolling these areas opportunistically to exploit locally abundant resources while minimizing energy expenditure.^[24] This rapid digging and probing behavior facilitates quick intake of food, reducing exposure to predators during surface activity.^[2] Digestive adaptations in Peramelidae support their varied omnivorous intake, featuring a simple stomach followed by a small intestine and a caecum that serves as the primary site for microbial fermentation of plant matter, including fibrous roots and fungi.^[40] High levels of enzymes such as trehalase enhance the breakdown of insect-derived carbohydrates, while the overall gastrointestinal tract allows for swift digesta passage—often within hours—to accommodate high-volume, low-retention feeding.^[2] These features enable efficient nutrient extraction from a diet that fluctuates in composition, with nitrogen recycling in the hindgut aiding survival on protein-variable invertebrate prey.^[40] Interspecies variation reflects habitat and morphology differences within the family; for instance, species in the genus Perameles, such as the long-nosed bandicoot (P. nasuta), are more strongly insectivorous, with invertebrates forming over 60% of their diet year-round and less emphasis on tubers or roots.^[39] In contrast, Isoodon species like the southern brown bandicoot (I. obesulus) incorporate more plant material, including tubers, clover root nodules, and fruits, comprising up to 40-50% of intake in some populations, alongside a similar invertebrate base.^[24]^[40] These dietary distinctions align with broader ecological roles, with Isoodon often exploiting more vegetated or tuber-rich environments.^[2] Members of the Peramelidae family are primarily nocturnal, emerging from their nests at dusk or approximately three hours after sunset to forage under cover of darkness, while spending the daytime resting in shallow depressions or nests lined with grass and leaves. This activity pattern is driven by an endogenous circadian rhythm entrained to photoperiod, allowing them to balance foraging needs with predation avoidance.^[41]^[42] In captivity and the wild, individuals are active for about 4 to 7 hours per night, with activity peaking in the early hours after emergence.^[43] Although strictly nocturnal in most conditions, some species exhibit crepuscular tendencies during cooler weather, extending activity into twilight periods.^[44] Socially, peramelids are largely solitary, with adults maintaining mutual avoidance outside of breeding periods or interactions with dependent young. Home ranges show considerable overlap between sexes, but males typically occupy areas 2 to 3 times larger than those of females—with minimal territorial defense beyond occasional aggressive chases during encounters.^[41]^[26] Mother-young bonds persist after pouch exit, with juveniles remaining near the female for several weeks to learn foraging sites before dispersing, often less than 2 km from the natal area.^[41] Scent marking via specialized cephalic glands produces a pungent odor used for individual recognition and possibly territory delineation, though physical conflicts are brief and rarely result in injury.^[41] Communication among peramelids relies minimally on vocalizations, which are infrequent and include alarm "honks" or grunts during disturbances and soft sniffing for close-range recognition. Olfactory cues dominate interactions, supplemented by visual signals such as a pale belly display for submission or an erect stance with open mouth during aggression.^[41] Locomotion in peramelids involves quadrupedal gaits, including synchronous running and asynchronous galloping, enabling hopping-like bounds for rapid escape; maximum speeds reach up to 18 km/h during sprints. Nightly movements typically cover 100 to 500 m within home ranges, allowing individuals to traverse areas of 0.5 ha or more while foraging solitarily.^[45]^[46]^[41]

Predation and threats

Peramelidae species face predation primarily from native predators across their Australian and New Guinean ranges. In Australia, key threats include birds of prey such as owls (e.g., barn owls, Tyto alba), hawks, and eagles; reptiles like tiger snakes (Notechis scutatus) and goannas (monitor lizards, Varanus spp.); and mammals including quolls (e.g., spotted-tailed quoll, Dasyurus maculatus) and dingoes (Canis lupus dingo). In New Guinea, predation comes mainly from reptiles such as pythons and monitor lizards, and birds of prey. Juveniles are particularly vulnerable, as their smaller size and inexperience make them easier targets during foraging or dispersal.^[30]^[28] Bandicoots employ behavioral adaptations to mitigate predation risks, primarily relying on nocturnality to reduce daytime exposure and burrowing into nests or shallow depressions for concealment and escape. These strategies limit encounters with diurnal predators like birds of prey and goannas, though they offer less protection against nocturnal hunters such as quolls and owls. Alarm calls are infrequent, with bandicoots more often freezing or fleeing silently to avoid detection.^[27]^[47] Beyond predation, non-human ecological pressures include interspecific competition for food resources with introduced rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), which deplete shared vegetation and burrow sites, thereby reducing bandicoot foraging efficiency. Disease transmission from livestock, notably leptospirosis (Leptospira spp.), poses additional risks, as bandicoots can contract pathogens circulating in grazing areas shared with sheep and cattle. Altered fire frequencies further threaten populations by modifying ground cover and insect availability, disrupting foraging grounds and increasing post-fire vulnerability to predators.^[30]^[48] In unimpacted ecosystems without introduced predators, native predation contributes to juvenile mortality through direct attacks during early independence. This underscores the role of predation in regulating bandicoot populations, balancing high reproductive output against natural losses.^[49]^[41]

Conservation

Current status

The Peramelidae family consists of approximately 18 extant species, with global population estimates totaling in the tens of thousands of individuals distributed across fragmented habitats in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea.^[30] These populations are highly variable, with common species like the long-nosed bandicoot (Perameles nasuta) maintaining larger numbers in suitable habitats, while many others persist in isolated refugia due to historical declines. As of the 2025 IUCN Red List assessments, the conservation statuses within Peramelidae reflect significant threats, with many species threatened: several classified as Least Concern, Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered, and at least one as Data Deficient (e.g., Menzies' echymipera, Echymipera echinista).^[50] No species are currently listed as Extinct in the Wild.^[50] Family-wide population trends are generally declining, driven by cumulative pressures including habitat loss from agriculture and urbanization, predation by introduced species such as foxes and cats, and intensified bushfires linked to climate change. However, populations of several New Guinean species remain stable within protected highland areas, where lower human impact and intact forests provide resilience. Ongoing monitoring of Peramelidae relies on non-invasive techniques such as camera traps to detect presence and abundance, alongside pit counts to quantify foraging activity and habitat use. Key studies by the Australian Wildlife Conservancy have utilized these methods to track reintroduced populations and inform management in predator-free enclosures.^[51]

Extinct and endangered species

Several species within the Peramelidae family have become extinct, primarily due to habitat destruction from agricultural expansion and predation by introduced predators such as foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and cats (Felis catus).^[2] The mainland population of the eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii) was declared extinct in the wild by the late 1980s, following a rapid decline driven by these factors, with no confirmed sightings since that period.^[52] Similarly, the desert bandicoot (Perameles eremiana) is considered extinct, with the last verified sightings occurring in the 1930s in central and western Australia, and no rediscoveries despite surveys; its disappearance is attributed to the same habitat loss and predation pressures.^[2]^[53] Among endangered species, the western barred bandicoot (Perameles bougainville), also known as the Shark Bay bandicoot, persists in small, isolated populations estimated at approximately 1,700 individuals across Bernier and Dorre Islands as of 2010, with additional reintroduced groups in fenced mainland enclosures and recent translocations to sites like the Pilliga and Mallee Cliffs National Park (2023-2025); its vulnerability stems from ongoing threats of habitat degradation and introduced predators.^[54]^[55]^[51] The golden bandicoot (Isoodon auratus) is likewise endangered, with fragmented populations confined to discrete sites in northern Australia's Kimberley region and offshore islands, estimated at fewer than 2,500 mature individuals, where agricultural land clearance and predation have severely reduced its range.^[56]^[57] These cases exemplify the broader decline trends across Peramelidae, where arid and semi-arid species have been disproportionately affected.^[2] Note that the pig-footed bandicoot (Chaeropus ecaudatus), previously classified within Peramelidae, has been reclassified into the family Chaeropodidae based on molecular and morphological evidence, and it is fully extinct with no sightings since the 1950s.^[58]

Conservation measures

Protected areas play a crucial role in conserving Peramelidae species, with several key reserves supporting populations and implementing targeted management. In Australia, Kakadu National Park harbors the northern brown bandicoot (Isoodon macrourus) and employs fire regime strategies to enhance survival rates by minimizing late-season burns that reduce food availability and cover.^[59] In New Guinea, the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area protects endemic bandicoots such as the kalubu bandicoot (Echymipera kalubu) through community-led initiatives that regulate hunting and habitat use.^[60] Translocations to predator-free islands have bolstered populations; for instance, golden bandicoots (Isoodon auratus) have been moved from source sites like Barrow Island to sites including Doole Island and Marchinbar Island to establish self-sustaining groups away from mainland threats.^[57] Similarly, western barred bandicoots (Perameles bougainville) have been translocated from Bernier and Dorre Islands to secure mainland and island habitats as part of recovery efforts, including recent releases in New South Wales in 2023 and 2025.^[61]^[55] Threat mitigation focuses on controlling invasive predators that heavily impact bandicoots. Fox baiting programs, such as Western Shield in Western Australia, use 1080 poison to reduce red fox (Vulpes vulpes) populations, thereby decreasing predation on species like the western barred bandicoot.^[62] Feral cat (Felis catus) control complements these efforts through trapping, baiting, and exclusion fencing, as outlined in national strategies to protect small marsupials across bandicoot habitats.^[63] Habitat restoration involves weed removal to restore native vegetation critical for foraging and shelter; guidelines for the southern brown bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus) emphasize targeted herbicide use and manual clearing in urban-fringe areas to maintain buffer zones of at least 1 km.^[64] Fire management practices, including prescribed early-season burns in Kakadu, promote regrowth of grasses and forbs that support bandicoot diets while reducing fuel loads.^[59] Research and breeding programs provide essential support for population recovery. Captive breeding at Healesville Sanctuary has produced over 650 eastern barred bandicoots (Perameles gunnii) since 1991, contributing to reintroductions and genetic management.^[65] Genetic banking initiatives, coordinated through Australian biobanking networks, store tissue samples and gametes from bandicoot species to preserve diversity and enable future interventions like genetic rescue.^[66] Species-specific recovery plans, such as those for the golden bandicoot, guide actions including monitoring and habitat enhancement, with updates integrated into broader IUCN frameworks through the Australasian Marsupial and Monotreme Specialist Group.^[57] ^[67] International and community-based efforts enhance coordination and local involvement. The Australasian Marsupial and Monotreme Specialist Group facilitates collaboration across Australia and New Guinea, developing action plans that address threats like habitat loss and promoting transboundary conservation.^[68] In Papua New Guinea, community education within areas like Crater Mountain emphasizes sustainable resource use, training locals in monitoring and anti-poaching to safeguard bandicoot populations.^[60]

References

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[17]
(PDF) Adaptations for digging in the forelimb muscle anatomy of the ...
Dec 10, 2013 · Bandicoots and bilbies (Peramelemorphia) represent a distinct lineage within the marsupial adaptive radiation, which despite several curious ...
[18]
Marsupial - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Other families of South American fossil marsupials included rodent-like, mole-like, and rhino-like animals and perhaps the best known, the Thylacosmilidae, or ...
[19]
Peramelidae (bandicoots and echymiperas) - Animal Diversity Web
This marsupial family includes 4 genera and 10 species of bandicoots and bilbies. One genus, Chaeropus (pig-footed bandicoot), is probably now extinct.Missing: review | Show results with:review
[20]
Northern Brown Bandicoot - The Australian Museum
Long pointed snout, rounded ears and a short, bicoloured tail. The fur is brindled brown, black and tan on the dorsal side, and cream underneath and on the ...Missing: coloration | Show results with:coloration
[21]
Long-nosed Bandicoot - The Australian Museum
About the size of a rabbit, the Long-nosed Bandicoot has pointed ears, a short tail, grey-brown fur and, of course, a long nose. Habitat. Long-nosed Bandicoots ...
[22]
Perameles - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The genus, currently represented by four species, is endemic in Australian marsupials and its affinities have until recently been unclear.
[23]
Isoodon obesulus (Peramelemorphia: Peramelidae)
The dental formula is i 5/3, c 1/1, p 3/3, m 4/4, total 48. Although the name Isoodon, meaning “teeth of equal size,” is not literally true, the canines and ...
[24]
fine structure and presence of a septal olfactory organ - PubMed
The structure and extent of olfactory epithelium in the bandicoot (Isoodon macrourus) were examined by light and electron microscopy. Sensory epithelium ...Missing: adaptations vision hearing
[25]
Bandicoot - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Females are polyoestrus, fecundity is high (up to four litters being produced each year) and length of gestation and lactation are very short (12.5 days and 60 ...Missing: care | Show results with:care
[26]
Perameles nasuta (long-nosed bandicoot) - Animal Diversity Web
Male skull length is 82.99 +/- 0.73 mm and female skull length is 79.11 +/- 0.4 mm, they have 48 teeth with a dental formula of 5/3, 1/1, 3/3, 4/4. The ...
[27]
Isoodon macrourus (northern brown bandicoot) - Animal Diversity Web
Female northern brown bandicoots become sexually mature at around 4 months of age. This age of maturation was assessed by observing the presence of elongated ...
[28]
Bandicoots (Peramelidae and Peroryctidae) - Encyclopedia.com
The order contains a single super-family, the Perameloidea, which is divided into two families: the Peramelidae contains all the non-spiny bandicoots and the ...
[29]
Peramelemorphia (bandicoots and bilbies) - Animal Diversity Web
There are a total of 22 recognized species within Peramelemorphia. According to the IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species, 3 have recently gone extinct, 4 are ...
[30]
A Review of Peroryctes broadbenti, the Giant Bandicoot of Papua ...
Sep 14, 2010 · We also document the distribution and habitat ... dae into three subfamilies: Peroryctinae for the genus Peroryctes, Echymiperinae for Echymi-.
[31]
Echymipera kalubu - Animal Diversity Web
Geographic Range. Echymipera kalubu is found in New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, and Mysol Island. It is most abundant in lowland New Guinea. Nowak (1991) ...
[32]
https://www.bushheritage.org.au/species/bandicoots
[33]
Southern Brown Bandicoot - The Australian Museum
The Southern Brown Bandicoot is found in northern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, southern Western Australia and Tasmania.
[34]
Range and Habitat of The Bandicoot, Echymipera Clara, in New ...
Hobart M. Van Deusen, Kent Keith; Range and Habitat of The Bandicoot, Echymipera Clara, in New Guinea, Journal of Mammalogy, Volume 47, Issue 4, 2 December.
[35]
(PDF) Aspects of the ecology of the kalubu bandicoot (Echymipera ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Bandicoots in the family Peroryctidae in New Guinea are widespread and relatively abundant, but little is known of their ecology.
[36]
Habitat selection of the long‐nosed bandicoot, Perameles nasuta ...
Jun 28, 2008 · Twenty diurnal nest sites were located and classified in terms of macrohabitat type. Nests were typically found in areas with dense understorey ...
[37]
Habitat selection by vulnerable golden bandicoots in the arid zone
Jul 8, 2021 · We used compositional analysis to compare the use of four habitat types. Golden bandicoot abundance in the enclosure slowly increased between ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
Determinants of survival for the northern brown bandicoot under a ...
More than half of all Australian bandicoot species (family Peramelidae) are listed by the IUCN as extinct or threatened and changed fire regimes in arid and ...
[39]
Seasonal changes in the diet of the long-nosed bandicoot ...
Apr 6, 2005 · Introduction. Bandicoots (family Peramelidae) have to contend with seasonal changes in food availability throughout their Australian ranges.
[40]
A review of the nutrition of Australian peramelid marsupials
Oct 23, 2025 · ... dental formula for adult peramelids is. generally I 5/3 C 1/1 PM 3/3 M 4/4 (Wood Jones 1924;. Finlayson 1935; Freedman 1967; Gordon and ...<|separator|>
[41]
[PDF] Perameles gunnii. By John H. Seebeck - - Clark Science Center
Jan 23, 2001 · Members of the family Peramelidae are polyprotodont marsupials, with syndactylous toes on hind feet. Perameles is characterized externally as ...
[42]
Food Habits and Activity Patterns of Australasian Marsupials
Jul 22, 2023 · Ancestral marsupials were probably nocturnal insectivores. Food habits of extant fauna are studied by techniques such as direct observations, ...
[43]
Activity rhythms of southern brown bandicoots Isoodon Obesulus ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Bandicoots were active for an average of ~7 hr night-1. Virtually all activity involved the bandicoots running around their enclosures (~6.5 hr ...<|separator|>
[44]
Diel activity patterns of northern Australian small mammals
Feb 10, 2017 · Extremely seasonal rainfall in northern Australia possibly exerts a strong influence on mammalian activity due to the influx of food resources.
[45]
Biomechanical Trade-Offs Between Speed and Agility in the ... - MDPI
In our study, the average sprint speed of bandicoots was 2.97 m/s, with the fastest individual, a first-year male, reaching 5.0 m/s. The average turning speed ...Missing: daily | Show results with:daily
[46]
(PDF) Movements and activity of the short-nosed bandicoot Isoodon ...
Aug 10, 2025 · We investigate the movement patterns of three different Neotropical marsupials in an unfamiliar and risky environment. Animals are released in a ...
[47]
Isoodon obesulus (Peramelemorphia: Peramelidae)
Isoodon obesulus is preyed upon by a range of predators. On Franklin Island, South Australia, barn owl (Tyto alba) and tiger snake (Notechis scutatus) are major ...
[48]
Isoodon auratus (golden bandicoot) - Animal Diversity Web
Predators of golden bandicoots mainly consist of non-native species that were introduced to Australia, such as red foxes and feral cats . Dingos and domestic ...
[49]
[PDF] Common Diseases of Urban Wildlife: Mammals
Leptosporosis has also been recorded in bandicoots (Bender, et al., 2019), sheep, cattle, and people. This organism does not appear to be host specific.
[50]
Perameles gunnii (eastern barred bandicoot) - Animal Diversity Web
The lifespan of the Eastern Barred Bandicoot is less than 3 years. Cats and dogs kill bandicoots, and may cause significant mortality in some populations. Cats ...
[51]
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
The 2025-2 IUCN Red List also reveals threatened European butterfly species increased by 76% over the last decade.About · 3.1 · Searching The IUCN Red List · Citing The IUCN Red ListMissing: Peramelidae | Show results with:Peramelidae
[52]
https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/recovery-plans/national-recovery-plan-eastern-barred-bandicoot-mainland-perameles-gunnii-unnamed
[53]
National Recovery Plan for the Eastern Barred Bandicoot (mainland ...
Oct 3, 2021 · The original wild population of the mainland subspecies is presumed extinct, and now survives in three reintroduced populations collectively ...
[54]
[PDF] Chapter One - SeS Home
over the last century, yet the causal factors for the decline and extinction of individual ... Perameles eremiana. Desert bandicoot. Extinct ... last seen in 1938 ( ...
[55]
[PDF] WESTERN BARRED BANDICOOT Perameles bougainville ...
The long term objective of the recovery program is to undertake conservation actions which: Ensure the survival and maintain or improve the status of the ...
[56]
Recovery plan for the Golden Bandicoot (Isoodon auratus) and ...
Oct 3, 2021 · On the Kimberley mainland the Golden Bandicoot appears to have discrete and restricted populations. There are population estimates for three of ...
[57]
Oldest fossil remains of the enigmatic pig-footed bandicoot show ...
Aug 1, 2016 · According to molecular phylogenetic analyses, Chaeropus diverged from other bandicoots (Peramelidae), and the bilbies (Thylacomyidae) by the mid ...
[58]
Determinants of survival for the northern brown bandicoot under a ...
Feb 10, 2003 · Fire regime was found to be the most important determinant of bandicoot survival, far exceeding other factors such as gender, age, vegetation type, rainfall ...
[59]
Aspects of the ecology of the kalubu bandicoot ... - ConnectSci
Sep 13, 2013 · The study was undertaken during March–May 2002 and May–June 2004, within the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands ...
[60]
[PDF] Recovery plan for the Golden Bandicoot (Isoodon auratus) and ...
The Golden Bandicoot is listed nationally as Vulnerable and is known to have disappeared from almost all of its former wide distribution across half of the ...
[61]
Reintroduction and establishment of the western barred bandicoot ...
It is one of the long-nosed bandicoots (genus Perameles), and is the smallest of the family Peramelidae, with an average weight of 219 g (Short et al., 1998).
[62]
Western Shield | Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and ...
Western Shield is WA's largest conservation program managing introduced predators like foxes and feral cats to protect native species.
[63]
National Feral Cat and Fox Management Coordination
Feral cats have few natural predators in Australia, and pose a threat to native wildlife, agricultural industries and human health. Cats are ambush predators ...
[64]
[PDF] Bandicoot MLR Habitat Mgt Guidelines_Final 19 Oct 2023
16. Only use herbicides when absolutely necessary to control weeds that are degrading bandicoot habitat, or prior to restoration.
[65]
Eastern Barred Bandicoot (mainland population) - Zoos Victoria
In 1989 the total population of Eastern Barred Bandicoots was fewer than 150 and in 2013, the species was declared Extinct in the Wild on mainland Australia. We ...
[66]
https://www.australianwildlife.org/news-and-resources/wildlife-matters/biobanking-putting-australian-wildlife-on-ice
[67]
[PDF] 2024-2025 Report of the IUCN Species Survival Commission and ...
IUCN SSC Australasian Marsupial and Monotreme Specialist Group. ISSUE 65. Page 2. To accomplish those targets, the Species. Conservation Cycle was established, ...
[68]
IUCN SSC Australasian Marsupial and Monotreme Specialist Group
The group aims to enhance conservation for marsupials and monotremes, focusing on assessing status, identifying threats, and promoting conservation actions.Missing: bandicoot | Show results with:bandicoot