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Pie chart

A pie chart, also known as a circle chart, is a circular statistical graphic divided into wedge-shaped slices to represent the proportional sizes of different categories within a dataset that collectively form a whole.^[1] Each slice's central angle is determined by the formula (category value / total value) × 360°, ensuring the full circle sums to 100% or the entire dataset.^[2] This visualization is particularly suited for nominal or categorical data, where the focus is on relative shares rather than exact quantities, making it a simple tool for conveying part-to-whole relationships at a glance.^[3] The pie chart was invented by Scottish engineer and political economist William Playfair in 1801, appearing in his book Statistical Breviary, showing the proportions of the Turkish Empire located in Asia, Europe, and Africa before 1789.^[4] Playfair's innovation built on earlier circular representations but introduced the divided sectors to emphasize comparative proportions, marking a key advancement in data visualization during the Enlightenment era.^[5] Since then, pie charts have become ubiquitous in fields like business, education, and journalism for summarizing market shares, budget allocations, or demographic breakdowns.^[6] Despite their intuitive appeal, pie charts have notable limitations: they are most effective with 3 to 6 distinct categories where proportions differ markedly, as humans struggle to accurately compare angles or areas in more complex or similar-sized slices.^[7] For precise comparisons across multiple datasets or numerous categories, alternatives like bar charts are often preferred, as they align better with perceptual accuracy in judging lengths over angles.^[8] Common variants include the donut chart, which features a central hole for added labels or emphasis, and exploded pie charts, where slices are pulled outward to highlight specific segments, though 3D effects can introduce distortion and are generally discouraged.^[9] Best practices emphasize clear labeling, high-contrast colors, and starting the largest slice at the 12 o'clock position to enhance readability without overwhelming the viewer.^[10]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

A pie chart is a circular statistical graphic that divides a circle into sectors, or slices, to represent the proportional parts of a whole, where the size of each slice corresponds to the magnitude of the category it depicts.^[1]^[3] This format effectively summarizes categorical data by showing how individual components contribute to an overall total, such as the distribution of expenses in a budget or segments of market share among competitors.^[11]^[12] The purpose of a pie chart lies in its ability to visually communicate relative proportions at a glance, aiding in the quick comprehension of data hierarchies without requiring precise numerical reading.^[13] It is particularly useful for datasets with a small number of categories, where the emphasis is on comparative sizes rather than absolute values.^[14] The name "pie chart" originates from its visual similarity to a pie divided into wedges, with the term first appearing in English usage during the early 20th century.^[15] As a foundational tool, the pie chart's two-dimensional circular structure, including its slices and accompanying labels, provides the essential model for subsequent variations in proportional data representation.^[3]^[1]

Components and Structure

A pie chart consists of a central circle that represents the total dataset, equivalent to 100% of the whole.^[11] This circular form symbolizes unity and completeness, with the entire circumference enclosing all data categories.^[3] The primary structural elements are the individual slices, also known as sectors, which divide the circle into wedge-shaped segments.^[1] Each slice corresponds to a specific category within the dataset, and its size is determined by the relative proportion of that category's value to the overall sum.^[12] In a standard pie chart, these slices radiate outward from the center, creating a symmetrical layout that emphasizes the interconnected parts of the whole.^[16] Proportional representation in pie charts occurs through three interrelated visual encodings: the central angle of each slice, its arc length along the circumference, and the area of the segment.^[17] The central angle, measured in degrees, directly scales with the data value, where the full circle spans 360 degrees to match the 100% total.^[18] Arc length follows proportionally from the angle, providing a linear cue along the edge, while the area of the slice, which is the product of the angle and the square of the radius, offers a two-dimensional measure that humans often perceive intuitively.^[19] Research indicates that while angle is the intended encoding, viewers may rely more heavily on area for judgments, though all three contribute to accurate interpretation when designed properly.^[20] To enhance clarity, pie charts incorporate optional labeling elements. A title or central label at the circle's core can denote the total value or dataset summary, while peripheral labels positioned adjacent to each slice identify category names and often include percentage values or absolute figures.^[21] For charts with numerous categories, a separate legend—typically placed outside the circle—maps colors or patterns to each slice, avoiding clutter on the main graphic.^[22] Variations in orientation maintain the radial structure but may include subtle radial lines extending from the center to slice boundaries for improved boundary definition, particularly in dense charts.^[12] This setup ensures the pie chart's anatomy supports quick visual assessment of part-to-whole relationships without overwhelming the viewer.^[3]

Historical Development

Invention and Early Examples

The pie chart, originally termed a "circle graph," was invented by Scottish engineer and economist William Playfair in 1801.^[4] He introduced it in his book The Statistical Breviary: Shewing, on a Principle Entirely New, the Resources of Every State and of Every Empire in Europe, where it served to visually represent proportional data in a compact, intuitive manner.^[23] Playfair's innovation built upon his earlier graphical inventions, such as the line and bar charts from 1786, adapting radial division to emphasize part-to-whole relationships more effectively than linear formats.^[24] Playfair's inaugural pie chart illustrated the territorial divisions of the Turkish Empire prior to 1789, dividing a circle into three sectors proportional to the land areas in Asia, Europe, and Africa.^[4] Subsequent examples in the same volume included pie charts depicting the relative populations and government revenues across fifteen European nations, highlighting disparities in size and fiscal capacity.^[24] In his broader oeuvre, such as later editions of The Commercial and Political Atlas, Playfair extended the form to economic indicators, including government expenditures and debts, to compare national finances over time.^[25] These applications demonstrated the pie chart's utility for summarizing complex proportional data, influenced by earlier radial diagrams in astronomy and cartography, though Playfair formalized the equal-angular slicing based on percentages of a whole.^[23] Although conceptual precursors existed in 18th-century divided-circle representations for logical or astronomical purposes, Playfair's version marked the first systematic use in statistical graphics.^[23] The pie chart gained initial traction in the mid-19th century, appearing in statistical atlases across Europe and the United States to visualize economic and demographic data, such as trade balances and population shares.^[26] This adoption reflected growing interest in graphical methods amid industrialization, positioning the pie chart as a staple for public and governmental reports.

Evolution in the 19th and 20th Centuries

In the 19th century, pie charts gained wider adoption beyond their initial invention, particularly in geographical and demographic visualizations. French civil engineer Charles Joseph Minard incorporated pie charts into his thematic maps to represent proportions of goods, population, and resources, such as in his 1858 map of butcher's meats supplied to the Paris market, where divided circles depicted the relative amounts of beef, veal, and mutton.^[27] Similarly, the 1870 United States Census introduced pie charts in its Statistical Atlas, compiled under superintendent Francis A. Walker, to illustrate demographic proportions like nativity, occupation, and wealth distribution across states, marking one of the earliest large-scale governmental uses for public reporting.^[28] By the early 20th century, pie charts integrated into business and economic reporting as graphical methods proliferated. In the 1920s, corporate annual reports began featuring pie charts to summarize financial compositions, such as revenue sources or expense breakdowns, reflecting the growing emphasis on visual statistics in commerce following World War I economic analyses. During the 1940s, amid World War II, pie charts appeared in wartime economic charts produced by U.S. government agencies, including the War Production Board, to depict allocations of resources like steel and labor toward military versus civilian needs, aiding public and policy communication of industrial shifts. The mid-20th century saw pie charts popularized through statistical software, enhancing accessibility for analysts. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), first released in 1968, later included pie chart generation as a feature, enabling researchers to quickly visualize categorical data in social sciences and beyond. By this era, pie charts had become a standard in textbooks and journalistic graphics, used to convey part-to-whole relationships in education and media, though their prominence also invited scrutiny.^[29] Critiques of pie charts emerged prominently in the 1970s, focusing on readability limitations when depicting many slices, as empirical studies showed viewers struggled with accurate angle comparisons compared to linear formats like bar charts.^[23] In the 1980s, the advent of desktop publishing and tools like Microsoft Excel, launched in 1985, standardized pie chart creation with user-friendly templates and automation, further embedding them in professional and everyday data presentation despite ongoing debates.

Construction Methods

Step-by-Step Creation Process

Creating a pie chart begins with thorough preparation of the data. Collect categorical data, where each category represents a distinct portion of a whole, such as market shares or survey responses, and compute the total sum of all category values to establish the baseline for proportions.^[30] This total ensures that the chart accurately reflects the relative sizes of each category without distortion.^[31] The manual construction process involves several sequential steps to ensure proportional accuracy. First, draw a circle using a compass to represent the whole, marking the center point clearly.^[30] Second, establish a starting point, typically at the vertical top of the circle, by drawing a radius line from the center outward.^[31] Third, using a protractor aligned with the center and starting radius, measure and mark each successive angle for the slices in sequence, drawing radii to connect these points and form the wedges; this step demands precision to maintain equal spacing and correct proportions.^[30] Fourth, add labels directly on or adjacent to each slice—referencing the core components like these wedges and annotations—and include a legend if needed to identify categories.^[31] For digital creation, software tools simplify the process while upholding proportion accuracy. In Microsoft Excel, select the prepared data range including categories and values, navigate to the Insert tab, choose Pie from the Charts group, and select a basic pie chart type; the software automatically generates the chart based on the data sums.^[32] Similar steps apply in other applications like Google Sheets, where inserting a pie chart from selected data ensures slices reflect exact proportions without manual measurement. Common pitfalls in construction can undermine the chart's reliability. Unequal spacing often arises from imprecise protractor alignment during manual plotting, leading to visually skewed slices that misrepresent data.^[33] Additionally, failing to verify that all slices collectively sum to 360 degrees—whether through data total errors or plotting oversights—results in incomplete or overflowing representations of the whole.^[31] To mitigate these, double-check measurements or rely on software validation features before finalizing the chart.

Mathematical Calculations

The mathematical foundation of a pie chart relies on converting categorical data values into proportional representations that fit within a full circle of 360 degrees. To begin, the proportion for each category is determined by dividing its value by the sum of all category values, often expressed as a percentage by multiplying by 100:

\text{Percentage} = \left( \frac{\text{category value}}{\text{total sum}} \right) \times 100

This step quantifies each category's share of the whole.^[34] The central angle for each slice is then calculated by scaling the proportion to the full circle:

\text{Central angle} = \left( \frac{\text{category value}}{\text{total sum}} \right) \times 360^\circ

This ensures the slices collectively span exactly 360 degrees.^[35] For example, consider data values of 20, 30, and 50, with a total sum of 100. The percentages are 20%, 30%, and 50%, respectively. The corresponding central angles are derived as follows: (20/100) \times 360^\circ = 72^\circ, (30/100) \times 360^\circ = 108^\circ, and (50/100) \times 360^\circ = 180^\circ. These angles sum to 360 degrees, confirming the representation's accuracy.^[36] To position the slices sequentially around the circle, cumulative angles are used, starting from a reference line (typically at 0 degrees). The first slice occupies from 0° to its central angle (e.g., 0° to 72°), the second from the end of the first to the sum of the first two (e.g., 72° to 180°), and so on, with each subsequent slice beginning at the cumulative angle of the previous ones.^[37]

Design Principles

Labeling and Visual Best Practices

Effective labeling in pie charts ensures that viewers can quickly interpret the proportions represented by each slice without confusion or excessive cognitive effort. Direct labels placed on or adjacent to slices are preferred for charts with fewer than five categories, where values or percentages can be inscribed within larger segments for immediate readability.^[6] For smaller slices, external callouts—lines connecting the label to the segment—prevent overlap and maintain clarity.^[38] Legends are recommended to avoid cluttering the visual field, though they should be positioned nearby and use consistent color matching to facilitate association.^[39] Best practices emphasize limiting pie charts to no more than five slices to enhance comparability and reduce visual complexity, as excessive divisions hinder accurate perception of relative sizes.^[6] Prioritizing the largest slices for direct labeling while grouping minor categories into an "Other" segment preserves focus on dominant proportions without sacrificing completeness.^[6] Contrasting colors between labels and backgrounds improve legibility, and adhering to Edward Tufte's data-ink ratio principle—maximizing ink devoted to data representation while minimizing non-essential elements—avoids decorative clutter that distracts from the core information. Accessibility considerations are integral to inclusive design, requiring high-contrast text for labels to accommodate low-vision users and provision of alt-text descriptions in digital formats that detail slice proportions and categories.^[40]^[41] Guidelines recommend direct slice labeling over legends where possible to aid screen reader navigation, ensuring patterns or textures supplement color for differentiation in grayscale or color-deficient viewing. Common errors in pie chart labeling include overlapping text on adjacent slices, which obscures data and increases misinterpretation risk, and excessive use of absolute values instead of percentages, complicating proportion judgments since slice areas do not scale linearly with numbers.^[38] Misleading visual effects, such as unnecessary shadows, can further distort perceived sizes, violating principles of honest graphical integrity.

Color and Readability Considerations

Effective color selection in pie charts is crucial for distinguishing slices and ensuring accessibility, particularly by choosing distinct, non-adjacent hues from the color wheel to maximize perceptual separation.^[42] Complementary or analogous colors that are evenly spaced around the hue spectrum help viewers differentiate categories without confusion, as adjacent shades can blend visually.^[43] A key consideration is avoiding red-green combinations, which pose challenges for individuals with deuteranomaly or protanomaly, the most common forms of color vision deficiency affecting approximately 8% of men worldwide.^[44] Readability is enhanced by varying saturation and brightness levels across slices, allowing differentiation even in low-contrast environments or when printed in grayscale.^[45] For grayscale compatibility, incorporating patterns, textures, or hatching within slices provides an alternative to color reliance, maintaining clarity without chromatic cues.^[46] These factors align with Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1, which recommend a minimum 3:1 contrast ratio for graphical elements like pie slices against their background to support users with low vision. Perceptually, pie charts leverage central angles for value comparison, as humans judge angles more accurately than slice areas, according to foundational experiments in graphical perception. This hierarchy—where angle perception outperforms area estimation—suggests designers should prioritize arc lengths that clearly convey proportional differences, minimizing distortions from area-based misjudgments.^[47] Practical tools like ColorBrewer offer pre-designed qualitative palettes optimized for categorical data in charts such as pies, ensuring perceptual uniformity and colorblind-friendliness through simulated testing.^[42] Accessibility compliance can be verified using WCAG evaluation tools, such as contrast checkers, to confirm that color schemes meet standards like Success Criterion 1.4.1 (Use of Color), which prohibits sole reliance on hue for conveying information.

Variants

Doughnut and Exploded Charts

A doughnut chart, also known as a ring chart, is a variant of the pie chart featuring a hollow center achieved by setting an inner radius greater than zero, while preserving the angular proportions of the segments to represent parts of a whole.^[2] This design is created by drawing two concentric circles—the outer circle defining the full radius and the inner circle creating the empty space—and filling the annular region between them with wedge-shaped sectors proportional to the data values.^[48] The angular proportions follow the same base calculations as standard pie charts, where each segment's angle is determined by the ratio of its value to the total dataset.^[49] Doughnut charts are particularly useful for displaying inner and outer proportions or simple nested data structures, such as departmental budgets where the outer ring shows overall allocations and the center can highlight a summary metric like total expenditure.^[50] For instance, in organizational reporting, they effectively illustrate hierarchical breakdowns like budget distributions across divisions, allowing viewers to grasp relative contributions at a glance without overwhelming detail.^[51] An exploded pie chart modifies the standard pie by pulling one or more slices outward from the center along radial lines, using displacement vectors to create separation and emphasize specific segments.^[2] This effect is typically achieved by applying a uniform or selective offset, often 10-20% of the pie's radius, to the chosen slices via formatting tools that adjust their position relative to the center.^[52] Exploded charts are ideal for highlighting outliers or key categories, such as isolating the largest market share in a sales distribution to draw attention to dominant performers.^[53]

3D and Perspective Variations

3D pie charts introduce depth by extruding the slices outward from the center, producing a cylindrical or "cake-like" appearance that simulates three-dimensionality on a two-dimensional surface.^[54] The central angles of the slices remain proportional to the underlying data values as in traditional pie charts, but the added height creates varying volumes that can mislead viewers into overemphasizing larger or front-facing segments.^[55] Perspective variations, often called perspective pie cakes, apply a tilted viewpoint—typically at an angle such as 30 degrees—to enhance the illusion of depth and drama, a feature commonly available in presentation software like Microsoft PowerPoint.^[56] This tilt simulates a viewing angle from above and to the side, making the chart appear more dynamic, though it can integrate with exploded slices for emphasis on specific segments.^[57] A key technical challenge in these variations is foreshortening, where slices closer to the viewer (particularly those at the front) project larger on the screen due to the perspective projection, distorting perceived proportions unless adjusted through trigonometric calculations for projected angles. These 3D and perspective effects gained popularity in the 1990s with the rise of graphics software, notably Microsoft Excel 97, which introduced built-in 3D chart options to appeal to users seeking visually engaging presentations.^[58] However, data visualization expert Edward Tufte critiqued such pseudo-3D representations in his 1990 book Envisioning Information for introducing unnecessary distortions and "chartjunk" that obscure rather than clarify the data.

Polar Area and Spie Charts

The polar area diagram, also known as a coxcomb or rose diagram, was invented by Florence Nightingale in 1858 to visualize mortality data from the Crimean War (1853–1856).^[59]^[60] In this chart type, sectors maintain equal angular widths, typically 12 equal divisions representing months or categories, while the radius of each sector is scaled such that the area is proportional to the data value—meaning the radius is the square root of the quantity.^[61]^[62] Nightingale employed these diagrams in her report Notes on Matters Affecting the Health, Efficiency, and Hospital Administration of the British Army, demonstrating that preventable diseases caused far more deaths than battlefield wounds, with areas for disease mortality dwarfing those for other causes across multiple years.^[60]^[63] Unlike standard pie charts, where proportions are encoded solely by angular slice size with a fixed radius, polar area diagrams emphasize magnitude through varying radial extent, allowing areas to directly represent quantities while equal angles facilitate temporal or categorical comparisons.^[64]^[65] This design choice makes polar area charts particularly effective for highlighting disparities in data, as the quadratic scaling of area to radius amplifies differences visually, though it can distort perceptions if not interpreted carefully.^[62] Nightingale's original diagrams used vibrant colors—blue for preventable deaths, red for wounds, and black for other causes—to underscore sanitary reforms, influencing public policy and statistical graphics.^[59]^[66] The spie chart represents a further evolution, integrating elements of both pie and polar area diagrams by superimposing angular proportions with radial or height variations to encode two variables simultaneously.^[67]^[68] In a spie chart, slice angles reflect one metric (e.g., relative shares), while radial lengths or extruded heights represent another (e.g., absolute magnitudes), creating a 3D-like surface that conveys comparative effectiveness or safety across multiple outcomes.^[67] This variant adds curvature and depth for immersive representation, distinguishing it from flat polar areas by allowing visualization of multidimensional data, such as treatment performance in clinical studies where slice width shows efficacy rates and height indicates sample sizes.^[68] Spie charts differ from traditional pies by prioritizing dual encoding over single-proportion display, enabling better comparisons of scaled quantities, though their added complexity can challenge readability.^[67] For instance, in health visualizations, spie charts have quantified treatment outcomes in network meta-analysis for clinical studies, such as comparisons of psoriasis treatments across efficacy and safety outcomes.^[67]

Sunburst, Ring, and Multilevel Pies

Sunburst charts extend the pie chart concept to hierarchical data structures by arranging information in concentric rings, with the innermost ring representing the top-level categories and subsequent outer rings depicting nested subcategories through subdivided arcs. Each arc's angular extent is proportional to the relative size or value of its category, allowing viewers to discern both overall proportions and detailed breakdowns in a compact, radial format. This technique originated in the 1990s as an evolution of nested pie charts and radial treemaps, building on earlier hierarchical visualization methods like Ben Shneiderman's treemap from 1992.^[69] Ring charts function as a simpler variant of sunburst charts, focusing on single-level nesting where an inner ring or circle displays primary categories, and an immediately adjacent outer ring shows their direct subcomponents without further recursion. This design maintains the radial proportionality of pie charts while accommodating moderate hierarchy, often used when data depth is limited to two layers. Multilevel pies, in contrast, extend this radially for typically 2-3 layers, treating each concentric layer as a pie chart that subdivides the arcs of the previous level, emphasizing symmetrical or asymmetrical tree-like relationships in a consolidated circular view.^[70]^[71] In construction, the process begins with the innermost circle allocated to the top-level hierarchy, divided into arcs whose angles are calculated proportionally to category values (e.g., angle = (value / total) × 360°). Subsequent levels apply recursive angle division: each arc from the prior ring is further partitioned based on subcategory proportions relative to its parent, ensuring nested segments align radially and maintain proportional integrity across rings. This recursive approach enables visualization of deep hierarchies while preserving the space-filling efficiency of circular layouts.^[72] These variants find applications in representing organizational charts, where inner rings denote departments and outer rings show teams or roles, and in website analytics to map user navigation paths, with rings illustrating page categories and subpaths. For instance, sunburst charts effectively summarize complex sequences like YouTube video discovery, projecting multidimensional navigation data into hierarchical rings for pattern identification. Their popularity surged in the 2010s through the D3.js library, particularly via Mike Bostock's zoomable sunburst implementation, which facilitated interactive web-based explorations of hierarchies such as file systems.^[72]

Waffle and Square Charts

Waffle charts, also known as square charts or square pies, represent proportions of a whole using a square grid divided into equal cells, typically arranged in a 10x10 layout representing 100%, where each filled cell corresponds to 1% of the total. For instance, a category accounting for 25% of the data would be depicted by filling 25 cells with a designated color, providing a discrete, countable method for visualizing parts-to-whole relationships. This format facilitates straightforward percentage estimation through simple counting rather than angular assessment.^[73]^[12] The conceptual roots of waffle and square charts trace back to early 20th-century statistical graphics, including the ISOTYPE system developed by Otto Neurath in the 1920s and 1930s, which utilized repeated square tiles and icons in grid-like arrangements to convey quantitative proportions accessibly to broad audiences.) Compared to traditional pie charts, waffle and square charts mitigate radial distortions by aligning elements in a Cartesian grid, enabling more accurate visual judgments of relative sizes through linear alignment and direct enumeration rather than curved slices. This grid orientation reduces perceptual biases associated with angle perception and supports better comparability across categories, particularly for percentages near 0% or 100%. Waffle charts, in particular, gained prominence in data visualization discussions during the early 2010s, building on these foundational tile methods to offer compact, engaging alternatives for proportional displays.^[73]

Applications

Common Use Cases

Pie charts are frequently employed in business contexts to illustrate market share distributions, such as the breakdown of cloud infrastructure services among leading providers like AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud, and others, where each slice represents a provider's percentage of total market share.^[74] Similarly, they are used for budget allocations, depicting how organizational funds are divided across categories like marketing, operations, and research, enabling quick visual assessments of spending priorities in financial reports.^[75] In demographics, pie charts effectively display population compositions by age groups, for instance, showing the proportions of individuals in categories such as under 18, 18-44, 45-64, and 65 and over within a national census.^[34] They are also common in election reporting to represent vote percentages, such as the share of votes received by major candidates or parties in a presidential race, providing an immediate sense of electoral outcomes.^[76] For everyday applications, pie charts summarize survey results, like the distribution of preferences for favorite foods among respondents, where slices might indicate percentages favoring items such as pizza, burgers, or salads.^[77] In resource distribution, they visualize energy source compositions, as seen in breakdowns of U.S. energy consumption by categories including petroleum, natural gas, coal, and renewables.^[78] In digital environments, pie charts appear in dashboards like those built with Tableau for overviewing key metrics, such as regional sales contributions to total revenue in business intelligence tools.^[11] They are also integrated into journalism infographics on platforms like Statista to convey market shares or demographic shifts succinctly to broad audiences.^[79]

Effectiveness in Data Visualization

Pie charts excel in communicating proportions when limited to a small number of categories, typically 2 to 5, where they enable users to intuitively perceive relative magnitudes and identify dominant elements, such as the largest slice, through visual inspection of angular sectors. This effectiveness arises from the chart's circular structure, which encodes data as parts of a unified whole, facilitating rapid assessment without requiring precise numerical reading.^[9] The cognitive fit of pie charts aligns closely with part-to-whole mental models, supporting tasks that involve judging relationships between components and the total, as outlined in cognitive fit theory, which posits that representations matching task syntax enhance comprehension and decision-making performance. Empirical studies confirm this, demonstrating that pie charts yield comparable or superior accuracy to bar charts for proportion estimation in such scenarios, particularly when comparing slices within a single chart. For instance, research on patient-reported outcomes found pie charts led to higher interpretation accuracy than bar charts for simple proportional data.^[9]^[80] Pie charts prove particularly successful in static reports and presentations, where they convey proportional information more accessibly than tables for audiences less familiar with numerical data, allowing quick uptake of overall composition without delving into exact values. This advantage holds in contexts like budget overviews, where the visual emphasis on relative shares aids non-expert viewers in grasping key distributions at a glance. Perceptual studies indicate that pie charts support accurate estimation of proportions with low bias across varying slice sizes, reinforced by Gestalt principles of closure, where the enclosed circular form promotes holistic perception of the data as an integrated whole, strengthening the intuitive understanding of component interrelations.^[9]^[81]

Criticisms and Alternatives

Limitations of Pie Charts

Pie charts present several perceptual challenges that limit their effectiveness in accurately conveying data. Human perception of angles, which is essential for interpreting slice proportions, is inherently inaccurate compared to other graphical elements like lengths or positions. In a seminal study, Cleveland and McGill (1984) demonstrated that angle judgments in pie charts are approximately half as accurate as position (length) judgments in bar charts, with mean log absolute error of 2.01 for angles versus 1.04 for position, leading to frequent underestimation of acute angles and overestimation of obtuse ones.^[82] This inaccuracy is particularly pronounced when comparing small slices, where errors can be substantial due to the difficulty in discerning subtle angular differences.^[82] With three or more slices, pie charts often suffer from visual clutter, as the proximity and overlapping visual cues create a "crowded" appearance that hinders quick comprehension of relative sizes.^[11] This clutter exacerbates perceptual errors, making it challenging for viewers to isolate and compare individual segments without additional cognitive effort.^[83] Pie charts scale poorly beyond a limited number of categories, becoming ineffective for datasets with more than five slices, as additional segments amplify clutter and reduce the chart's readability.^[12] Without explicit labels or values, discerning absolute quantities from pie charts is difficult, since the format emphasizes relative proportions rather than precise magnitudes, often requiring supplementary text that defeats the purpose of visual encoding.^[82] Common misuses further compound these issues, such as the implied perceptual equality among similarly shaped slices, which can lead to misjudgments if colors or patterns are not sufficiently distinct to differentiate them.^[11]

Comparisons to Other Chart Types

Bar charts are generally preferred over pie charts for comparing proportions across multiple categories, as the linear lengths of bars enable more accurate perceptual judgments than the angles of pie slices, which are difficult to compare unless they represent obvious values like 25% or 50%. This superiority is supported by research on graphical perception, which shows that people decode bar lengths more efficiently and precisely than angular differences. For datasets with five or more categories, bar charts further excel by avoiding the crowding and estimation errors common in pies, making them the recommended choice for precise comparisons. However, a 2025 study by Andrew Hill found pie charts to be as accurate as bar charts for part-to-whole relationships, with comparable mean errors of about 1 percentage point.^[9] Treemaps offer a compelling alternative to pie charts when visualizing hierarchical or nested proportions, employing nested rectangles sized by area to represent data without the radial distortions and comparison challenges of circular layouts. Unlike pie charts, which are best suited for simple, flat part-to-whole relationships with few categories, treemaps efficiently handle complex structures by utilizing rectangular space more scalably and reducing bias in magnitude estimation through consistent area-based encoding. This makes treemaps particularly valuable for large or multilevel datasets where pie charts would become cluttered and ineffective. Stacked bar charts surpass pie charts in scenarios involving trends over time or across multiple groups, as they display both individual component proportions and total values in a linear format that facilitates tracking changes, while pie charts are inherently static and limited to single snapshots. For example, stacked bars allow viewers to assess how subcategories contribute to evolving wholes, providing clearer insights into compositional shifts that pies cannot convey without multiple separate charts. Data visualization guidelines, such as those from Stephen Few, emphasize using stacked or side-by-side bars over pies for most proportional displays to enhance readability and analytical depth.

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Paper: Evidence for Area as the Primary Visual Cue in Pie Charts
Oct 17, 2019 · We found that angle was unlikely to be the visual cue used to read pie charts, but couldn't decide between area and arc. This is where 3D pies come in.Missing: components | Show results with:components
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Perfecting Pie Charts-NCES Kids' Zone
Pie charts show percentages of a whole at a set time, with a title, legend, source, and data represented as parts of 100.
[22]
Pie Chart | Definition, Examples, Parts, Types & How To Make?
The common parts of a pie chart are the title, the legend, the data, and the source. The different types of pie charts are the Two-dimensional (2D) Pie Chart ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[23]
No Humble Pie: The Origins and Usage of a Statistical Chart
William Playfair's pie chart is more than 200 years old and yet its intellectual origins ... No Humble Pie: The Origins and Usage of a Statistical Chart. Show ...
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The Big Bang: William Playfair, the Father of Modern Graphics
5: First pie chart. Playfair's 1801 graphic depiction of fifteen nations' size, location, population and revenue. Its representation of the location of the ...
[25]
Pie charts, William Playfair, 1801. From, The Commercial and ...
From, The Commercial and Political Atlas: Representing, by Means of Stained Copper-plate Charts, the Progress of the Commerce, Revenues, Expenditure and Debts ...Missing: government | Show results with:government<|separator|>
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Gallery of Data Visualization - Historical Milestones
By the mid 1800s, many new forms of statistical graphics were being used to display data of economic and national interest in England, France, and elsewhere.Missing: adoption | Show results with:adoption
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[PDF] Visions and Re-Visions of Charles Joseph Minard - DataVis.ca
Most important, the figures display an astonishing range and depth of visual information, using all known graphic forms. (map-based pie and star charts, mosaic ...
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1870 Census: Statistical Atlas of the United States
Dec 16, 2021 · Atlas of physical features, woodlands, gold and silver mines, coal, political divisions, life, progress, relations of race and nationality ...Missing: pie | Show results with:pie
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The Golden Age of Statistical Graphics - Project Euclid
Today, statistical graphs and maps are commonplace, and include time-series graphs of economic indicators, pie- and bar-charts of govern- ment spending, maps of ...
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Pie Chart - Math is Fun
Now you are ready to start drawing! Pie Chart Drawing. Draw a circle! Then use your protractor to measure the degrees of each sector. Here I show the first ...
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Pie Chart - GCSE Maths - Steps, Examples & Worksheet
Draw a circle, mark the centre and draw a radius. Measure and draw the angle for the first category. Measure and draw the angle for each further category, in ...
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Create a pie chart - Microsoft Support
In the ribbon, select Create > Form Design. · Select Insert Chart > Pie. · Click on the Form Design grid in the location where you want to place the chart. · In ...
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Six common pie chart formatting mistakes - Practical Reporting Inc.
Oct 31, 2023 · 1. Make the slices different colors. · 2. Remove the borders and use thin gaps to separate the slices. · 3. Move the labels from inside the slices ...
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Pie Charts
Pie Charts are useful when we want to show what percentage of the whole each category represents. To construct a pie chart from raw (unprocessed) data, ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
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Ratios and percentages - Department of Mathematics at UTSA
Oct 24, 2021 · The different parts of the circle in terms of angles are calculated by the following formula. Component Value / Whole Quantity * 360. The ...
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[PDF] Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data
Then you multiply each relative frequency by 360° to obtain the angle measure for each category. Table #2.1.3: Pie Chart Angles for Type of Car Data.
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Pie Chart | eMathZone
Pie Chart. A pie chart can used to compare the relation between the whole and its ... Cumulative Angle. Food. 600. 144∘. 144∘. Clothing. 100. 24∘. 168∘.
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Pie Chart | WCMS Template Feature Gallery - CDC
Pie charts are used to display a comparison between multiple data series. Pie charts are best when focused on 3-6 data series with clear differences.Overview · Usage · Other Guidance
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Data Visualizations | DCS
Limit data elements (as an example: 5 lines per line chart and 6 segments per pie chart). Use clear titles, labels, and descriptions. In general, titles, labels ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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How to create accessible pie charts for low vision
Avoid conveying information through color alone, and pair color-coded information with text labels. · Consider using textures instead of colors to convey ...
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Authoring Meaningful Alternative Text | Section508.gov
Describe what type of chart or diagram is being used. · Consider the purpose of the image within the context of the surrounding content. · Avoid repeating parts ...
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ColorBrewer: Color Advice for Maps
Export your selected color scheme: Permalink. Share a direct link to this color scheme. Adobe. Download an Adobe Swatch Exchange (ASE) file of this scheme.
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Best Color Palettes for Scientific Figures and Data Visualizations
Choosing the right colors for your data visualizations improves audience comprehension and makes your work accessible to people with color blindness.
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Worldwide prevalence of red-green color deficiency - PubMed
Mar 1, 2012 · Large random population surveys show that the prevalence of deficiency in European Caucasians is about 8% in men and about 0.4% in women.
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10 Guidelines for DataViz Accessibility – Highcharts Blog
The W3C WCAG 2.1 guidelines recommend at least a 3:1 contrast ratio for non-text elements and large text.
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Color Considerations - Digital Accessibility at Princeton
Best Practices. Use sufficient color contrast. Do not rely on color alone ... Now when we remove color from the pie chart, the sections are still made ...
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[PDF] Graphical Perception
Cleveland and McGill: Graphical Perception 545. ANGLE POSITION. 0 in 0in. 0D . 0 0 ~ 00 00 0. 0 0 00 0 0. 00 o o I 0. 20 4 0 60 eo lo 20 40 60 8 0. 0 0 0 0%0. 0 ...
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Present your data in a doughnut chart - Microsoft Support
Using Microsoft Excel, you can quickly turn your data into a doughnut chart, and then use the new formatting features to make that doughnut chart easier to ...
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Infographics and Data Visualization - DesignLab
Pie and donut charts are everywhere! They visualize data by using angles (not area!) to represent parts of a whole. Generally, interpreting angles fall into the ...
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9 Data visualization principles – Introduction to Data Science - rafalab
The donut chart is an example of a plot that uses only area: To see how hard it is to quantify angles and area, note that the rankings and all the ...
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Utilizing tables, figures, charts and graphs to enhance the readability ...
Jul 3, 2023 · Doughnut charts are complex pie charts with additional data series in layers. ... To highlight clusters instead of individual data points, bubble ...
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Explode or expand a pie chart - Microsoft Support
Right-click the pie chart, then click Format Data Series. · Drag the Pie Explosion slider to increase the separation, or enter a number in the percentage box.
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How To Explode Pie Chart in Excel - AI For Data Analysis - Ajelix
Exploding a pie slices involves separating one or more sectors from the main body of the chart, creating a visual emphasis.
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3D Pie Charts - Peltier Tech
There are some pie charts, even in 3D and exploded varieties, which are acceptable and even welcome. This one came to me thanks to Nathan of Flowing Data.
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[PDF] Managing Data Visualization Pipeline with Backbone.js and ... - CORE
Perspective distortion. As seen in figure 3.10 ... foreshortening ... There are a few variants of pie chart such as 3D pie chart, Doughnut chart (Harris,.
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Change the display of a 3-D chart - Microsoft Support
Change the display of a 3D chart in Office apps. You can change format, rotation, and scaling of 3D charts in Excel, Word, Outlook, and PowerPoint.
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Reasons to make PowerPoint pie charts - think-cell
Pie charts are useful for introducing the big picture, quickly grasping proportions, and when data adds up to 100%, like market share or budget breakdowns.Why Are Pie Charts Used? · Pie Charts In Business... · Why Pie Charts Add Value To...<|separator|>
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Why 3D charts are bad for business presentations - LinkedIn
Jun 4, 2025 · Microsoft introduced 3D chart options in Excel 97 nearly 30 years ago. ... I also used to create tilted 3d pie charts in Illustrator. I ...
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Florence Nightingale, Data Visualization Visionary - JSTOR Daily
Aug 30, 2020 · Most famously, Nightingale used a visualization called a polar-area diagram. The diagram shows the causes of mortality in the military hospital.
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Florence Nightingale's Rose Diagram - History of Information
The graphic, which Nightingale used as a way to explain complex statistics simply, clearly, and persuasively, has become known as Nightingale's Rose Diagram.
[61]
Florence Nightingale and the Polar Area Diagram
Florence Nightingale is well known for her groundbreaking use of data graphics during the Crimean War (1853-1856). She is credited with originating the Polar ...
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[PDF] The radiant diagrams of Florence Nightingale - DataVis.ca
May 26, 2021 · This article is a tribute to the contributions of Florence Nightingale to statistics and statistical graphics on her bicentennial.
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Florence Nightingale's data on deaths from various causes in the ...
After witnessing deplorable sanitary conditions in the Crimea, she wrote several influential texts (Nightingale, 1858, 1859), including polar-area graphs ( ...Missing: invention | Show results with:invention
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Polar Area Chart | Chart.js
Oct 13, 2025 · Polar area charts are similar to pie charts, but each segment has the same angle - the radius of the segment differs depending on the value. ...
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10 Ways to Visualize Data Effectively: Examples & Tips - Sisense
Jul 5, 2024 · Polar charts show relationships between multiple variables. A polar chart (or polar area diagram) is a type of pie chart. However, instead of ...
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Nightingale's Rose Diagram · 37. At a Glance - Lehigh Library Exhibits
Nightingale collected extensive data on mortality rates in the British Army. She visualized this data using a polar area diagram, which is now known as the ...
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Spie charts for quantifying treatment effectiveness and safety in ...
Oct 28, 2020 · In the proposed framework, measures of each treatment's performance are plotted on its own pie chart, superimposed on another pie chart ...
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Spie charts, target plots, and radar plots for displaying comparative ...
“Spie” charts represented the best graphical tool for displaying multivariate health care data in comparative evaluations of clinical outcomes and processes of ...
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Pie chart—ArcGIS Pro | Documentation
Pie charts visualize part-to-whole relationships by dividing a total amount into subcategories. Each subcategory is represented by a slice in the pie.
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User Guide | A brief history of sunburst visualization - DaisyDisk
The very first mentions of sunburst maps can be tracked down to 90s, when various researches experimented with nested pie charts or radial versions of treemaps.Missing: origin inventor
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Sunburst Diagram - Data Viz Project
A Sunburst Diagram is used to visualize hierarchical data, depicted by concentric circles. The circle in the centre represents the root node.
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Multi-level Pie Chart - Fusioncharts.com
The multi-level pie chart is a special type of chart that allows you to show symmetrical and asymmetrical tree structures in a consolidated pie-like structure.
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Applying a Sunburst Visualization to Summarize User Navigation ...
Aug 5, 2025 · A Sunburst Diagram, usually used to visualize hierarchical data, can also be used to identify user navigation sequences for various applications ...
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Data Visualization - Waffle Chart - Sage Research Methods
The role of the waffle chart is to simplify the counting of proportions in contrast to the angle judgements of the pie chart, though the display is limited to ...
[75]
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoftteams/platform/task-modules-and-cards/cards/charts-in-adaptive-cards
[76]
Charts in Adaptive Cards - Teams - Microsoft Learn
Nov 7, 2024 · You can visually represent data through charts in Adaptive Cards. You can use charts for performance dashboards, budget allocations, project management, ...
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2.2 Displaying and Describing Categorical Distributions
The x-axis shows age groups (13-25, 26-44, 45-64), and the y-axis shows the proportion (%) of Facebook users ranging from zero to 50. Figure 2.8: Two pie charts ...Missing: demographics | Show results with:demographics
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9 charts for visualizing election data [+ examples] - Infogram
Oct 27, 2020 · Here are the 9 chart types to use for visualizing election data, starting with the 2020 US presidential election.
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Pie Charts | CK-12 Foundation
This circle graph shows the results of a survey taken among students about their favorite school lunches. Use the graph to answer the following questions ...
[80]
[PDF] U.S. Energy Pie - EIA
Definitions: This lesson looks at the use of primary energy sources including: coal, natural gas, petroleum, nuclear electric power, hydroelectric power, ...
[81]
https://emeeks.github.io/gestaltdataviz/section1.html
[82]
In Proportion: Approaches for Displaying Patient-reported Outcome ...
This study aimed to identify best practices for presenting PRO results as proportions. Pie charts were more accurately interpreted than bar charts.
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Gestalt Principles for Data Visualization - Elijah Meeks
Gestalt Principles for Data Visualization. Similarity, Proximity ... pie chart are similar to each other because they are neighbors, but that's ...
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Graphical Perception: Theory, Experimentation - jstor
Today graphs are a vital part of statistical data analysis and a vital part of communication in science and technology, business, education, and the mass media.
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[PDF] Judgment Error in Pie Chart Variations - Eurographics
Figure 3: The effect of arc length (top) and area (bottom) as a function of central angle, by variation type. The pie chart serves as a base line, the other ...