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Perga

Perga (also known as Perge), an ancient city in the Pamphylia region of southern Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), was a major Hellenistic and Roman urban center known for its sophisticated city planning, grand public architecture, and cultural prominence.^[1] Located approximately 18 km east of Antalya and 2 km north of Aksu village, it originated as a settlement during the Early Bronze Age around 4000–3000 BCE, with evidence of continuous habitation from the Chalcolithic period.^[1]^[2] The city flourished under Persian, Macedonian, and Roman rule, serving as the capital of Pamphylia Secunda during the Roman Empire and exemplifying classical grid-iron urban design with defensive walls, gates, and monumental fountains.^[1]^[2] According to Greek mythology, Perga was founded in the 13th century BCE by Greek colonists led by seers such as Calchas and Amphilochus following the Trojan War, though archaeological findings indicate earlier indigenous Anatolian roots integrated with Greek settlers.^[2] The city surrendered to Alexander the Great in 334 BCE, transitioning into the Hellenistic era under the influence of the Attalid kingdom of Pergamon before coming under Roman control in 188 BCE as part of the province of Asia.^[1]^[2] By the 1st century CE, it formed part of a federal state with Lycia and Pamphylia, achieving prosperity in the 2nd century under emperors like Hadrian, who granted it metropolitan status and local autonomy.^[1] Perga's elite families, such as the Plancii, played key roles in civic benefaction, with figures like Plancia Magna funding major restorations to the Hellenistic Gate complex in the early 2nd century CE.^[2] Culturally, Perga was a hub of learning and religion, serving as the birthplace of the renowned mathematician Apollonius of Perga (c. 262–190 BCE), who advanced the study of conic sections while studying in Alexandria.^[3] It was also a center for the worship of Artemis, with a significant temple dedicated to the goddess, reflecting its blend of Greek and local Anatolian traditions.^[3] In the New Testament, Perga is mentioned as the landing point for the Apostle Paul and Barnabas during their first missionary journey around 46–48 CE, from where they traveled inland to preach, marking its early role in Christian history.^[4] The city transitioned to Byzantine rule in the 5th century CE, experiencing a revival as a Christian bishopric before declining due to Arab invasions in the 8th century and later Seljuk and Ottoman oversight.^[1] Archaeologically, Perga's ruins, excavated since 1946, reveal an impressive array of structures including a 15,000-seat theater built in 120 CE, a 12,000-capacity stadium from the 2nd century CE, colonnaded streets with water channels, multiple baths, nymphaea, and the monumental South Gate with its circular towers.^[1]^[2] Notable sculptures, such as those of local founders and imperial figures, and intricate mosaics depicting mythological scenes, highlight its artistic legacy.^[2] Placed on UNESCO's Tentative World Heritage List in 2009 under criterion (ii) for its influence on architectural exchanges, Perga remains a vital site for understanding the evolution of urbanism in the eastern Mediterranean.^[1]

Location and environment

Geographical position

Perga is situated approximately 18 kilometers east of the modern city of Antalya, within the Aksu district of Antalya Province, Turkey.^[5] The ancient site's coordinates are roughly 36°57′N 30°51′E.^[6] In the context of antiquity, Perga lay in the region of Pamphylia, on the fertile coastal plain along the Mediterranean Sea, positioned between the Catarrhactes River (modern Düden Nehri to the west) and the Cestrus River (modern Aksu Çayı to the east). This placement on the alluvial plain provided a strategic base amid the region's mountainous hinterland and maritime frontier. Though located inland, about 11 kilometers from the coast, Perga maintained connectivity to maritime trade routes through the navigable Cestrus River, which allowed ships to reach the city despite the absence of a dedicated harbor; the nearby settlement of Magydus served as its primary port.^[7] Legend attributes the site's early settlement to Argive colonists, drawn to the advantageous position of the plain for defense and agriculture, though archaeological evidence points to more complex origins in the Early Bronze Age.^[8]

Natural setting and resources

Perga was situated on a flat alluvial plain in ancient Pamphylia, now within modern Antalya Province, Turkey, flanked by the Aksu River (ancient Cestrus) to the east and the Düden River (ancient Catarrhactes) to the west.^[9] The site's original settlement centered on an acropolis hill approximately 1 km north of the main urban area, providing a natural defensive elevation amid the surrounding low hills, while the later Hellenistic and Roman expansions extended southward across the fertile plain.^[10] The region experiences a typical Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, which facilitated year-round agricultural activity. Annual precipitation averages around 1000 mm, predominantly falling during the winter months from November to March. Key natural resources included the fertile silt deposited by the Aksu River, which enriched the alluvial soils and supported intensive farming in the plain. Nearby limestone quarries in the Antalya region supplied durable stone for monumental construction, as evidenced by the geological composition of structures like the city's gates and market buildings. Access to timber from the encircling hills and abundant river water further bolstered local development.^[9]^[11] Environmental challenges arose from the Aksu River's dynamic behavior, including periodic flooding and course shifts due to heavy winter rains and upstream erosion, which gradually altered the site's proximity to the sea and necessitated water management systems like canals.^[9]^[1]

History

Bronze Age foundations

The earliest evidence of human settlement at Perga dates to the Late Chalcolithic period, around 4000–3000 BCE, with archaeological finds indicating initial occupation on the acropolis mound. These include pottery shards and basic tools characteristic of indigenous Anatolian cultures, suggesting small-scale communities engaged in early agriculture and pastoralism. By the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000–2000 BCE), permanent settlements emerged, marked by more refined ceramics and simple stone tools that reflect continuity in local traditions without significant external influences.^[1]^[12]^[13] During the Late Bronze Age (ca. 2000–1200 BCE), Perga, known in Hittite texts as Parha, experienced growing integration into the Hittite sphere of influence in western Anatolia. A treaty between Hittite king Tudhaliya IV (r. ca. 1237–1209 BCE) and his vassal Kurunta of Tarhuntassa references Parha as a territory situated between the kingdoms of Mira and Tarhuntassa, highlighting its status as a peripheral vassal or contested border region amid Hittite efforts to control Pamphylia. This period saw the site's evolution toward a proto-urban center, with excavations uncovering mud-brick structures, bronze tools and implements, and burial sites that point to increasing social complexity and trade connections. The broader Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BCE, associated with invasions including those by the Sea Peoples, likely impacted the region, as evidenced by destruction layers and abandonment patterns at nearby Anatolian sites, though specific layers at Perga await further excavation.^[14]^[15]^[1]^[5] These Bronze Age phases underscore Perga's indigenous roots in Luwian-speaking Anatolian cultures, akin to later Lycian traditions, with no evidence of major Greek presence until subsequent migrations. Artifacts from mound excavations at the acropolis, including pottery and metalwork now housed in the Antalya Archaeological Museum, demonstrate cultural continuity from Chalcolithic village life to a more organized settlement under Hittite oversight, laying the groundwork for its later development.^[16]^[12]

Greek colonization and Hellenistic development

According to Greek mythology, Perge was founded shortly after the Trojan War (ca. 1200 BCE) by Greek settlers led by the seers Calchas and Mopsus, with other heroes including Amphilochus and Leonteus; this mythic narrative, preserved in ancient sources like Strabo and reflected in statue bases from the Hellenistic gate listing Trojan War heroes, underscores Perge's integration into the broader Greek colonial network in Anatolia, blending indigenous elements with Hellenic traditions.^[17]^[10] Archaeological evidence supports continuous habitation on the acropolis from the Bronze Age, but the Greek phase marks the city's emergence as a distinct polis with an urban core developing around fertile plains and proximity to the sea, with significant Greek influence emerging in the Iron Age (ca. 1000–700 BCE).^[10] During the Classical period (5th–4th centuries BC), Perga experienced limited oversight from the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which controlled Pamphylia as a satrapy, yet allowed relative autonomy to Greek city-states in the region.^[16] The city's strategic location facilitated trade via the nearby Kaistros River and the port of Magydus, contributing to the gradual expansion of its urban layout, including early fortifications and public spaces.^[10] While direct involvement in the Delian League remains unattested in surviving records, Perga's Pamphylian peers navigated the shifting influences of Persian and occasional Athenian maritime interests, fostering a period of cultural consolidation before Alexander the Great's arrival.^[16] In 334 BCE, Perga surrendered peacefully to Alexander the Great during his campaign against the Persians, its weak walls and strategic position prompting a non-violent submission that spared the city destruction.^[17]^[10] Following Alexander's death, Perga became a key Hellenistic center, oscillating between Ptolemaic Egyptian and Seleucid rule in the 3rd century BC, with Pamphylia serving as a contested frontier; following Roman victory over the Seleucids, Pamphylia came under Attalid influence from ca. 188 BCE until the kingdom's annexation by Rome in 133 BCE.^[17]^[10] The Hellenistic era (3rd–1st centuries BC) brought prosperity under local dynasts, marked by territorial expansion, the construction of theaters and gymnasia to promote Hellenic education and culture, and the minting of autonomous coins featuring Artemis from the late 3rd century BC onward.^[10] A notable event in this flourishing was the birth of the mathematician Apollonius of Perga around 262 BC, whose work on conic sections exemplified the city's intellectual contributions to Hellenistic science.^[18] Perga maintained independence amid Roman encroachment, resisting a consular siege in 188 BC until the Seleucid garrison's expulsion led to its capitulation, after which it transitioned into Roman influence without immediate loss of Greek character.^[17]

Roman imperial period

Following the Roman victory over the Seleucid Empire at the Battle of Magnesia in 188 BC, Perga fell under Roman influence as the city expelled its Seleucid garrison, marking the beginning of Roman oversight in the region.^[10] The city was formally incorporated into the Roman province of Asia in 129 BC after the Attalid kingdom's bequest to Rome, though it retained significant autonomy as a free city with its own coinage and self-governance.^[8] By 25 BC, under Augustus, Perga was integrated into the province of Galatia through the construction of the Via Sebaste, a major road linking it to the imperial network and facilitating military and commercial movement.^[10] During the 1st century AD, as provincial boundaries shifted, Perga transitioned into the province of Lycia et Pamphylia, maintaining its status as a prosperous Hellenistic foundation with Roman protections.^[19] Perga reached its zenith of prosperity between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, serving as the capital of the newly formed province of Pamphylia Secunda under Emperor Trajan around 107 AD, which elevated its administrative importance in regional governance and taxation.^[20] The city benefited from elite patronage, most notably by Plancia Magna, a prominent local aristocrat and priestess from the influential Plancius family, who between 119 and 122 AD funded extensive restorations to the Hellenistic city gate, including the addition of round towers, a propylon, colonnaded courtyards, and statues of gods and family members, blending Greek and Roman architectural styles to symbolize civic continuity.^[21]^[22] Urban expansions during this era included the construction of the Kursunlu aqueduct, an 11 km system channeling water from nearby springs to supply public baths and fountains, as well as a large bath complex west of the Hellenistic gate featuring hypocaust heating and mosaic floors.^[23]^[10] A stadium seating approximately 12,000 spectators was built in the 2nd century AD, alongside a theater expanded to hold 15,000, reflecting the city's growing population estimated at around 20,000 inhabitants at its peak, supported by agricultural surplus and trade along the Cestrus River.^[10] These developments underscored Perga's role as a key economic hub, channeling goods like timber, olives, and textiles through its river port to Mediterranean markets, while local elites like Plancia ensured infrastructure aligned with imperial standards.^[19] By the 3rd century AD, Perga experienced gradual shifts, including the introduction of Christianity, which had reached the city as early as the 1st century through apostles Paul and Barnabas but gained firmer inroads amid imperial tolerance under figures like Emperor Alexander Severus.^[10] The city's economic vitality persisted through provincial trade networks, but it began facing pressures from broader imperial crises, including Gothic invasions that targeted Asia Minor's coastal regions starting in the 250s AD, compelling defensive reinforcements and straining resources.^[24] These raids, combined with Sassanid Persian threats and internal economic disruptions like currency debasement, marked the onset of decline, though Perga retained its urban layout from Hellenistic times as a foundation for Roman adaptations.^[24]

Byzantine and medieval decline

During the early Byzantine era from the 4th to 7th centuries AD, Perge served as a prominent bishopric seat within the province of Pamphylia Secunda, functioning as a metropolitan see documented in Greek notitiae episcopatuum until the 13th century.^[25] Its bishops actively participated in key ecumenical councils, including Epidaurus at the Council of Ancyra in 312, Callicles at Nicaea in 325, Epiphanius at Ephesus in 449 and Chalcedon in 451, and others at subsequent gatherings in Constantinople and elsewhere up to 869.^[25] This period also saw the construction of several significant Christian structures in the lower city, such as the three-aisled South Church (Basilica A) with transept and gallery from the early 5th century, the five-aisled North Church (Basilica B) possibly serving as the cathedral in the 5th–6th centuries, and the East Church (Basilica C) featuring a five-sided apse, all reflecting the city's transition to a Christian center.^[26] The life of St. Matrona of Perge, born in the city in the 5th century to a wealthy family, exemplifies this era's religious fervor; after marrying and bearing a daughter, she pursued an ascetic path, disguising herself as a monk named Babylas to enter monasteries before founding women's convents in Emesa, Beirut, and Constantinople, where she served as abbess until her death around 550 at age 100.^[27] Cultural shifts toward Christianity were evident in the erection of these basilicas, which incorporated typical motifs such as inscribed crosses and apsed designs, while pagan temples fell into disuse or were repurposed, with archaeological evidence indicating the integration of Christian architectural elements amid the decaying Roman infrastructure.^[26] However, from the 7th century onward, Arab raids devastated the region, razing much of Perge in the 8th century and prompting inhabitants to retreat to the acropolis for defense, alongside possible earthquakes that further reduced the population and shifted settlement to inland fortifications.^[10]^[28] These incursions, combined with silting of the Cestrus River, led to a marked decline in urban activity by the late 7th century, though limited reoccupation occurred around the 10th century with smaller structures like a cross-plan church.^[26] Under Seljuk influence from the 11th to 12th centuries, periodic raids continued to erode Perge's viability, transforming it from a metropolitan center to a diminished settlement as Attalia (Antalya) assumed regional prominence in 1084; by the foundation of the Seljuk Empire around 1100, the city was largely uninhabited.^[29]^[30] The 13th century marked the final abandonment following Mongol invasions that fragmented the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum after the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ, exacerbating instability across Anatolia and prompting the desertion of exposed sites like Perge.^[31] Thereafter, the ruins served as a quarry for building materials in the Ottoman era, leading to neglect until systematic archaeological rediscovery in the 20th century.^[10]

Religion

Cult of Artemis Pergaia

The cult of Artemis Pergaia centered on a syncretic deity who embodied the fusion of the Greek goddess Artemis with indigenous Anatolian traditions, particularly a local mother goddess known as Wanassa Preiia (or Vanassa Preiia in Pamphylian dialect), reflecting pre-Greek Bronze Age origins adapted during Hellenistic colonization around the 4th century BCE.^[32] This syncretism also incorporated elements of the Anatolian Cybele, emphasizing fertility, protection, and nature, which distinguished Artemis Pergaia from purely Hellenic forms and positioned her as Perga's principal civic deity from the Hellenistic era through the Roman period.^[33]^[34] The temple dedicated to her, believed to have been constructed in Hellenistic times on a prominent hill outside the city walls, though its exact location remains unknown, served as the focal point of her worship and reinforced her role in local identity.^[13] Worship practices revolved around annual festivals that included elaborate processions, during which her cult image was carried from the temple down processional routes into the city center, symbolizing communal unity and divine favor.^[35] These rituals were led by priestesses and possibly eunuch priests, echoing Anatolian traditions, and incorporated oracles for guidance as well as fertility rites linked to the city's founding myth, where the goddess purportedly selected the site and ensured its prosperity through sacred springs and agricultural abundance.^[34] Votive offerings, including reliefs depicting ritual scenes, underscored her protective and nurturing aspects, tying worship to both personal devotion and civic renewal. Iconography of Artemis Pergaia blended Greek and local motifs, portraying her in statues and reliefs with traditional hunting attributes such as a bow, quiver, and deer, alongside Asiatic features like a polos headdress or schematic archaic form evoking the mother goddess.^[36] Coins minted in Perga from the 4th century BCE onward frequently depicted her cult statue—a distinctive baetyl (sacred stone) incorporated into an anthropomorphic figure—housed within a distyle temple, often flanked by celestial symbols like stars and crescents, highlighting her chthonic and astral dimensions.^[37]^[36] These representations, found on bronze issues under Roman emperors like Claudius and Gallienus, emphasized her as a potent, localized protector rather than the distant Olympian huntress.^[38]^[39] The cult's significance elevated Perga as a regional pilgrimage center, drawing devotees for healing and oracular consultations, while its rituals shaped the urban layout through dedicated processional avenues that integrated sacred space with daily life.^[13]^[34] As the dominant pagan faith, it influenced social cohesion and economic vitality via festival trade until the 4th century CE, when Roman Christianization led to its gradual decline amid imperial edicts suppressing traditional practices.^[13]

Other pagan practices and Christian adoption

In addition to the prominent cult of Artemis Pergaia, Perge hosted worship of several other deities, including Apollo, Dionysus, and local Anatolian gods such as Cybele. Inscriptions and altars uncovered in the city attest to these practices, with dedications to Apollo appearing in contexts linking him to imperial and civic rituals, reflecting syncretic Hellenistic influences. Similarly, evidence of Dionysus veneration includes statues placed in the theater, symbolizing his role as patron of performance and ecstasy, while Cybele's cult blended Anatolian mother-goddess traditions with Greek elements.^[40]^[41]^[42] Smaller sanctuaries and shrines dotted the urban landscape of Perge, accommodating these secondary cults through syncretic rituals that fused Greek imports with indigenous Anatolian beliefs. For instance, altars and votive offerings indicate blended practices where Apollo's oracular aspects merged with local river deities associated with the Cestrus, and Cybelean worship incorporated ecstatic rites akin to those of the Phrygian mother goddess. These sites, often integrated into civic spaces like agoras and theaters, facilitated community participation in festivals honoring multiple gods.^[43]^[44] During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, mystery religions gained traction in Perge, particularly Dionysiac and Cybelean cults, which promised initiates personal salvation and esoteric knowledge. Inscriptions and artifacts suggest Dionysus's mysteries involved initiatory rites emphasizing rebirth and communal ecstasy, while Cybele's cult featured taurobolium sacrifices for purification, drawing from Anatolian roots adapted to Roman imperial contexts. These practices coexisted with public pagan worship, appealing to diverse social strata seeking spiritual depth amid cultural shifts.^[45]^[46] The transition to Christianity in Perge unfolded gradually from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD, with early communities emerging in the late Roman era and accelerating under Constantine's legalization. Pagan sites were repurposed for Christian use. By the early 5th century, imperial edicts under Theodosius I mandated the closure and demolition of pagan temples across the empire, including the destruction of idols in Perge by circa 400 AD, marking the effective end of organized paganism.^[47] Under Byzantine rule, Perge was established as a bishopric by the 5th century, with its ecclesiastical leaders contributing to regional church governance, including participation in synods addressing doctrinal matters. The city hosted multiple basilicas, underscoring its role as a Christian center second only to Side in Pamphylia. St. Matrona (d. ca. 450 AD), a native of Perge, exemplified Christian endurance through her ascetic life, disguising herself as a male monk named Babylas to found monasteries and perform miracles that converted pagans, as detailed in her hagiography. Her legacy symbolized the triumph of monastic piety amid the fading pagan world.^[10]^[48]^[49]

Economy and society

Agriculture, trade, and commerce

The economy of ancient Perga was underpinned by its agricultural productivity, derived from the fertile alluvial plains of Pamphylia nourished by the silt deposits of the Cestrus (modern Aksu) River, which enhanced soil fertility and supported cultivation of key crops such as olives, grapes, wheat, and figs.^[23] These staples formed the backbone of local production, with olive oil and wine serving as primary outputs in the Mediterranean triad typical of the region.^[50] Irrigation systems, initiated during the Hellenistic period in the 2nd–3rd centuries BCE, played a crucial role in sustaining yields; later Roman aqueducts, such as the Kursunlu line from the 2nd century CE, channeled water from nearby rivers and springs to fields and urban areas, mitigating seasonal droughts and enabling surplus generation.^[23] Perga's strategic location facilitated extensive trade networks, with access to the Via Sebaste—a Roman road constructed beginning in 6 BCE—linking the city inland to Pisidian Antioch and beyond, while the navigable Cestrus River provided direct routes to Mediterranean ports for maritime exchange.^[51] This connectivity supported exports of agricultural products, including olive oil and wine, alongside locally produced textiles from wool processing and pottery such as Eastern Sigillata Tableware II, which originated in Pamphylia workshops at sites like Perge.^[52] Imports, particularly luxury marbles like those from Dokimeion quarries in Phrygia, were integrated into civic construction, reflecting the city's role in inter-regional commerce during the Roman era.^[53] The river's resources further enabled these exchanges by allowing riverine transport of goods to coastal outlets until silting diminished navigability in the 3rd century CE.^[54] Commerce was centralized in the Roman-era agora, a vast square marketplace—among the largest in Anatolia—surrounded by shops and porticos where merchants traded foodstuffs, textiles, and imported luxuries, fostering daily economic activity from the 2nd century CE onward.^[55] The city's minting of coinage, beginning in the Hellenistic period around the 2nd century BCE with issues depicting Artemis Pergaia, underscored its economic autonomy and facilitated transactions in provincial trade networks under Roman administration.^[10] These coins, produced in bronze and silver, circulated widely, supporting local markets and long-distance barter. Economic prosperity peaked during the Hellenistic era with the establishment of the mint and urban expansion, followed by a Roman zenith in the 2nd century CE, when aqueduct enhancements and trade infrastructure drove growth, positioning Pamphylia's exports—particularly agricultural surpluses and ceramics—as significant contributors to provincial wealth within the empire.^[13] This period saw Perge as a thriving commercial node, with infrastructure investments reflecting heightened production and exchange volumes.^[23] In the classical Hellenistic period, Perga operated as an autonomous Greek polis with a traditional governance structure centered on the boule (council of elders) and demos (popular assembly), which deliberated on civic decrees, public finances, and urban policies.^[56] These institutions allowed local elites to influence decision-making, often through benefactions that funded communal projects, reflecting the participatory ethos of Greek city-states in Asia Minor. Under Roman rule, following the province's creation as Lycia et Pamphylia by Emperor Vespasian in 74 CE, Perga's governance evolved to incorporate Roman municipal elements, including a council akin to the ordo decurionum and chief magistrates such as duumviri, while retaining Greek titles like demiourgos for annual eponymous officials.^[56]^[57] By the late 3rd century CE, during the reign of Emperor Tacitus (275–276 CE), Perga achieved metropolis status. It later served as the capital of Pamphylia Secunda following the province's creation under Diocletian around 295 CE and granting it neocorate privileges, which enhanced its administrative role in tax collection and imperial cult worship.^[56]^[58] Citizenship in Perga followed Greek settler traditions initially, enfranchising colonists and their descendants through birthright and communal participation, but Roman extensions transformed this framework. Local elites, particularly those of Italian origin like the Plancii family, acquired Roman citizenship via imperial constitutions, military service, or high office, enabling them to hold priesthoods and senatorial posts while bolstering civic funding.^[59] Benefactors such as Plancia Magna, a Roman citizen and daughter of the senator Marcus Plancius Varus, exemplified this by financing major public works, including the restoration of the Hellenistic city gate complex around 121 CE, in exchange for honors like lifelong priesthoods and the title demiourgos.^[56]^[59] Her independent dedications, documented in bilingual inscriptions, underscored how citizenship facilitated elite women's patronage, often excluding male relatives to emphasize personal prestige.^[59] Perga's social structure mirrored the stratified Roman provincial hierarchy, dominated by elite families such as the Plancii, who amassed wealth through commerce and intermarried with other prominent clans like the Cornutii to consolidate power.^[56] Free citizens formed the core of the demos, participating in assemblies and guilds, while slaves—often acquired via warfare or trade—and foreigners (peregrini) occupied lower tiers, excluded from benefactions and civic honors unless manumitted.^[56] Gender roles emphasized male dominance in politics, yet elite women like Plancia Magna navigated this through religious and patronage spheres, serving as high priestesses of Artemis Pergaia and the imperial cult, and funding infrastructure that integrated local Lycian-Anatolian elements, such as syncretic deities, into the Greco-Roman framework.^[59]^[56] Legal and administrative practices in Perga were preserved through inscriptions recording decrees, honors, and fiscal obligations, blending Greek epigraphic traditions with Roman oversight. Civic decrees, often issued by the boule and demos, honored benefactors and regulated public life, as seen in the multilingual texts on Plancia Magna's gate complex, which celebrated Perga's legendary founders alongside imperial figures.^[56] Under Rome, taxation integrated Perga into the provincial system, with elites contributing liturgies (compulsory public services) alongside imperial levies on land and trade to fund infrastructure and military security, while local Lycian customs—evident in hybrid cults and administrative terms—were subsumed into the Greco-Roman order without fully erasing indigenous identities.^[56]

Monuments and architecture

City layout and urban planning

The ancient city of Perga, located in Pamphylia (modern-day Turkey), was initially settled on an acropolis hill during the Archaic period but expanded significantly into the surrounding plain under Hellenistic influence, adopting a grid-iron street plan that organized urban space into rectangular blocks. This layout originated in the Classical period and featured a systematic extension from the elevated acropolis to the lower city, with the colonnaded street serving as the primary north-south axis, functioning as both a major thoroughfare and a processional route linking key civic and religious areas, such as from the vicinity of the Artemis sanctuary to the agora.^[1]^[13] Defensive features were integral to the city's planning from its early Hellenistic phase, with substantial city walls constructed in the 3rd century BC during the Seleucid era, enclosing the lower city and incorporating three principal gates. The most prominent of these, the south gate, was flanked by two round stone towers that opened into a horseshoe-shaped courtyard, designed for both security and ceremonial entry, reflecting Greek urban defensive principles adapted to the local terrain. In the Roman period, these structures were enhanced with towers, marble sheathing, and columnar facades, though no evidence of added moats has been confirmed in archaeological records. The acropolis was separately fortified with its own walls, providing a fallback stronghold overlooking the plain.^[1]^[60] Infrastructure emphasized advanced water management, hallmarking Perga as a "water city" through an extensive aqueduct system introduced in the Roman era. Two main aqueducts supplied the urban core: the northern aqueduct, spanning 11.35 km from the Kursunlu River, and the northwest aqueduct, extending 21.5 km from the Duden River, delivering water to public fountains, baths, and cascading pools integrated along colonnaded streets like the main north-south artery. Drainage systems complemented this, featuring covered channels beneath streets with ceramic pipes and vertical dewatering holes to manage runoff and prevent flooding, showcasing Roman engineering that supported dense habitation and public hygiene. Colonnaded streets, including the cardo maximus equivalent, were paved and lined with porticos, facilitating commerce and processions while distributing water via horizontal conduits to adjacent buildings.^[23]^[1] The city's urban form evolved from a compact Hellenistic core centered on the acropolis and grid-planned lower town to a more sprawling Roman configuration, with suburbs extending outward along trade routes and incorporating luxurious villas and expanded public spaces. This shift accommodated population growth, estimated to have peaked in the 2nd-3rd centuries CE, by integrating residential quarters with higher density near the agora and sparser development in peripheral areas, all while maintaining the orthogonal grid as a unifying framework.^[1]^[13]

Major buildings and structures

The theater of Perga, a Hellenistic-Roman structure dating to around 120 CE, exemplifies the city's cultural prominence with its capacity to seat approximately 12,000 spectators across a cavea exceeding a semicircle in shape, built into the hillside for acoustic and visual enhancement.^[6] The stage building featured elaborate friezes depicting mythological scenes and imperial motifs, serving primarily for dramatic performances, musical events, and later Roman adaptations including gladiatorial contests and beast hunts.^[61] Renovations around 250 CE added decorative elements to the scaenae frons, underscoring its enduring role in public entertainment until the 7th-8th centuries CE.^[62] Adjacent to the theater, the stadium, constructed in the 2nd century CE, formed an elongated oval measuring 234 meters in length and 34 meters in width, accommodating up to 12,000 viewers in tiered seating along its embankments.^[10] Designed for athletic competitions such as foot races, wrestling, and chariot events, it reflected Roman imperial influences on urban spectacle, with later modifications in the late 3rd to mid-4th century CE transforming its northern end into an amphitheater-like arena for venationes (animal hunts) and executions, evidenced by animal gates and arena barriers.^[63] The agora, the central market square of Perga, bustled as the economic and social hub during the Roman period, surrounded by porticoed shops and stoas that facilitated trade in goods like textiles and ceramics, while integrating with the city's grid layout.^[64] Flanking it were two Roman basilicas, elongated halls with apses and colonnades used for judicial proceedings, commercial transactions, and civic assemblies; the southern basilica, from the 6th century CE, incorporated Byzantine elements like transepts for enhanced spatial flow.^[48] Perga's nymphaea, four monumental fountains emblematic of Roman hydraulic engineering, adorned key public spaces to provide water for utility and display, often with niches for statues of nymphs and deities; the South Nymphaeum, dedicated under Septimius Severus around 200 CE, featured a multi-tiered facade with cascading basins on the trapezoidal square near the gates.^[65] Complementing these were extensive bath complexes, including the Southern Baths with hypocaust underfloor heating systems that circulated hot air via pillars to warm floors and walls, promoting hygiene, therapy, and social interaction in rooms like the frigidarium and caldarium.^[66] Entry to the city was marked by impressive gates and arches, notably the South Gate complex renovated by Plancia Magna circa 120 CE, which included a propylon with sculptural niches housing over 20 marble statues of gods, heroes, and imperial figures, blending Hellenistic towers with Roman triumphal aesthetics to symbolize civic prestige and loyalty to emperors like Trajan and Hadrian.^[22] Additional arches, such as those honoring subsequent rulers, featured inscribed dedications and reliefs, reinforcing the monumental axis from the gates to the acropolis.^[59]

Archaeology and legacy

Excavation history and discoveries

The initial explorations of Perge in the 19th century were conducted by European travelers and scholars, who documented the site's visible ruins through surveys and sketches. In 1838, British archaeologist Sir Charles Fellows visited Perge during his expedition in Asia Minor, producing detailed mappings and descriptions of the Hellenistic gates, theater, and other structures, which contributed to early awareness of the site's significance. These efforts laid the groundwork for later systematic work but were limited to surface observations without excavation. Systematic archaeological excavations at Perge commenced in 1946 under the auspices of Istanbul University, marking the beginning of modern investigations led by Turkish scholars. Between 1953 and 1957, Professor Arif Müfid Mansel directed major digs that uncovered key elements of the city's layout, including parts of the theater and city gates. Following Mansel's death in 1975, Professor Jale İnan assumed leadership from the late 1970s through the 1980s, expanding excavations to reveal extensive Roman-era features and contributing to the growth of the Antalya Museum's collection through recovered artifacts.^[10] Current excavations, ongoing since the 1990s under Professor Haluk Abbasoğlu, continue to explore unexcavated areas, with the site added to UNESCO's Tentative List in 2009 to highlight its global heritage value.^[1]^[5] Major discoveries from these efforts span multiple periods, providing insights into Perge's long occupation. Early Bronze Age pottery shards and settlement remains indicate initial habitation around 4000–3000 BCE, while a 13th-century BCE bronze plate inscribed with "Parha" links the site to Hittite records. Hellenistic-period finds include inscriptions detailing civic governance and city walls with circular towers, alongside Roman-era statues such as those of Aphrodite and Dionysus, vibrant frescoes in bath complexes, and remnants of a Christian basilica from the 5th century CE. Recent digs have also yielded five exceptional Roman statues, including one of Aphrodite with Eros, underscoring the site's artistic prowess.^[1]^[67]^[68] Excavation methodologies at Perge have evolved from traditional stratigraphic techniques, which layer-by-layer uncover chronological sequences, to incorporate geophysical surveys like ground-penetrating radar for non-invasive mapping of subsurface features. Post-2000 efforts have involved international collaborations, including joint projects with European institutions to analyze artifacts and restore structures, enhancing the precision and scope of ongoing research.^[12]^[69]

Modern preservation and cultural significance

The archaeological site of Perge faces significant preservation challenges, including natural erosion from environmental factors, seismic activity in the region, and damage from high tourist footfall, which contributes to wear on structures like the colonnaded streets and theaters.^[70] Urban encroachment near the site in Aksu, Antalya, has also posed threats to its boundaries, prompting legislative protections under Turkish Law No. 2863, which designates Perge as a first-, second-, and third-degree archaeological site since 1981.^[1] Restoration projects, overseen by the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism through the Antalya Museum Directorate since the 1990s, have intensified in recent decades; notable efforts include the 2018 restoration of the ancient theater, which began to address structural decay in the approximately 12,000-seat venue, and the 2021 re-erection of over 100 restored columns along the main street as part of the "Get a Column in Perge" campaign funded by public and private sponsors.^[71]^[72] More recent work in 2025 focused on stabilizing the Roman-era colonnaded street by repaving with original and replacement stones to mitigate rain-induced instability and visitor traffic, though this sparked debate among archaeologists over the preservation of ancient wheel ruts.^[73] Conservation measures at Perge emphasize in-situ protection and ongoing maintenance, with the Antalya Museum leading excavations and rehabilitation since 2012, including work on the water channel, Caracalla Fountain, and porticos near the Roman Gate.^[5] Mosaics uncovered during digs, such as those depicting Oceanus and Medusa, have been safeguarded through methods like iron gates for enclosure and experimental reburial techniques to prevent further deterioration from exposure.^[74] Many excavated artifacts, including sculptures and inscriptions, are displayed in the nearby Antalya Archaeology Museum, which serves as a key repository for Perge's finds and supports site interpretation.^[5] As an open-air ruin, Perge attracts a substantial number of visitors annually, contributing to Antalya's record of over 3.25 million tourists to its museums and ancient sites in 2024, with the site integrated into the region's heritage tourism circuit alongside Aspendos and Side.^[75] Access is facilitated by guided paths, informational panels at major structures like the stadium and baths, and daily opening hours from 8:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. in summer (closing one hour earlier in winter), with entry fees of 400 TL (as of 2025) for adults and free admission for Turkish citizens over 65, children under 18, and international students in archaeology or art.^[5]^[76] Facilities such as a cafe, shop, and restrooms enhance visitor experience while minimizing impact on the ruins. Perge holds enduring cultural significance as a UNESCO tentative World Heritage site, offering insights into Pamphylian Hellenism through its grid-iron urban planning, advanced water management systems, and blend of native Anatolian and Greco-Roman influences, which inform studies in classics and archaeology worldwide.^[1] In modern Turkey, the site symbolizes national heritage, bolstering cultural identity and tourism promotion under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism's initiatives to revive ancient legacies for future generations.^[75]

Notable inhabitants

Intellectual and scholarly figures

Apollonius of Perga (c. 262–190 BC), often called "the Great Geometer," stands as the most prominent intellectual figure associated with the ancient city of Perga in Pamphylia, modern-day Turkey.^[18] Born in Perga, a Hellenistic settlement with strong Greek cultural ties, Apollonius received his early education there before traveling to Alexandria, Egypt, where he studied under successors of Euclid at the Musaeum.^[18] His work exemplifies the scholarly exchanges across Greek-influenced regions during the Hellenistic period, bridging local Pamphylian heritage with the intellectual centers of the eastern Mediterranean.^[18] Apollonius's seminal contribution to mathematics is his eight-book treatise Conics, which systematically advanced the study of conic sections beyond Euclid's foundational efforts.^[18] In this work, he provided rigorous definitions and properties of ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas—terms he coined—and explored their geometric constructions, asymptotes, and applications to optics and astronomy.^[18] Books I–IV synthesize earlier results, while V–VII introduce original theorems on maximum and minimum lines and the evolution of conics, demonstrating his innovative approach to spatial relationships.^[18] Only the first four books survive in Greek, with the rest preserved through Arabic translations, underscoring the treatise's enduring influence on later astronomers like Kepler and Newton.^[18] Beyond Conics, Apollonius authored treatises on other geometric problems, including Plane Loci (on describing loci with ruler and compass), Cutting Off a Ratio (a lost work on proportion divisions), and Tangencies (solving problems of circle tangents).^[18] He also contributed to astronomy with models using eccentric and epicyclic motions and to optics via On the Burning Mirror, applying conic properties to focal reflections.^[18] These efforts highlight his role in integrating pure mathematics with practical sciences, reflecting the interdisciplinary scholarship fostered in Hellenistic cities like Perga, which featured gymnasia as hubs for physical and intellectual training among Greek elites.^[18]^[8] While no other major scholars from Perga are prominently recorded, the city's Greek colonial foundations and institutions like the palaestra supported a cultural environment conducive to learning, as evidenced by Apollonius's early ties and the broader Hellenistic emphasis on paideia.^[18] Ancient texts reference Perga as part of the Ionian Greek world, where philosophical and scientific ideas circulated, potentially influencing local thought during the third century BC.^[18]

Civic benefactors and religious leaders

In ancient Perge, civic benefaction, or euergetism, was a key mechanism through which elite individuals funded public works, enhancing urban infrastructure and social cohesion while earning honors such as inscriptions and statues.^[77] Religious leadership often intertwined with these roles, as priests and priestesses of major cults like Artemis Pergaia and the imperial cult also acted as patrons, supporting temples, festivals, and civic rituals.^[78] This dual function exemplified the integration of piety and philanthropy in Roman Asia Minor, where local elites bridged Hellenistic traditions with imperial loyalty.^[22] Plancia Magna (c. 100–140 CE), a member of the prominent Plancii Varus family, stands out as Perge's most celebrated female benefactor and religious figure. Daughter of the consular senator Marcus Plancius Varus, she held multiple civic offices, including demiourgos (chief magistrate) three times and gymnasiarch, overseeing public education and athletics.^[22] Between 119 and 122 CE, under Emperor Hadrian, she financed the restoration of the Hellenistic city gate complex, adding monumental arches, towers, and a nymphaeum while erecting statues of her family alongside legendary founders like Teucer to symbolize continuity between Perge's mythic past and Roman present.^[22] Bilingual Greek-Latin inscriptions (IPerge 101–107) at the site commemorate her as "daughter of the city," highlighting her role in urban renewal.^[22] Religiously, Plancia Magna served as high priestess of Artemis Pergaia, the city's patron deity whose cult blended Greek, Anatolian, and Roman elements, and as the first and only priestess of Magna Mater (Cybele).^[22] She also held the high priesthood of the imperial cult, linking local worship to Roman emperors through festivals and dedications.^[22] Honorific inscriptions (IPerge 117–125) praise her for these roles, underscoring how her benefactions, such as gate enhancements, served both civic beautification and sacred processions to the Artemis temple.^[22] Her marriage to C. Iulius Cornutus Tertullus further connected her to another euergetic family, amplifying her influence.^[77] Among male benefactors with religious ties, C. Iulius Cornutus (fl. 1st century CE), of Italic origin, and his sons exemplified elite patronage. Cornutus himself expanded the North Gymnasium (known as the Cornutus Palaestra) during the reigns of Nero and Vespasian, providing facilities for youth training and public gatherings.^[77] His eldest son, C. Iulius Cornutus Bryoninus, played a pivotal role in establishing Perge's imperial cult under Vespasian, serving twice as high priest and co-donating the Pantheion, a temple honoring emperors and gods, alongside relatives Iulia Tertulla and Iulia Severa.^[78] Inscriptions honor Bryoninus for these contributions, which solidified Roman religious integration in the city.^[78] His brother Tertullus, Plancia's husband, pursued a senatorial career but left fewer direct benefactions.^[77] These figures illustrate how Perge's leaders used wealth from trade and provincial offices to fund enduring legacies, with religious duties amplifying their civic prestige. Numerous inscriptions attest to other priestesses of Artemis, though none match Plancia's prominence, reflecting the cult's centrality to female elite identity.^[79] Overall, such patronage transformed Perge into a prosperous Roman center while preserving its sacred traditions.^[56]

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