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Adenosine

Adenosine is a purine nucleoside composed of the nitrogenous base adenine linked to a ribose sugar molecule via a β-N9-glycosidic bond.^[1] As an endogenous molecule, it forms through the enzymatic breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy currency in cells, and exists in varying concentrations depending on metabolic activity and physiological conditions.^[2] In biological systems, adenosine serves multifaceted roles beyond energy metabolism, acting as a key signaling molecule that modulates physiological processes through its interaction with four subtypes of G-protein-coupled receptors (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3) distributed across tissues such as the heart, brain, and immune cells.^[3] These receptors mediate effects including vasodilation, inhibition of neurotransmitter release, suppression of inflammation, and regulation of cardiac rhythm, contributing to its cytoprotective functions during stress or ischemia.^[4] Adenosine's rapid metabolism by enzymes like adenosine deaminase ensures tight spatiotemporal control of its levels, preventing excessive accumulation that could lead to adverse effects like bronchoconstriction.^[5] Clinically, adenosine is employed as an antiarrhythmic agent for the acute termination of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) by transiently blocking atrioventricular nodal conduction, and it also aids in diagnostic procedures such as stress testing for coronary artery disease.^[6] Emerging research explores its potential in broader therapeutic contexts, including neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory therapies, and modulation of immune responses in conditions like sepsis or autoimmune disorders, though challenges remain in developing selective receptor agonists or antagonists for targeted applications.^[7]

Chemistry

Molecular structure

Adenosine is a purine nucleoside composed of the adenine base linked to a ribose sugar, with the chemical formula C₁₀H₁₃N₅O₄ and a molecular weight of 267.24 g/mol.^[1] The adenine base, known chemically as 6-aminopurine, is a fused-ring structure consisting of a pyrimidine and an imidazole ring, featuring an amino group at the 6-position. This base connects to the ribose sugar through a β-N-glycosidic bond at the N9 position of adenine and the anomeric C1' carbon of the sugar.^[8]^[9] The ribose component adopts the beta-D-ribofuranose conformation, a five-membered furanose ring with hydroxyl groups at the 2', 3', and 5' positions, where the β configuration at C1' ensures the sugar is oriented above the plane of the ring relative to the glycosidic bond. This β-N9-glycosidic linkage is characteristic of purine nucleosides and distinguishes them from pyrimidine nucleosides, which bond at the N1 position. The overall structure can be represented as:

     NH₂
      |
  N---C
 /     \  
N       C--N
 |     /     \
H--C     C     N--CH₂OH
       |       |
       C--O--C (ribose ring)
     NH₂
      |
  N---C
 /     \  
N       C--N
 |     /     \
H--C     C     N--CH₂OH
       |       |
       C--O--C (ribose ring)

This schematic highlights the adenine moiety on the left and the ribofuranose on the right, with the glycosidic bond bridging them; in detailed depictions, the ribose ring includes additional -OH groups at C2' and C3'.^[10]^[11] In comparison to related nucleosides, adenosine differs from guanosine primarily in the base, where guanosine features guanine (2-amino-6-oxopurine) instead of adenine, introducing a keto group at the 6-position and an additional amino group at the 2-position. Similarly, inosine contains hypoxanthine (6-oxopurine) as its base, lacking the 6-amino group present in adenine and thus exhibiting a deaminated structure relative to both adenosine and guanosine. These base variations alter the hydrogen-bonding patterns without affecting the ribose attachment.^[12]^[13]

Physical and chemical properties

Adenosine appears as a white crystalline powder at room temperature and is odorless.^[1] It melts at 234–235 °C with decomposition.^[14] Adenosine exhibits moderate solubility in water, approximately 7 mg/mL at ambient temperature, with solubility increasing upon warming or at lower pH values; it is sparingly soluble in ethanol.^[14] The compound has two pKa values: 3.5 for the adenine moiety and 12.5 for the ribose hydroxyl group, influencing its ionization and solubility behavior in aqueous solutions. Adenosine is stable under neutral conditions but sensitive to acidic hydrolysis, where dilute mineral acids cleave the β-N-glycosidic bond to yield adenine and D-ribose.^[14] It shows a characteristic ultraviolet absorption maximum at 259 nm with a molar extinction coefficient of 15,400 M⁻¹ cm⁻¹ in neutral aqueous solution.^[15] Chemically, adenosine can form salts with acids or bases and readily undergoes phosphorylation at the 5'-hydroxyl group of the ribose, as seen in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).^[1] The adenine ring in adenosine predominantly exists in the amino tautomeric form, though minor imino tautomers can occur under specific conditions, affecting its reactivity.^[16] Spectroscopic properties aid in its laboratory identification: in ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O, pH 7), key signals include 8.28 ppm (s, H-8 of adenine) and 6.01 ppm (d, H-1' of ribose); in ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O, pH 7), notable shifts are 155.28 ppm (C-2 of adenine) and 88.46 ppm (C-1' of ribose).^[1] Infrared spectroscopy reveals characteristic bands, such as around 1650 cm⁻¹ for C=N stretching in the purine ring and 3400–3200 cm⁻¹ for O-H and N-H stretches.^[1]

Biosynthesis and occurrence

Biosynthetic pathways

Adenosine is generated in cells primarily through the dephosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate (AMP), which is synthesized via two main biosynthetic routes: de novo purine nucleotide synthesis and the purine salvage pathway.^[17] In the de novo pathway, purine ring assembly begins with 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) and proceeds through a 10-step enzymatic sequence to form inosine monophosphate (IMP), the first purine nucleotide.^[18] IMP is then converted to AMP via two additional reactions catalyzed by adenylosuccinate synthetase and adenylosuccinate lyase, incorporating aspartate and releasing fumarate.^[17] Subsequently, AMP is hydrolyzed to adenosine by 5'-nucleotidase enzymes, such as the cytosolic NT5C1A or ecto-5'-nucleotidase (CD73), which remove the phosphate group.^[19] The salvage pathway recycles free purine bases to conserve energy and resources, bypassing the energy-intensive de novo route. Adenine is directly salvaged to AMP by adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT), which transfers the phosphoribosyl group from PRPP in the reaction: adenine + PRPP → AMP + pyrophosphate (PPi).^[20] Hypoxanthine, derived from purine catabolism or dietary sources, is converted to IMP by hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT), followed by the same IMP-to-AMP steps as in de novo synthesis; guanine follows a parallel path to guanosine monophosphate (GMP).^[21] This pathway is particularly efficient in non-proliferating tissues, where it accounts for the majority of purine nucleotide replenishment.^[21] Key regulatory enzymes maintain adenine nucleotide homeostasis and influence adenosine production. Adenylate kinase (AK) catalyzes the reversible interconversion 2 ADP ⇌ ATP + AMP, generating AMP under energy stress to promote its dephosphorylation to adenosine while buffering ATP/ADP ratios.^[22] The de novo pathway is tightly regulated by feedback inhibition, with AMP and other purine nucleotides allosterically inhibiting the first committed enzyme, glutamine-PRPP amidotransferase (also known as amidophosphoribosyltransferase), to prevent overproduction when nucleotide pools are sufficient. This inhibition occurs at multiple sites, including the enzyme's regulatory subunits, ensuring coordinated synthesis.^[23] In mammals, both pathways exhibit variations tied to physiological demands, with the salvage route showing higher activity during metabolic stress, such as hypoxia or ischemia, to rapidly restore depleted adenine nucleotides from breakdown products.^[24] De novo synthesis, conversely, predominates in rapidly dividing cells but can be upregulated in response to chronic nucleotide depletion.^[25] These biosynthetic mechanisms are evolutionarily conserved across organisms, from bacteria and plants to animals, underscoring their fundamental role in nucleotide economy and cellular function.^[18]

Natural sources and distribution

Adenosine is produced endogenously in all cells of the body as a byproduct of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) metabolism, serving as a key metabolic intermediary.^[26] It is particularly abundant in metabolically active tissues such as the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle, where it plays a role in energy regulation and stress responses.^[27] Under physiological conditions, extracellular adenosine levels in biological fluids are typically in the range of 10–100 nM, but these can rise to micromolar concentrations (up to 30 μM locally) during conditions like ischemia or hypoxia due to increased ATP breakdown.^[28]^[29] Intracellular adenosine concentrations are generally maintained at 1–10 μM across tissues, with levels tightly regulated by equilibrative nucleoside transporters (ENTs) that facilitate its movement across cell membranes.^[30] These transporters ensure balanced distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments, preventing toxic accumulation.^[31] Dietary sources of adenosine include animal-based foods such as meat, fish, and organ meats, where it occurs naturally as a nucleoside component.^[32] It is also present in fermented foods and beverages like tea and coffee, often derived from the breakdown of nucleotides during processing, and in yeast extracts at concentrations of approximately 1–2 mg/g.^[33] Microbial production represents an important natural and industrial source of adenosine, with bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis synthesizing it through fermentation pathways, yielding up to 14 g/L under optimized conditions.^[34] In the environment, adenosine occurs in trace amounts in soil and water, primarily originating from the degradation of organic matter and microbial activity in decaying plant and animal material.^[35] These low levels contribute to nutrient cycling but are rapidly broken down by environmental nucleases and deaminases.^[36]

Physiological roles

Energy metabolism

Adenosine serves as the nucleoside component of the adenine nucleotides adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine monophosphate (AMP), which are fundamental to cellular energy transfer and storage. ATP, the primary energy currency of the cell, stores energy in its high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds, which are hydrolyzed during metabolic reactions to release usable energy. The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) is an exergonic process represented by the equation:

\text{ATP} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow \text{[ADP](/page/ADP)} + \text{P}_\text{i} \quad (\Delta G^{\circ\prime} = -30.5 \, \text{kJ/mol})

This reaction provides the free energy required for endergonic processes, such as biosynthesis and ion transport, under standard biochemical conditions.^[37] In cellular metabolism, adenine nucleotides play central roles in key pathways, including glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, where ATP is generated to maintain energy homeostasis. During periods of high energy demand, such as muscle contraction or stress, ATP is rapidly consumed, leading to an increase in the AMP:ATP ratio. AMP acts as a critical sensor of energy status by allosterically activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which promotes catabolic processes like glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation while inhibiting anabolic pathways to restore ATP levels.^[38]^[39] Cyclic AMP (cAMP), derived from ATP via the enzyme adenylate cyclase, functions as a second messenger that modulates metabolic regulation in response to hormonal signals. Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the formation of cAMP from ATP, and elevated cAMP levels activate protein kinase A, which phosphorylates targets to influence glycogenolysis, lipolysis, and gluconeogenesis, thereby fine-tuning energy availability.^[40]^[41] Adenine nucleotides also facilitate phosphate group transfer in kinase reactions, exemplified by creatine kinase, which catalyzes the reversible phosphorylation of creatine using ATP to form phosphocreatine and ADP. This reaction buffers ATP levels in tissues with high energy demands, such as skeletal muscle and brain, by storing phosphate in phosphocreatine for rapid regeneration of ATP from ADP during bursts of activity.^[42]^[43]

Cellular signaling

Adenosine functions as an extracellular messenger in autocrine and paracrine signaling, particularly under conditions of cellular stress like hypoxia, where it is released from cells via equilibrative nucleoside transporters (ENTs) such as ENT1 and ENT2.^[44] This release elevates extracellular adenosine levels, allowing it to bind to and activate G protein-coupled receptors on the same or nearby cells, thereby modulating diverse physiological responses.^[45] The four main adenosine receptor subtypes—A1, A2A, A2B, and A3—mediate these effects; A1 and A3 receptors couple to inhibitory Gi proteins, while A2A and A2B receptors couple to stimulatory Gs (and sometimes Gq for A2B) proteins. Downstream signaling varies by receptor subtype but commonly involves modulation of cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels and ion channel activity. Activation of A1 receptors inhibits adenylyl cyclase via Gi proteins, reducing cAMP production and leading to inhibitory effects on cellular processes.^[3] A1 receptor signaling also influences ion channels, such as inhibiting voltage-gated calcium channels and activating potassium channels through Gβγ subunits, which hyperpolarizes cells and dampens excitability.^[46] In contrast, A2A and A2B receptor activation stimulates adenylyl cyclase, increasing cAMP and promoting protein kinase A-dependent pathways that enhance cellular responses like vasodilation or immune modulation. Beyond receptor-mediated actions, adenosine exerts non-receptor effects through direct interaction with equilibrative nucleoside transporters, facilitating its uptake into cells and thereby regulating extracellular concentrations.^[47] This uptake serves as a primary mechanism for terminating adenosine signaling. Additionally, intracellular feedback regulation occurs via adenosine kinase, which phosphorylates adenosine to adenosine monophosphate (AMP), effectively recapturing and metabolizing it to prevent prolonged extracellular accumulation.^[48]

Cardiovascular regulation

Adenosine plays a pivotal role in cardiovascular homeostasis by modulating vascular tone, cardiac conduction, and myocardial protection through its interaction with specific G-protein-coupled receptors, primarily A1 and A2A subtypes.^[49] In the coronary vasculature, adenosine induces potent vasodilation, particularly in coronary arteries, by activating A2A receptors on vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells. This activation increases intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels, leading to the opening of potassium (K+) channels such as ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) and voltage-gated K+ (Kv) channels, which hyperpolarize the cell membrane and relax smooth muscle, thereby increasing coronary blood flow by up to 3- to 4-fold during physiological stress.^[49] Additionally, adenosine enhances nitric oxide (NO) production from endothelial cells, further promoting vasodilation and ensuring adequate myocardial perfusion, especially under conditions of increased oxygen demand.^[49] On the cardiac side, adenosine exerts negative chronotropic and dromotropic effects primarily via A1 receptors in the sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodes. Activation of A1 receptors inhibits adenylyl cyclase, reducing cAMP and protein kinase A (PKA) activity, which decreases calcium influx through L-type calcium channels and slows pacemaker depolarization in the SA node, thereby reducing heart rate.^[49] In the AV node, A1 receptor stimulation activates the adenosine-sensitive inward rectifier potassium current (IK,Ado), hyperpolarizing nodal cells and prolonging the PR interval, which can transiently slow or block AV conduction.^[49] These effects collectively provide a braking mechanism to prevent excessive tachycardia during stress. Adenosine also serves a protective function in the heart, particularly during ischemia, where its endogenous levels can rise dramatically—up to 100-fold in interstitial fluid—as a retaliatory metabolite produced from ATP breakdown.^[50] This surge activates A1 and A3 receptors to precondition the myocardium, reducing infarct size through pathways involving protein kinase C (PKC) activation and KATP channel opening, which limit calcium overload and oxidative stress while enhancing glycolytic flux for energy preservation.^[49] Regarding systemic blood pressure, adenosine promotes peripheral vasodilation via A2A and A2B receptors in arteries such as the aorta and renal vessels, decreasing total peripheral resistance; however, this can elicit a baroreflex-mediated increase in sympathetic activity, leading to reflex tachycardia that partially offsets the hypotensive effect.^[49]

Pharmacodynamics

Adenosine receptors

Adenosine exerts its effects primarily through four subtypes of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), known as A1, A2A, A2B, and A3, which are encoded by the genes ADORA1, ADORA2A, ADORA2B, and ADORA3, respectively.^[51] These receptors share a common structural architecture typical of class A GPCRs, featuring seven transmembrane α-helices connected by three intracellular and three extracellular loops, with an extracellular N-terminus and intracellular C-terminus that facilitate ligand binding and signal transduction.^[52] The A1 and A3 receptors couple to inhibitory G proteins (Gi/o), leading to suppression of adenylyl cyclase activity, whereas the A2A receptor couples to stimulatory Gs proteins, promoting adenylyl cyclase activation, and the A2B receptor primarily couples to Gq proteins, activating phospholipase C pathways, though it can also engage Gs under certain conditions.^[53] This classification is based on pharmacological profiles, G protein selectivity, and downstream signaling differences, with A1 and A2A exhibiting high affinity for adenosine, while A2B and A3 show lower affinity.^[54] Binding affinities for adenosine vary significantly among subtypes, reflecting their physiological roles in responding to different extracellular concentrations. The A1 receptor displays high affinity with a Ki value of approximately 70 nM, and the A2A receptor has a Ki of about 150 nM, enabling sensitivity to basal adenosine levels.^[53] In contrast, the A2B receptor has low affinity (Ki ≈ 5100 nM), and the A3 receptor even lower (Ki ≈ 6500 nM), allowing activation primarily during elevated adenosine conditions, such as hypoxia or inflammation.^[53] These affinities are determined through radioligand binding assays using selective antagonists like cyclopentyladenosine derivatives for A1 and CGS21680 for A2A.^[55] Tissue distribution of these receptors is subtype-specific, influencing localized adenosine signaling. The A1 receptor is widely expressed, with high levels in the brain (e.g., cortex and hippocampus) and heart, where it modulates neuronal excitability and cardiac function.^[53] The A2A receptor predominates in immune cells like those in the spleen, as well as striatal neurons and the olfactory tubercle, contributing to anti-inflammatory and motor control effects.^[53] The A2B receptor is broadly distributed at lower levels, notably in gastrointestinal and pulmonary tissues, while the A3 receptor is enriched in mast cells, testes, and certain brain regions like the hippocampus.^[51] Representative antagonists include caffeine, a non-selective blocker that preferentially inhibits A2A at micromolar concentrations (Ki ≈ 16 μM), underpinning its stimulant properties by countering adenosine's sedative effects.^[56] Selective agonists, such as NECA for A2B or IB-MECA for A3, are used in research to dissect subtype functions.^[57] Downstream signaling cascades differ by subtype, reflecting their G protein couplings. Activation of the A1 receptor inhibits calcium influx through voltage-gated channels and reduces neurotransmitter release, such as glutamate in neurons, via Gi-mediated suppression of adenylyl cyclase and activation of potassium channels.^[53] The A2A receptor, conversely, elevates cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels through Gs-stimulated adenylyl cyclase, subsequently activating protein kinase A (PKA) to modulate gene expression and enhance dopamine signaling in the striatum.^[53] A2B signaling via Gq triggers phospholipase C, increasing inositol trisphosphate and diacylglycerol to mobilize intracellular calcium, while A3 activation inhibits adenylyl cyclase similar to A1 but also promotes chemotaxis in immune cells.^[58] Genetic variations in adenosine receptor genes influence individual responses to endogenous adenosine and its antagonists. Polymorphisms in the ADORA2A gene, such as the rs5751876 (C/T) variant, are associated with altered caffeine sensitivity, where the T allele correlates with increased anxiety and sleep disruption following caffeine intake due to modified receptor expression or affinity.^[59] Similarly, ADORA1 variants have been linked to variations in cardiovascular responses to adenosine, though A2A polymorphisms show the strongest ties to behavioral caffeine effects in population studies.^[60]

Mechanisms of action

Adenosine exerts its pharmacological effects through both receptor-dependent and receptor-independent mechanisms, with the latter including modulation of platelet function and neurotransmitter release. In platelets, adenosine derived from ADP contributes to inhibition of aggregation, particularly in the presence of P2Y12 antagonists, by interfering with ADP-mediated signaling pathways.^[61] This receptor-independent action helps regulate hemostasis by dampening pro-aggregatory responses without direct engagement of adenosine-specific receptors. Additionally, adenosine influences neurotransmitter release presynaptically, reducing evoked secretion at central synapses such as the perforant path to dentate granule cells, thereby modulating synaptic transmission efficacy at concentrations of 5 to 100 μM.^[62] In the context of cardiac arrhythmias, adenosine induces transient hyperpolarization in atrioventricular (AV) nodal cells primarily through activation of A1 receptors, which open adenosine-sensitive inward-rectifying potassium channels (I_{K,Ado}). This efflux of K^+ shifts the membrane potential toward the equilibrium potential for potassium, slowing conduction and terminating supraventricular tachycardias.^[63] The effect is rapid and reversible, reflecting adenosine's direct coupling to G-protein βγ subunits that gate these channels. Adenosine's cardiovascular actions exhibit dose-dependency, mediated by differential activation of receptor subtypes. At low doses, A1 receptor agonism predominates, eliciting bradycardia via suppression of sinoatrial node pacemaker activity and enhanced vagal tone. Higher doses engage A2 receptors, promoting vasodilation through increased cyclic AMP and relaxation of vascular smooth muscle, which can lead to hypotension.^[49] The therapeutic utility of adenosine is shaped by its pharmacokinetic profile and potential for tolerance. Its plasma half-life is approximately 1 second, enabling rapid onset and offset of effects due to swift uptake by cells and enzymatic degradation. Prolonged exposure can induce tachyphylaxis through receptor desensitization and internalization, particularly for A2A and A2B subtypes, which downregulate within minutes to hours via phosphorylation and endocytosis.^[64]^[65]

Pharmacokinetics

Absorption and distribution

Adenosine is administered exclusively via the intravenous route for therapeutic applications, as it exhibits negligible oral bioavailability—estimated at less than 1%—primarily due to extensive first-pass metabolism by adenosine deaminase in the intestinal mucosa and liver, which rapidly deaminates it to inosine before systemic absorption can occur.^[6]^[66] This rapid enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract and during hepatic passage prevents significant intact molecule entry into the bloodstream following oral ingestion.^[67] Upon intravenous administration, adenosine distributes rapidly from the plasma into the extracellular fluid, achieving equilibration primarily through cellular uptake mediated by equilibrative nucleoside transporters (ENTs), particularly those encoded by the SLC29A family, which facilitate bidirectional diffusion along concentration gradients.^[68] The volume of distribution is approximately 0.18–0.20 L/kg, corresponding closely to the extracellular fluid volume, reflecting its hydrophilic nature and limited intracellular accumulation without active transport. Adenosine demonstrates minimal plasma protein binding to albumin, allowing it to remain predominantly in the free, unbound form available for diffusion and transporter-mediated movement.^[67] Endogenous plasma concentrations of adenosine typically range from 0.05 to 0.2 μM under basal conditions, reflecting steady-state production from ATP breakdown balanced by rapid clearance. Following an intravenous bolus dose, such as the standard 6 mg used in supraventricular tachycardia treatment, peak plasma levels transiently rise to 5–10 μM, though these concentrations decline precipitously within seconds due to avid uptake and metabolism.^[69]^[70] Adenosine exhibits poor penetration across the blood-brain barrier, attributable to its low lipophilicity (logP ≈ -1.05) and active efflux by ATP-binding cassette transporters, such as P-glycoprotein, which limit central nervous system entry despite the presence of influx transporters like ENTs on endothelial cells.^[1]^[71] This restricted distribution to the brain extracellular space helps maintain compartmentalized signaling, with intracellular metabolism by adenosine kinase further reducing parenchymal accumulation.^[6]

Metabolism and elimination

Adenosine is primarily metabolized through two intracellular pathways: phosphorylation by adenosine kinase (ADK) to form adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and deamination by adenosine deaminase (ADA) to form inosine.^[72] The ADK-mediated phosphorylation salvages adenosine back into the nucleotide pool, supporting cellular energy homeostasis, while the ADA-catalyzed deamination initiates its degradation toward purine catabolites.^[73] ADA deficiency, resulting from mutations in the ADA gene, leads to toxic accumulation of adenosine and deoxyadenosine, causing severe combined immunodeficiency (ADA-SCID), a condition characterized by profound lymphopenia and recurrent infections.^[74] The deamination reaction catalyzed by ADA follows the equation:

\text{Adenosine} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \xrightarrow{\text{ADA}} \text{Inosine} + \text{NH}_3

^[75] Inosine is further metabolized by purine nucleoside phosphorylase to hypoxanthine, which is oxidized to xanthine and ultimately to uric acid via xanthine oxidase.^[76] Due to rapid cellular uptake via equilibrative nucleoside transporters and subsequent metabolism, adenosine exhibits a very short plasma half-life of 1 to 10 seconds.^[77] Excretion occurs predominantly as metabolites; uric acid, the end product of purine catabolism, is eliminated via the kidneys, with less than 1% of adenosine excreted unchanged in urine.^[1] Factors such as hypoxia can prolong adenosine levels by inhibiting ADK activity, thereby reducing its phosphorylation and enhancing its extracellular signaling effects.^[78]

Clinical uses

Treatment of supraventricular tachycardia

Adenosine is indicated for the conversion to normal sinus rhythm in patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT), particularly those involving re-entrant circuits dependent on the atrioventricular (AV) node, such as atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) and atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia (AVRT). By transiently blocking conduction through the AV node via activation of adenosine receptors, it interrupts these circuits to terminate the arrhythmia.^[6]^[79] The standard protocol involves rapid intravenous administration to ensure quick delivery to the heart. An initial dose of 6 mg is given as a peripheral IV bolus over 1-2 seconds, immediately followed by a 20 mL saline flush to expedite circulation. If the tachycardia persists after 1-2 minutes, a second dose of 12 mg is administered similarly, with a possible repeat of the 12 mg dose if needed. Onset of action occurs within seconds of injection, and the therapeutic effects typically last 20-30 seconds, owing to adenosine's half-life of less than 10 seconds. Continuous electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring is essential during administration to assess rhythm conversion and detect any transient pauses.^[80]^[81]^[6] Clinical trials demonstrate high efficacy, with approximately 90% of patients with AVNRT or AVRT achieving termination of the arrhythmia, often after the first or second dose. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved adenosine for the treatment of PSVT in 1989. In cases where adenosine is contraindicated, such as in patients with second- or third-degree AV block or sick sinus syndrome, intravenous verapamil serves as an effective alternative, offering comparable termination rates of around 90% for node-dependent SVT.^[82]^[1]^[82]

Diagnostic applications

Adenosine plays a key role in diagnostic cardiology by inducing pharmacological stress through coronary vasodilation, enabling myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) in patients unable to exercise. In nuclear stress testing, adenosine is administered intravenously at a dose of 140 μg/kg/min for 6 minutes to simulate stress conditions, promoting maximal hyperemia in normal coronary arteries while revealing perfusion defects in stenotic regions.^[83]^[84] This facilitates the injection of a radiotracer, such as technetium-99m sestamibi or tetrofosmin, which is taken up differentially: areas with ischemia exhibit reduced uptake during stress compared to rest imaging, allowing detection of coronary artery disease (CAD).^[85] The procedure typically involves separate rest and stress scans, with stress imaging performed 30-60 minutes after tracer injection to capture reversible ischemia.^[84] The diagnostic accuracy of adenosine MPI for detecting ischemia is well-established, with meta-analyses reporting sensitivity in the range of 85-90% and specificity around 70-75%, making it a valuable tool for risk stratification in intermediate-risk patients.^[86]^[87] According to ACC/AHA guidelines, adenosine stress MPI is recommended for evaluating CAD in patients with physical limitations precluding exercise testing, particularly those with suspected chronic coronary syndromes.^[88]^[89] To manage potential adverse effects like bronchospasm or prolonged vasodilation, aminophylline—an adenosine antagonist—is prepared for immediate intravenous reversal if needed, typically at 50-250 mg, though routine pre-medication is not standard.^[90]^[91] Beyond cardiac imaging, adenosine aids in electrophysiology studies by transiently blocking conduction in certain accessory pathways, facilitating their mapping and localization for ablation in conditions like Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome.^[92] Administration during invasive procedures can unmask dormant or adenosine-sensitive pathways, enhancing procedural success by guiding precise radiofrequency application.^[93] This application underscores adenosine's utility in diagnostic mapping where baseline conduction may be inconsistent or absent.^[94]

Dosage and administration

Adenosine is formulated as a sterile, nonpyrogenic intravenous solution at a concentration of 3 mg/mL, available in single-dose vials (typically 20 mL or 30 mL) or prefilled syringes (6 mg/2 mL or 12 mg/4 mL) for rapid bolus administration.^[79]^[69] It is administered exclusively via the intravenous route, either as a rapid bolus directly into a peripheral vein or through an IV line positioned as close to the insertion site as possible, followed immediately by a 20 mL normal saline flush to facilitate rapid delivery to the systemic circulation.^[79] When administered via a central venous line, the initial adult dose should be reduced to 3 mg due to faster onset and higher efficacy at lower doses in central circulation.^[6] For diagnostic applications, such as myocardial perfusion imaging, adenosine is given as a continuous peripheral intravenous infusion at a rate of 0.14 mg/kg/min over six minutes, with the total dose not exceeding 0.84 mg/kg.^[69] Dose adjustments are necessary for specific populations to minimize risks. In elderly patients or those with low body weight, the initial adult dose is reduced to 3 mg to account for potential heightened sensitivity.^[95] For pediatric patients weighing less than 50 kg, dosing is weight-based: an initial bolus of 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg administered over 1 to 2 seconds, with subsequent doses increased by 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg if no response occurs within 1 to 2 minutes, up to a maximum of 0.3 mg/kg per dose; patients 50 kg or greater receive adult dosing.^[95] Continuous electrocardiographic monitoring is required during administration to assess for rhythm conversion or adverse cardiac effects, and the solution should be inspected for particulate matter or discoloration prior to use.^[79] Adenosine must be stored at controlled room temperature between 15°C and 30°C (59°F to 86°F); refrigeration is contraindicated as it may cause crystallization, which can be reversed by warming to room temperature without exceeding 30°C.^[79] Post-dilution in normal saline, solutions at concentrations of 0.3 to 3 mg/mL remain chemically and physically stable for up to 14 days when stored at room temperature, retaining at least 90% of initial potency with no significant changes in pH or appearance.^[96] Although intravenous administration is standard, investigational oral formulations of adenosine or its analogs have been explored in preclinical and early clinical studies for potential neuroprotective or anti-inflammatory applications, but they are not approved or recommended for routine clinical use.^[97]

Safety profile

Adverse effects

Adenosine administration commonly causes transient side effects due to its brief half-life of less than 10 seconds, which typically resolves without intervention.^[6] In clinical trials involving over 1,400 patients, the most frequent adverse reactions included flushing (44%), chest discomfort (40%), shortness of breath or dyspnea (28%), headache (18%), throat or neck discomfort (15%), gastrointestinal discomfort (13%), and dizziness or lightheadedness (12%).^[98] Cardiovascular effects are also prevalent and primarily stem from adenosine's action on A1 receptors in the heart, leading to atrioventricular nodal blockade. These include first- or second-degree atrioventricular block (each in 3% of patients), hypotension (2%), ST-segment depression (3%), and arrhythmias (1%).^[98] Bradycardia may occur as part of this conduction slowing, while prolonged asystole or cardiac arrest is rare, reported in less than 1% of cases but noted in post-marketing surveillance.^[6] Respiratory adverse effects, such as bronchospasm, arise from activation of A2B adenosine receptors, particularly in patients with underlying airway hyperreactivity, though the overall incidence is low at approximately 0.05% during systemic administration.^[99] Additional effects like headache and nausea are reported in 11% to 18% of patients, with higher incidences observed at elevated doses such as the 12 mg bolus used for supraventricular tachycardia termination.^[100] Most adverse effects are self-limiting owing to adenosine's rapid metabolism, but severe cases can be managed with supportive care or aminophylline, a non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist that reverses effects like bronchospasm or prolonged asystole.^[6]^[99]

Drug interactions

Adenosine's pharmacological effects can be significantly altered by concurrent use of certain medications, primarily through interference with its receptor binding, uptake, or metabolism. Methylxanthines, such as caffeine and theophylline, act as non-selective antagonists at adenosine receptors, particularly A2A subtypes, thereby reducing adenosine's vasodilatory and antiarrhythmic efficacy during diagnostic or therapeutic applications.^[69] In clinical practice, patients consuming methylxanthine-containing products like coffee, tea, or chocolate within 12 hours prior to adenosine administration may require dose adjustments, often doubling the standard dose to achieve therapeutic effects.^[69]^[6] Dipyridamole, an antiplatelet agent, inhibits the nucleoside transporter responsible for adenosine uptake into cells, leading to increased extracellular adenosine concentrations and potentiation of its cardiovascular effects, including enhanced atrioventricular block and hypotension.^[67] To mitigate this interaction, dipyridamole should be discontinued 24 to 48 hours before adenosine use, or the adenosine dose reduced by 25% to 75% if co-administration is unavoidable.^[101]^[6] Carbamazepine, an anticonvulsant, may augment adenosine's actions at A1 receptors in the atrioventricular node, increasing the risk of high-degree heart block due to additive inhibitory effects on cardiac conduction.^[6]^[67] Close monitoring of cardiac rhythm is recommended when these agents are used together, with potential need for dose reduction of adenosine.^[102] Beta-adrenergic blockers, such as metoprolol or atenolol, can enhance adenosine-induced bradycardia and hypotension through synergistic suppression of heart rate and contractility, although beta-blockers may occasionally attenuate adenosine's vasodilatory response.^[103]^[67] Coadministration requires careful electrocardiographic monitoring, and in some protocols, beta-blockers are continued without adjustment, but with heightened vigilance for excessive bradycardic effects.^[104] Pharmacokinetic interactions involving inhibitors of adenosine deaminase (ADA), such as pentostatin used in chemotherapy, can prolong adenosine's plasma half-life by blocking its enzymatic breakdown to inosine, thereby intensifying and extending its physiological effects.^[67] This interaction is particularly relevant in patients receiving ADA inhibitors, where adenosine dosing should be adjusted and effects monitored closely to avoid prolonged atrioventricular blockade.^[6]

Contraindications

Adenosine is contraindicated in patients with second- or third-degree atrioventricular (AV) block, except in those with a functioning artificial pacemaker, due to the risk of exacerbating conduction abnormalities and potentially causing prolonged asystole or ventricular fibrillation.^[79] It is also absolutely contraindicated in individuals with sick sinus syndrome or sinus node dysfunction without a functioning pacemaker, as adenosine can worsen bradycardia or lead to sinus arrest.^[79] Additionally, known or suspected bronchoconstrictive or bronchospastic lung disease, such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), represents an absolute contraindication because of the potential for adenosine-induced bronchoconstriction and respiratory compromise.^[79] Relative contraindications include recent heart transplantation, where denervated hearts may exhibit hypersensitivity to adenosine, leading to unpredictable and exaggerated responses such as prolonged AV block; lower doses and close monitoring are advised if use is deemed necessary.^[79] Caution is also required in patients with Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome and atrial fibrillation, as adenosine may accelerate conduction through the accessory pathway, increasing the risk of rapid ventricular response or ventricular fibrillation.^[105] Hypersensitivity to adenosine, though rare, is an absolute contraindication, with reports of anaphylaxis necessitating avoidance.^[79] Adenosine is classified as Pregnancy Category C by the FDA, indicating that animal reproduction studies have not been conducted and it is unknown whether it can cause fetal harm; it should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.^[79] The 2019 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines and 2015 American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA)/Heart Rhythm Society guidelines emphasize warnings for adenosine in patients with structural heart disease, recommending avoidance in high-risk conduction disorders and cautious use in those with pulmonary conditions to prevent adverse outcomes.^[105]^[106]

Research directions

Anti-inflammatory effects

Adenosine serves as an endogenous signaling molecule released from damaged or stressed cells, where it acts to limit excessive inflammation and prevent further tissue injury. During cellular stress, such as hypoxia or trauma, adenosine is generated extracellularly from ATP breakdown by ectonucleotidases like CD39 and CD73, accumulating at sites of injury to modulate immune responses and promote resolution.^[28] This "retaliatory" function helps dampen innate immune activation, reducing neutrophil accumulation and cytokine release to protect surrounding tissues.^[107] The anti-inflammatory effects of adenosine are primarily mediated through activation of the A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR), a G protein-coupled receptor that couples to Gs proteins to elevate intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels. This cAMP increase activates protein kinase A (PKA), which inhibits pro-inflammatory transcription factors like NF-κB, thereby suppressing the production of cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in macrophages and other immune cells.^[108] A2AR signaling also inhibits neutrophil activation by reducing adhesion to endothelium via downregulation of selectins and integrins, as well as diminishing oxidative burst and phagocytosis, further curbing acute inflammatory responses.^[109] In preclinical models of rheumatoid arthritis, such as collagen-induced arthritis in mice, A2AR agonists like IB-MECA have demonstrated reduced joint inflammation and swelling by decreasing neutrophil infiltration and pro-inflammatory chemokine production, such as MIP-1α.^[110] Similarly, topical application of adenosine or its precursors has shown promise in accelerating wound healing in diabetic models by modulating local inflammation and promoting tissue repair.^[111] In chronic inflammatory conditions, however, sustained elevation of adenosine levels can paradoxically promote pathological outcomes like fibrosis. Overexpression or persistent adenosine signaling, particularly via A2B receptors, drives myofibroblast differentiation and excessive extracellular matrix deposition in tissues such as the lungs and kidneys, contributing to fibrotic remodeling.^[112] This dual role underscores the context-dependent nature of adenosine's effects, where acute signaling resolves inflammation while chronic accumulation exacerbates tissue scarring.^[113]

Neurological applications

Adenosine plays a crucial role in sleep regulation by accumulating in the brain during prolonged wakefulness, thereby promoting sleep pressure through activation of A1 receptors, which inhibit wake-promoting neurons in the basal forebrain and other regions.^[114] This homeostatic buildup of adenosine correlates directly with the duration of wakefulness and the intensity of subsequent sleep need, serving as a key humoral signal in the sleep-wake cycle.^[115] Caffeine, a non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist with high affinity for A1 and A2A subtypes, counters this effect by blocking adenosine signaling, thereby reducing sleep pressure and enhancing alertness.^[114] In neuroprotection, adenosine exerts protective effects against ischemic stroke primarily via A1 receptor activation, which inhibits glutamate release from presynaptic terminals and hyperpolarizes neurons to mitigate excitotoxicity.^[116] This mechanism limits excessive calcium influx and neuronal damage during cerebral ischemia. Preclinical models, such as those involving adenosine A1/A3 receptor agonists, have demonstrated reductions in infarct volume by approximately 30% alongside improved neurological outcomes.^[117] Adenosine functions as an endogenous anticonvulsant in epilepsy, with seizure activity triggering a rapid surge in extracellular adenosine levels that activates A1 receptors to suppress hyperexcitability and terminate seizures.^[118] This increase, often 6- to 31-fold above baseline in temporal lobe epilepsy patients, acts as a feedback mechanism to limit seizure duration and spread by inhibiting glutamatergic transmission.^[119] A1 receptor agonists mimic this effect, exhibiting potent anticonvulsant properties in various animal models of epilepsy without significant motor side effects when targeted appropriately.^[120] Adenosine contributes to pain modulation through A1 receptor-mediated analgesia, particularly in neuropathic pain models where it dampens primary afferent nociceptive signaling and reduces central sensitization.^[121] In preclinical studies, A1 agonists or positive allosteric modulators have shown efficacy in alleviating mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity in chronic constriction injury and other neuropathic paradigms by inhibiting synaptic transmission in the spinal cord.^[122]

Oncological potential

In the tumor microenvironment, elevated adenosine levels arise from an imbalance favoring CD73 (ecto-5'-nucleotidase) activity over adenosine deaminase (ADA), leading to accumulation of extracellular adenosine that suppresses T-cell function via the A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR).^[123] This suppression inhibits T-cell proliferation, cytokine production (e.g., IL-2 and IFN-γ), and effector responses, while promoting regulatory T-cell (Treg) activity and exhaustion of cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells, thereby facilitating tumor immune evasion.^[124] Such dynamics were first noted in the 2010s, when research highlighted adenosine's role in adapting tumors to hypoxia through hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α)-driven upregulation of CD39 and CD73, enhancing adenosine production to support angiogenesis and immune tolerance.^[125] Key mechanisms underlying adenosine's pro-tumor effects include the promotion of myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) recruitment and polarization toward immunosuppressive phenotypes, which further dampen antitumor immunity.^[126] Preclinical studies demonstrate that blocking adenosine signaling disrupts MDSC influx into the tumor site, restoring T-cell infiltration and activity.^[127] Additionally, overexpression of adenosine kinase (ADK) in tumor cells reduces extracellular adenosine by converting it to AMP intracellularly, sensitizing tumors to immunotherapy in mouse models by alleviating T-cell suppression and enhancing checkpoint inhibitor efficacy.^[128] Therapeutic targeting of the adenosine pathway, particularly A2AR antagonists, has shown promise in enhancing immune checkpoint inhibitors like anti-PD-1 therapies. For instance, NIR178 (an oral A2AR antagonist) was evaluated in a phase II trial (NCT03207867) in combination with PDR001 (anti-PD-1) for advanced solid tumors, including melanoma, aiming to reactivate T-cell responses and improve outcomes, though the trial was terminated early without full efficacy data.^[129] Similar combinations, such as AZD4635 with durvalumab (anti-PD-L1), have demonstrated objective response rates (ORR) up to 15-29% in advanced solid tumors refractory to prior immunotherapy, with increased T-cell infiltration observed in responders.^[130] In preclinical melanoma models, A2AR blockade combined with PD-1 inhibition reduced metastasis and prolonged survival by overcoming adenosine-mediated resistance.^[131] Challenges in harnessing adenosine's oncological potential stem from hypoxia-driven production, where low oxygen levels in solid tumors upregulate CD73 via HIF-1α, sustaining high adenosine to foster an immunosuppressive niche resistant to therapies.^[125] This hypoxia-adenosine axis complicates treatment in aggressive cancers like glioblastoma, where ongoing preclinical work and early-phase trials (e.g., incorporating A2AR antagonists like CPI-444) as of 2025 explore combinations to mitigate immune evasion, though clinical translation remains limited by tumor heterogeneity and adenosine rebound effects.^[132]

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Adenosine can cause conduction block in about 20% of nondecremental accessory pathways. Along with atrial activation mapping, adenosine may help ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[100]
Adenosine Dosage Guide + Max Dose, Adjustments - Drugs.com
Sep 15, 2025 · LESS THAN 50 KG: Initial dose: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV bolus over 1 to 2 seconds · 50 KG OR MORE: Initial dose: 6 mg IV bolus over 1 to 2 seconds
[101]
Stability of Diluted Adenosine Solutions in Polyolefin Infusion Bags
Results: After 14 days, all samples retained 99% to 101% of the initial adenosine concentration. No considerable change in pH or visual appearance was noted ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[102]
Abstract P1054: Oral Administration Of New Agonist Of Adenosine ...
Nov 14, 2022 · Thus, this work investigates the effects of a new agonist of adenosine receptor called LASSBio-1860 in an experimental model of AMI, in order to ...
[103]
Adenosine: Package Insert / Prescribing Information / MOA
May 2, 2025 · The following adverse reactions, with an incidence of at least 1%, were reported with adenosine among 1,421 patients in clinical trials. 11% of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[104]
Incidence of Acute Bronchospasm during Systemic Adenosine ...
Acute bronchospasm is a recognised side effect relating to the activation of 'off target' A2B receptors. The true incidence of severe bronchospasm relating to ...
[105]
Adenosine: Physiology, Pharmacology, and Clinical Applications
They compared the effects of IC versus IV adenosine in 50 stable patients; 60 μg of adenosine was used with increasing doses up to 150 μg. At the lower, “ ...<|separator|>
[106]
Drug Interactions between adenosine and dipyridamole - Drugs.com
Generally avoid: Dipyridamole potentiates the effects of adenosine. The mechanism probably is inhibition of endogenous and exogenous adenosine reuptake.
[107]
Adenosine and carbamazepine Interactions - Drugs.com
MONITOR: Carbamazepine has been reported to increase the degree of heart block produced by other agents, including adenosine.Drug And Food/lifestyle... · Carbamazepine Food/lifestyle · Disease Interactions<|control11|><|separator|>
[108]
Adenosine (intravenous route) - Side effects & uses - Mayo Clinic
Aug 1, 2025 · Unstable heart or blood vessel problem (eg, cardiovascular instability)—Avoid use, as this medicine may increase the risk for heart attack.Before Using · Other Medical Problems · Side Effects
[109]
[PDF] ADENOSCAN - (adenosine injection) FOR INTRAVENOUS ...
Adenoscan should be given as a continuous peripheral intravenous infusion. This label may not be the latest approved by FDA. For current labeling information, ...Missing: absorption distribution
[110]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2096754/
[111]
2015 ACC/AHA/HRS guideline for the management of adult patients ...
Apr 5, 2016 · Guidelines and adenosine dosing in supraventricular tachycardia. ... Use of adenosine in the treatment of supraventricular tachycardia in a ...
[112]
Adenosine: an endogenous regulator of innate immunity - PubMed
Adenosine, a purine nucleoside that is elaborated at injured and inflamed sites, has a central role in the regulation of inflammatory responses.
[113]
Regulation of Inflammation by Adenosine - PMC - NIH
Adenosine receptor stimulation diminishes neutrophil adhesion to the endothelium by inhibiting both selectin- and integrin-mediated adhesive events (Cronstein ...
[114]
Suppression of inflammatory and immune responses by the A2A ...
Many studies have now established the ability of selective A 2A receptor activation to repress the exaggerated immune and inflammatory responses associated ...
[115]
Adenosine in inflammatory joint diseases - PMC - NIH
... adenosine-5–N-methyl-uronamide (IB-MECA), reduced the severity of joint inflammation in a collagen-induced model of arthritis. This was accompanied by a ...
[116]
Adenosine Diphosphate Improves Wound Healing in Diabetic Mice ...
ADP accelerated cutaneous wound healing, improved new tissue formation, and increased both collagen deposition and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) ...Missing: clinical | Show results with:clinical
[117]
Adenosine in fibrosis - PMC - PubMed Central
It has only recently been appreciated that adenosine has a key role in tissue regenerative and fibrotic processes.Adenosine In Inflammation · Pulmonary Fibrosis · Dermal Fibrosis
[118]
Role of A 2B adenosine receptor signaling in adenosine-dependent ...
In contrast, increased levels of adenosine in chronic inflammation and injury models can activate proinflammatory and tissue destructive pathways (12). Mice ...
[119]
Damage response signaling by the extracellular adenosine pathway
Aug 29, 2025 · In response to damage triggered by various stimuli including infections, ATP is released from damaged cells and converted to adenosine in ...
[120]
Adenosine, caffeine, and sleep–wake regulation - PubMed Central
The major source of extracellular adenosine is the catalytic product of 5′‐ecto‐nucleotidases (5′‐ENs) that degrade adenine nucleotides (ATP) released together ...
[121]
Adenosine integrates light and sleep signalling for the regulation of ...
Apr 9, 2021 · The accumulation of adenosine is strongly correlated with the need for sleep and the detection of sleep pressure is antagonised by caffeine.
[122]
Neuroprotection by adenosine in the brain: From A1 receptor ...
It is commonly assumed that A1Rs play a key role in neuroprotection since they decrease glutamate release and hyperpolarize neurons. In fact, A1R activation at ...Missing: preclinical | Show results with:preclinical
[123]
Adenosine and Stroke: Maximizing the Therapeutic Potential of ...
tMCAO, WT BMDCs→KO: ~20% decrease in infarct volume, not statistically significant. KO BMDCs→WT: ~30% reduction in infarct volume, improved neurological outcomeMissing: preclinical | Show results with:preclinical
[124]
Role of Adenosine in Epilepsy and Seizures - PMC - PubMed Central
Adenosine is an endogenous anticonvulsant and neuroprotectant of the brain. Seizure activity produces large quantities of adenosine, and it is this seizure- ...
[125]
ATP and adenosine—Two players in the control of seizures and ...
This review integrates and critically discusses novel findings regarding how ATP and adenosine control seizures and the development of epilepsy.
[126]
Adenosine Receptors and Epilepsy: Current Evidence and Future ...
Adenosine receptors are a powerful therapeutic target for regulating epileptic seizures. As a homeostatic bioenergetic network regulator, adenosine is perfectly ...
[127]
Adenosine Receptors as Potential Therapeutic Analgesic Targets
Aug 24, 2023 · In neuropathic and inflammatory pain models, adenosine controls neuronal and non-neuronal cell functions [15], modulates primary afferent ...
[128]
Positive allosteric mechanisms of adenosine A1 receptor-mediated ...
The adenosine (ADO) A1 receptor (A1R) is a promising therapeutic target for potential non-opioid analgesics to treat neuropathic pain [1, 2].<|separator|>
[129]
Strategies for Drug Delivery into the Brain: A Review on Adenosine ...
Active efflux is driven by different primary barrier interface proteins. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are BBB transporter ...2. Biological Brain Barriers... · 4. Adenosine, Adenosine... · 4.1. Physiological...
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Addressing the Clinical Importance of Equilibrative Nucleoside ...
May 27, 2025 · Although there is comparatively limited clinical evidence supporting their role in DDI risk or other adverse drug reactions (ADRs) compared with ...
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24986517/
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CD39/CD73/A2AR pathway and cancer immunotherapy - PMC
Mar 2, 2023 · The increasing evidence suggests that CD39, CD73 and A2AR could be used as novel therapeutic targets for manipulating the antitumor immunity.Missing: imbalance | Show results with:imbalance
[133]
Hypoxia-inducible factor 1-dependent expression of adenosine ...
Hypoxia, which is a critical factor for cancer progression (7), has been reported to increase adenosine production through increased expression of CD39 and CD73 ...
[134]
Myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment: Role of adenosine - PMC
Adenosine promotes polarization of myeloid cells toward immunosuppressive and pro-angiogenic phenotypes, that prevent T cell activation and function.
[135]
Adenosine-generating ovarian cancer cells attract myeloid cells ...
Aug 16, 2016 · Conclusion Adenosine generated by OvCA cells likely contributes to the recruitment of TAMs which further amplify adenosine-dependent ...
[136]
A Metabolic Immune Checkpoint: Adenosine in Tumor ... - Frontiers
The current review focuses on the pro-cancer roles of extracellular adenosine and discusses application of the inhibitors of this metabolic immune checkpoint to ...
[137]
Study Details | NCT03207867 | A Phase 2 Study of NIR178 in Combination With PDR001 in Patients With Solid Tumors and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma | ClinicalTrials.gov
- **Study Title**: A Phase 2 Study of NIR178 in Combination With PDR001 in Patients With Solid Tumors and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
[138]
Phase Ia/b, Open-Label, Multicenter Study of AZD4635 (an ...
Purpose: To evaluate AZD4635, an adenosine A2A receptor antagonist, as monotherapy or in combination with durvalumab in patients with advanced solid tumors.
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Antimetastatic effects of blocking PD-1 and the adenosine A2A ...
Jul 15, 2014 · This combination significantly reduces metastatic burden and prolongs the life of mice compared with either monotherapy alone.Missing: A2AR ORR
[140]
Current strategies and novel immunotherapeutic approaches for ...
Oct 22, 2025 · A2A antagonists (e.g., ciforadenant/CPI-444) and anti-CD73 antibodies restore T-cell activity in preclinical models, with early-phase trials ...