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Poa

Poa is a genus of approximately 600 species (as of 2025) of annual and perennial grasses commonly known as bluegrasses or meadow-grasses in the family Poaceae, characterized by hollow culms, flat or folded leaf blades typically 0.4–12 mm wide, and terminal panicles of laterally compressed spikelets containing 2–6 florets.^[1] Native primarily to temperate and boreal regions worldwide, including the Holarctic, Paleotropical, Neotropical, Australian, and Antarctic realms, the genus is cosmopolitan and often adventive, thriving in diverse habitats such as grasslands, meadows, alpine zones, and coastal areas.^[2] Morphologically, species of Poa exhibit synoecious or monoecious inflorescences, with culms ranging from 1–150 cm tall, unbranched above the base, and leaves that are mostly basal and linear to linear-lanceolate.^[1] The genus is taxonomically complex due to polyploidy, apomixis, and hybridization, with a base chromosome number of x = 7 and ploidy levels up to 2n = 117.^[2] Ecologically, Poa grasses are mostly mesophytic, with C3 photosynthesis, and are palatable to herbivores, occupying shade to open environments and rarely showing halophytic adaptations.^[2] Several species hold significant economic and ecological value; for instance, Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass) is widely cultivated for lawns, pastures, and forage due to its rhizomatous growth and tolerance to grazing, while Poa annua is a common weed in turf and crops.^[1] In North America alone, 61 species are native and 9 are introduced, contributing to biodiversity in arctic, alpine, and coastal ecosystems.^[1]^[3]

Description

Morphology

Poa species are primarily perennial or annual grasses in the family Poaceae, typically forming tufts or mats with culms (stems) that are erect or ascending and range from 1 to 150 cm in height; these culms are hollow and usually unbranched above the base.^[1]^[4] The plants exhibit synoecious or monoecious flowering, with growth habits that include tufted, solitary, or spreading forms, often aided by rhizomes or stolons in certain species.^[1] Leaves of Poa are flat or folded, measuring 2-6 mm wide (varying from 0.4-12 mm across species), with blades featuring adaxial grooves on each side of the midvein and prow-shaped apices; ligules are membranous, 1-5 mm long, and truncate to acuminate, while auricles are absent or rudimentary.^[1]^[4] Leaf sheaths are open to closed, terete or compressed, and the epidermis contains silica bodies (phytoliths) that contribute to structural integrity and defense.^[5]^[6] The inflorescence is a terminal panicle, open or contracted and 5-30 cm long, bearing spikelets that are 2-6 mm long (up to 12 mm), laterally compressed, and lanceolate to ovate, each containing 2-5 florets (rarely up to 13).^[1]^[4] Florets have lemmas that are 2-4 mm long, 5-11 veined, and typically unawned or with short awns, along with terete rachillas and often webbed calluses.^[1] The root system is fibrous, with more or less straight roots that provide anchorage; many species are rhizomatous, facilitating vegetative spread and mat formation.^[1]^[7]^[8] Diagnostic traits include the two-grooved, prow-shaped leaf blades and polyploidy, with chromosome numbers ranging from 2n=14 (diploid) to 2n=126 or higher, based on a basic number of x=7, which is common in the genus and contributes to morphological variability.^[1]^[9]^[10]

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Poa species exhibit both sexual and asexual reproduction, with the former involving wind-pollinated flowers arranged in terminal panicles that typically contain 2–6 florets per spikelet.^[1] These florets are generally bisexual and synoecious, enabling self-compatibility or outcrossing, though some species display monoecious, gynodioecious, or dioecious breeding systems.^[1] Pollination occurs via anemophily, with functional anthers releasing pollen, and seed set often relies on pseudogamy in apomictic contexts where pollen triggers endosperm development without fertilizing the egg.^[11] In species like Poa pratensis, facultative apomixis integrates with sexual processes, producing unreduced embryo sacs that develop parthenogenetically into clonal seeds.^[12] Asexual reproduction in Poa predominates in many polyploid taxa through vegetative propagation and apomictic seed formation. Rhizomatous or stoloniferous growth allows clonal spread in species such as Poa pratensis and Poa palustris, facilitating rapid colonization without sexual reproduction.^[1] Apomixis, involving diplosporous embryo sac formation and autonomous endosperm development, occurs in over 60% of examined Poa species, often facultatively alongside sexual modes, leading to genetically uniform populations.^[13] This asexual seed production bypasses meiosis and fertilization, preserving maternal genotypes and contributing to the genus's taxonomic complexity.^[13] The life cycle of Poa aligns with cool-season grass patterns, featuring vernalization requirements for flowering in many perennial species, where prolonged exposure to low temperatures (0–6 °C for 3–4 weeks) induces reproductive competence.^[14] Germination occurs primarily in spring or fall under cool, moist conditions, with seedlings establishing during mild temperatures before entering summer dormancy to evade heat stress.^[15] Perennials like Poa pratensis complete multiple growth cycles annually, with inflorescence development following vernalization and photoperiod cues, while annuals such as Poa annua accelerate the cycle through continuous seed production.^[15] Poa seeds are small caryopses, measuring 1–4 mm in length, ellipsoidal with a ventral groove, and containing lipid reserves for rapid germination.^[1] Viability persists in soil seed banks for extended periods, up to 39 years in species like Poa pratensis, enabling recruitment during favorable conditions and supporting invasion potential. High polyploidy levels, ranging from triploid (2n=21) to decaploid (2n=70) or higher, characterize many Poa species and correlate strongly with apomixis prevalence, enhancing hybrid vigor through increased heterozygosity and reproductive flexibility.^[13] Over 50% of Poa taxa exhibit facultative apomixis linked to polyploidy, allowing stable propagation of vigorous hybrids while permitting occasional sexual recombination.^[13]

Taxonomy

Classification

Poa is classified within the family Poaceae (true grasses), specifically in the subfamily Pooideae, tribe Poeae, and order Poales. This placement reflects its position among the cool-season grasses, characterized by features such as ligules composed of hairs or membranes and spikelets with multiple florets.^[16] The genus encompasses approximately 500 accepted species, though this number is subject to ongoing revisions owing to extensive hybridization, polyploidy, and apomixis that blur species boundaries. Molecular phylogenetic studies, employing markers such as the chloroplast trnT–trnF region and nuclear ITS sequences, support Poa as a monophyletic clade within the Poeae tribe, closely allied with genera like Dactylis and Festuca in the broader PAM (Poinae–Alopecurinae–Miliinae) group. These analyses also reveal patterns of reticulate evolution, driven by allopolyploidy and interspecific hybridization, which have contributed to the genus's diversification.^[1]^[17]^[18] Traditionally, Poa has been divided into subgenera and sections based on morphological traits including lemma vestiture (e.g., pubescence or scabrosity) and the presence or absence of rhizomes. Key divisions include subgenus Poa (with sections like Poa and Abbreviatae) and subgenus Ochlopoa, though recent phylogenies propose a revised framework with five subgenera: Arctopoa, Ochlopoa, Poa, Pseudopoa, and Stenopoa. Taxonomy remains challenging due to high intraspecific variation, the prevalence of cryptic species, and a significant proportion of apomictic taxa—estimated at 200–300—that reproduce asexually via seeds, further complicating delimitation and phylogenetic resolution.^[1]^[17]

Etymology and History

The genus name Poa derives from the Ancient Greek word poá (πόα), meaning "fodder" or "grass," a term originally applied to various meadow and pasture grasses suitable for livestock.^[19] This etymology reflects the plant's long-standing association with agriculture, as the word was employed by classical authors such as Theophrastus (ca. 371–287 BCE) in his Enquiry into Plants to describe fodder species, and by Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) in Natural History to denote similar herbaceous plants used for grazing.^[20]^[21] Theophrastus, often regarded as the father of botany, referenced poa in discussions of plant cultivation and wild domestication, highlighting its role in early Greek agrarian practices. The genus was first formally established in the modern taxonomic sense by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum, where he described 18 species under Poa, with Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass) designated as the type species due to its representative meadow habitat and morphological characteristics.^[22] Linnaeus's binomial nomenclature solidified Poa as a distinct genus within the Gramineae (now Poaceae), drawing on earlier herbal traditions while emphasizing reproductive structures for classification. In the 19th century, botanists like Augustin Pyramus de Candolle advanced sectional taxonomy in works such as Flore Française (1805) and the multi-volume Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis (1824–1873), where he delineated infrageneric groups based on spikelet and lemma features, organizing over 200 Poa species into natural alliances. Complementing this, George Bentham, in collaboration with Joseph Dalton Hooker, further refined Poa's placement in the tribe Poeae within their influential Genera Plantarum (1862–1883), emphasizing vegetative and floral traits to resolve synonymies and establish a hierarchical framework that influenced subsequent global floras. The 20th century shifted focus toward cytological studies, particularly through the contributions of Charles Edward Hubbard, whose examinations of chromosome numbers and meiosis in British Poa species illuminated apomixis and polyploidy as key evolutionary mechanisms, as detailed in his 1948 and 1954 publications on grass genera.^[23] These insights built on earlier morphological work, revealing Poa's complex breeding systems and aiding in species delimitation. Key milestones in the 2000s included molecular phylogenetic analyses, such as the 2005 study by Lynn J. Gillespie and Robert J. Soreng, which used chloroplast DNA restriction site data to support Poa's monophyly when including Austrofestuca and Parodiochloa as sections within Poa and excluding subgenus Andinae from the genus—and proposed revised subgeneric clades to address longstanding taxonomic ambiguities.^[24] Culturally, Poa species have been integral to ancient agriculture as reliable forage since Neolithic times, with evidence of their use in Eurasian pastoral systems for sustaining livestock, as inferred from archaeological pollen records and classical texts.^[25] Despite ongoing debates over synonymy, the core name Poa has remained stable, underscoring its enduring botanical identity.^[16]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The genus Poa is primarily native to the temperate and boreal regions of the Holarctic realm, encompassing much of Europe, Asia, and North America, where it exhibits its greatest diversity. Centers of species richness are concentrated in Central Asia, the European continent, and the North American cordillera, with extensions into southern temperate zones such as the Andes of South America, as well as native occurrences in Australia and New Zealand.^[17]^[26]^[27] Introduced ranges of Poa species are extensive in the Southern Hemisphere, facilitated by colonial-era agriculture and subsequent naturalization. For instance, Poa pratensis has become widely established in South America and parts of Africa through forage planting and unintentional spread, while Poa annua has naturalized across Australia, New Zealand, southern Africa, and sub-Antarctic islands. These introductions have led to cosmopolitan distributions for several taxa, often in disturbed landscapes.^[28]^[29] Biogeographically, Poa species occur in temperate grasslands and montane environments, spanning altitudinal gradients from sea level to over 4,500 meters in the Himalayan region. Endemism is particularly elevated in alpine hotspots, such as the European Alps, including several regional endemics, and the Rocky Mountains, where taxa like Poa interior and Poa arida are confined to specific cordilleran locales. Recent post-2020 studies in the Arctic have documented range expansions of Poa and other graminoids, attributed to climate warming and reduced snow cover.^[30] Dispersal of Poa species is predominantly human-mediated, driven by seed trade for agriculture, forage, and turf, with limited natural long-distance transport via wind or avian vectors. This anthropogenic influence has accelerated the genus's global spread, particularly into non-native regions.^[1]^[31]

Habitat Preferences

Poa species are predominantly cool-season grasses adapted to temperate and subarctic climates, with optimal daytime growth temperatures ranging from 15°C to 25°C.^[28] They exhibit strong tolerance to frost, surviving temperatures as low as -30°C in winter-hardy forms like Poa pratensis, which achieves maximum cold resistance during late fall and early winter. Drought tolerance varies across the genus; while species such as Poa secunda demonstrate high resilience in arid conditions due to deep root systems, others like Poa trivialis prefer consistently moist environments and show reduced performance under prolonged dry spells.^[28]^[32]^[33]^[34] These grasses thrive in well-drained, fertile loamy soils with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5, though adaptability allows occupation of diverse substrates. For instance, Poa pratensis performs best in neutral to slightly alkaline conditions and tolerates heavy-textured soils, while Poa secunda and related taxa in the Poa secunda complex extend to nutrient-poor, rocky, or serpentine-derived soils in upland areas. Salinity resistance is notable in coastal or inland species, with moderate tolerance enabling growth in mildly saline environments up to electrical conductivity levels of 4-6 dS/m.^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38] Poa species dominate or co-occur in a variety of ecosystems, including open meadows, pastures, tundra, and disturbed sites such as roadsides and overgrazed lands. In prairies, they associate with forbs and shrubs, contributing to mixed-grass communities, while in alpine and arctic tundra, forms like Poa arctica form tussocks in wet to dry meadows along streams and slopes. Adaptations include partial shade tolerance in forest-edge populations of rhizomatous species, which maintain productivity under 30-50% canopy cover, and resprouting capability post-fire in rhizome-bearing types like Poa pratensis, where basal meristems protected belowground facilitate recovery after low-intensity burns.^[39]^[40]^[28]^[41] Ongoing climate warming poses threats to Poa habitats, particularly in alpine and subarctic regions, where shifting isotherms may displace suitable conditions upslope or poleward. Post-2020 analyses indicate vulnerability in European mountain ecosystems, with species like Poa alpina showing potential for upward migration but constrained by dispersal limitations and altered soil moisture; studies project range contractions in southern latitudes and expansions northward, though at rates lagging behind warming (approximately 1-2 km/decade observed). In tundra settings, increased temperatures exacerbate competition from woody invaders, reducing Poa dominance.^[42]^[43]

Ecology

Ecological Role

Poa species contribute significantly to primary production in grassland ecosystems, often forming a substantial portion of the biomass in temperate regions. In mixed grasslands, Poa can achieve absolute cover exceeding 25%, supporting high levels of net primary productivity through its rapid growth and dense foliage, which captures sunlight efficiently and converts it into biomass.^[44] This productivity is particularly notable in pastures where Poa dominates understory layers, contributing to overall ecosystem energy flow and serving as a foundational resource for higher trophic levels. Deep or extensive root systems in species like Poa pratensis enhance carbon sequestration by storing organic matter belowground, with studies indicating that such grasses can accumulate soil organic carbon at rates comparable to other perennial systems, thereby mitigating atmospheric CO2 levels.^[45] In terms of soil stabilization, Poa grasses play a crucial role in preventing erosion through their dense tussock or rhizomatous growth forms, which bind soil particles and improve water infiltration. Fibrous root networks create mats that reduce surface runoff and stabilize slopes in disturbed or overgrazed areas, enhancing nutrient cycling by facilitating the retention and gradual release of essential elements into the soil profile.^[46] Decomposition of Poa litter occurs at moderate to rapid rates, supporting microbial communities that break down organic matter and recycle nutrients, thus maintaining soil fertility in dynamic grassland environments.^[47] Poa influences biodiversity within plant communities by both facilitating and competing with other species. In mixed swards, it provides structural support for understory plants, promoting diverse assemblages in restored or natural grasslands, as evidenced by recent assessments in prairie restorations where Poa integration aids community recovery post-disturbance.^[48] However, in monocultures, its competitive growth can exclude native species, reducing overall plant diversity and altering community dynamics. Regarding nutrient dynamics, certain Poa species exhibit associative nitrogen fixation with soil bacteria, enhancing nitrogen availability without relying on external inputs and supporting broader ecosystem nutrient pools.^[49] Poa demonstrates climate resilience, particularly in buffering ecosystems against extreme events. In wetlands and riparian zones, species such as Poa labillardierei exhibit moderate flood tolerance, stabilizing banks and mitigating flood impacts by absorbing water and reducing sediment transport during high-flow periods.^[50] Recent studies from 2021 highlight Poa's role in restored prairies, where it contributes to resilience against variable precipitation by maintaining ground cover and supporting microbial activity amid changing climates.^[51] This adaptability underscores Poa's importance in sustaining ecosystem processes under environmental stress.

Interactions with Fauna

Poa species are important forage for grazing mammals across various ecosystems. Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) is highly palatable and constitutes a significant portion of diets for wildlife such as elk, mule deer, and bighorn sheep, an important component of elk winter forage in regions like Rocky Mountain National Park. It also serves as a primary cool-season component in bison diets within mixed-grass prairies, supporting their nutritional needs during periods of limited green forage. Palatability varies by species, with P. pratensis prized for its tender growth and high digestibility, making it a preferred choice among herbivores like sheep in managed and natural settings. As a foodplant for insects, Poa supports numerous lepidopteran species; examples include the bluegrass webworm moth (Parapediasia teterella), which feeds on P. pratensis. Poa also harbors aphids, such as the bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi), and leafhoppers like Endria inimica, which can vector plant diseases and play roles in agricultural pest cycles by infesting both wild and cultivated grasses. Seeds of Poa undergo predation by birds, including sparrows that consume them opportunistically, and rodents, which remove significant portions post-dispersal to aid in secondary seed spread. In certain habitats, ants harvest Poa seeds, functioning as both predators and dispersers by transporting them to nests, thereby influencing plant population dynamics. Pollination in Poa is predominantly anemophilous, relying on wind for pollen transfer, although occasional visits by insects like flies may contribute minimally. Symbiotic associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi enhance nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus, improving Poa resilience in nutrient-poor soils and indirectly supporting fauna-dependent food webs. Negative interactions include rare toxicity, but endophyte-infected Poa varieties, such as those harboring Epichloë fungi in P. alsodes, produce alkaloids like N-acetylnorloline that deter insect and mammalian herbivores, reducing grazing pressure.^[52] Invasive Poa, notably P. pratensis, has accelerated displacement of native plants in the Northern Great Plains since the early 2000s, diminishing wildlife food sources by lowering native forb and grass diversity essential for herbivores.

Cultivation and Uses

Agricultural and Forage Applications

Poa pratensis, commonly known as Kentucky bluegrass, is a key forage grass in temperate pastures, valued for its sod-forming rhizomes that provide persistent cover and moderate productivity in cool climates, with annual dry matter yields ranging from 4.6 to 9.8 tons per hectare under managed conditions.^[53] Poa arachnifera, or Texas bluegrass, complements this as a winter-hardy pasture crop in southern regions, supporting early-season grazing for cattle and sheep on sandy bottomlands without excessive removal of current growth.^[54] Poa trivialis (rough bluegrass) is also used in forage mixtures for wet or shaded pastures due to its tolerance for poor drainage and moderate nutritional value. Establishment of Poa pratensis pastures typically involves spring or fall seeding at rates of 10 to 15 kg per hectare to ensure good coverage and rhizome development.^[55] Management requires annual nitrogen fertilization of 50 to 130 kg per hectare, split into applications to support regrowth, alongside rotational grazing that limits utilization to 50% of available forage to avoid overmaturing and maintain stand density.^[56]^[57] Nutritionally, Poa pratensis offers 15 to 20% crude protein during active growth phases, with dry matter digestibility averaging 70% for ruminants, making it a palatable option for beef and dairy cattle when grazed young.^[58]^[59] It also performs well in ensiled mixtures with legumes, enhancing overall feed quality through balanced fiber and energy content. Challenges in cultivation include susceptibility to rust fungi such as Puccinia poae-nemoralis, which can reduce yields in humid conditions, and billbug larvae (Sphenophorus parvulus), which damage crowns and roots in established stands.^[60]^[61] While endophytic fungi like Epichloë occur in some Poa pratensis populations, providing insect resistance, endophyte-free cultivars are selected for forage to minimize any potential alkaloid-related risks to livestock health.^[62] Economically, Poa pratensis occupies a significant portion of U.S. pastures in the Northeast and Midwest, supporting extensive livestock production.^[63] Global trade in certified seed, primarily from the Pacific Northwest, exceeds millions of kilograms annually, facilitating export to Europe and Asia for pasture improvement.^[64] Sustainable practices emphasize low-input varieties through programs like A-LIST, which test cultivars for reduced fertilizer and water needs while maintaining forage yield and persistence.^[65]

Ornamental and Turfgrass Uses

Poa pratensis, commonly known as Kentucky bluegrass, is a dominant turfgrass species in northern lawns across the United States due to its dense growth habit and adaptability to cool climates.^[66] It is widely used in residential lawns, municipal parks, and sports fields for its wear tolerance, which allows it to recover from foot traffic and maintain a uniform appearance.^[67] This species is typically mowed to a height of 2.5 to 3.5 inches (6.4 to 8.9 cm) to promote lateral spreading via rhizomes and enhance its resilience.^[68] Cultivar development has focused on fine-textured varieties such as 'Midnight', which provide exceptional uniformity and dark green color for aesthetic appeal in high-maintenance turf areas like golf courses.^[69] These cultivars are established at seeding rates of 1 to 2 pounds per 1,000 square feet (approximately 5 to 10 kg per 1,000 m²) to achieve quick coverage and density.^[70] Maintenance practices include irrigating with 1 to 1.5 inches (25 to 38 mm) of water per week during active growth periods to support root health without excess runoff.^[71] Fungicides are applied preventatively against dollar spot disease (Clarireedia jacksonii), a common foliar issue in Poa pratensis turf, particularly under low-nitrogen conditions.^[72] Overseeding with perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) is sometimes incorporated in mixed lawns to improve winter color and fill thin areas, leveraging its faster germination.^[73] For ornamental purposes, Poa bulbosa (bulbous bluegrass) is suitable in rock gardens and gravelly landscapes due to its tolerance for infertile, stony soils and low-growing tufted form.^[74] This species reproduces primarily through bulbils at the base of the inflorescence, which replace typical seed production and aid in its spread in harsh environments.^[75] In the U.S. turf market, Kentucky bluegrass cultivars represent a significant portion of cool-season grass usage, holding a leading share driven by demand for durable, visually appealing surfaces.^[76] Recent sustainability efforts emphasize low-input native Poa species in mixes to reduce water and chemical needs, aligning with broader environmental guidelines for urban landscapes.^[77]

Species

Notable Species

Poa pratensis, commonly known as Kentucky bluegrass, is a rhizomatous perennial grass native to temperate and arctic regions of Eurasia. It features extensively rhizomatous growth, forming tufted or solitary shoots with culms reaching 5-70 cm in height, and its leaves often exhibit a glaucous, blue-green coloration. This species is widely recognized for its high palatability as forage, making it a staple in pastures and lawns across North America where it has become naturalized.^[12] Poa annua, or annual bluegrass, is a short-lived annual grass that functions as a cosmopolitan weed, particularly in lawns and disturbed anthropomorphic habitats outside arctic regions. It reproduces primarily through cleistogamy, producing chasmogamous and cleistogamous florets, and exhibits year-round germination capability, allowing rapid establishment in favorable conditions. Introduced from Eurasia, it is now widespread in North America and beyond.^[78] Poa trivialis, known as rough bluegrass, is a stoloniferous perennial grass that is notably shade-tolerant and well-suited to wet areas such as streambanks and moist meadows. Native to Europe, it has been introduced to North America and other regions, where it forms loosely to densely tufted colonies with culms up to 120 cm tall. It is commonly planted in cultivars for pastures and lawns, often escaping cultivation.^[79] Poa alpina is an alpine perennial grass adapted to high elevations, characterized by its circumpolar distribution in subalpine to arctic environments. It displays vivipary, producing bulbils in some or all spikelets, particularly in the subspecies P. alpina subsp. vivipara, which aids asexual reproduction in harsh conditions. Densely cespitose with culms 10-40 cm tall, it thrives on disturbed, calciphilic ground in regions like the Rocky Mountains and northern Great Lakes areas.^[80] These notable species exemplify the diversity within the Poa genus, which comprises approximately 500 species divided into various sections such as Micrantherae (P. annua) and others representing adaptations from annual weedy forms to alpine perennials; no single species encapsulates all genus traits, highlighting the ecological breadth across temperate and boreal zones.^[1]

Economically Important or Invasive Species

Poa pratensis, commonly known as Kentucky bluegrass, plays a central role in the global turfgrass industry, which was valued at approximately USD 6.6 billion in 2023 and supports lawns, golf courses, and recreational areas worldwide.^[81] This species is prized for its dense growth, wear tolerance, and aesthetic appeal, contributing significantly to the horticultural sector through seed production, sod farming, and maintenance services.^[82] Poa arachnifera, or Texas bluegrass, is economically important for its use in interspecific hybrids with Poa pratensis, creating varieties that enhance forage quality and resilience when blended with tall fescue in pasture systems. These hybrids exhibit superior heat and drought tolerance compared to traditional Kentucky bluegrass, improving livestock grazing yields in transitional climates.^[83]^[84] Several Poa species pose significant invasive threats, particularly in agricultural and natural ecosystems. Poa annua, annual bluegrass, invades crop fields such as winter cereals and turf systems, where it outcompetes native plants through prolific seed production and rapid establishment, leading to reduced yields and increased management costs estimated in the millions annually for affected sectors.^[11]^[85] In natural habitats, it displaces indigenous flora, as observed in Antarctic regions where it inhibits the growth and survival of native vascular plants like Deschampsia antarctica.^[86] Poa bulbosa, bulbous bluegrass, is a problematic invader in California grasslands, where it forms dense stands that alter fire regimes by providing year-round fine fuels, potentially increasing fire frequency and intensity while reducing native perennial bunchgrass diversity.^[75] This perennial grass spreads via subterranean bulbs, persisting through disturbances and complicating restoration efforts in Mediterranean annual grasslands.^[87] Management of invasive Poa species often relies on integrated approaches, including chemical and biological controls. Glyphosate-based herbicides effectively target Poa annua and other invasives in agricultural settings by inhibiting amino acid synthesis, though application timing is critical to minimize non-target impacts.^[88] Biological agents, such as the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. poannua, have shown promise in field trials by causing localized infections that reduce Poa annua biomass by up to 50% without harming desirable turfgrasses. Similarly, Pseudomonas fluorescens strains suppress annual bluegrass growth by 55-78% through competitive exclusion and antimicrobial activity in soil.^[89]^[90] Conservation concerns highlight the vulnerability of certain Poa taxa amid human pressures. For instance, Poa mannii, Mann's bluegrass, is federally listed as endangered in the United States due to habitat loss from development and invasive species competition, with its narrow range on Hawaii's island of Kauai restricting populations to fewer than 200 individuals.^[91] Globally, invasive Poa species exacerbate agricultural challenges, notably in Australia where non-native grasses like Poa pratensis and Poa annua infest pastures and rangelands. These invasions integrate into broader weed impacts, amplifying costs in a sector where total invasive plant management exceeds AUD 4 billion yearly.^[92]

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... THEOPHRASTUS of Eresus in Lesbos, born about 370 Bc, is the author of the most important botanical works that have survived from classical antiquity. He was.
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https://archive.org/download/enquiryintoplant00theo/enquiryintoplant00theo.pdf
[22]
Cytogenetics and Evolution of the Grass Family - jstor
HUBBARD, C. E. 1948. The genera of British grasses. In. HUTCHINSON, J., British Flowering Plants: 284-348. KIHARA, H. 1954. Considerations on the evolution ...
[23]
[PDF] A Phylogenetic Analysis of the Bluegrass Genus Poa Based on ...
ABSTRACT. Poa, with about 575 species, is the largest genus of grasses, and has diversified throughout temperate, boreal, and arctic regions, and similar ...
[24]
Summarize the history of forages.
The table below highlights key events in the history of agriculture and forage production. Familiarize yourself with the key events mentioned in the table.
[25]
Catabrosa aquatica (L.) P.Beauv. | Plants of the World Online
It is a perennial or helophyte and grows primarily in the temperate biome. It is used as a medicine and for food.
[26]
Breeding system diversification and evolution in American Poa ...
Jul 3, 2016 · Species are ephemeral annuals to long-lived perennials, ranging in size from a few centimetres to 1·5 m tall (Gillespie and Soreng, 2005), upper ...Missing: polyphyly | Show results with:polyphyly
[27]
Distribution of morphological diversity within widespread Australian ...
Jun 29, 2015 · Poa is distributed globally, with most diversity centred in arctic and temperate latitudes and in high-elevation tropical regions. Significant ...
[28]
Poa pratensis (smooth meadow-grass) | CABI Compendium
P. pratensis is certainly native to Europe and Asia and probably some countries of northern Africa. It has been introduced to Mexico, South America, southern ...<|separator|>
[29]
Poa annua - Global Invasive Species Database
Aug 23, 2010 · It has become naturalised around the globe and its introduced range includes Africa, Australia, New Zealand, North America, South America and ...
[30]
Plant Nutrient Content Does Not Simply Increase with Elevation ...
Jan 16, 2018 · For this study we chose two species with an elevation distribution range greater than 1000 m, Poa attenuata Trin. (Poaceae) and Waldheimia ...
[31]
Taxonomy of the Poa laxa group, including two new taxa from Arctic ...
May 23, 2017 · In Europe, two species are generally recognized: P. laxa, from the alpine of the Alps, Carpathians and Pyrenees, and P. flexuosa from Iceland, ...<|separator|>
[32]
Poa interior - FNA - Flora of North America
May 11, 2021 · It is fairly common from boreal forests to low alpine habitats of the Rocky Mountains. It grows in subxeric to mesic habitats, such as mossy ...
[33]
Increases in graminoids after three decades of change in the High ...
Dec 8, 2023 · Climate change portends serious implications for Arctic vegetation. Understanding these effects is likely to be enhanced with long-term ...Missing: Poa | Show results with:Poa
[34]
Human-mediated dispersal of seeds over long distances - PMC - NIH
Walking humans can disperse seeds to very long distances, up to at least 10 km, and provide some of the first quantified dispersal kernels for HMD.
[35]
Turf performance and physiological responses of native Poa ... - PeerJ
Sep 30, 2021 · Turf performance and physiological responses of native Poa species to summer stress in Northeast China. Research Article.
[36]
[PDF] Low Temperatures and Poa Annua | Pesticide Truths
The relative low temperature tolerance of annual bluegrass will vary during the winter season. Maximum winter hardiness is achieved in late. December, followed.Missing: genus | Show results with:genus
[37]
[PDF] Sandberg bluegrass Poa secunda A conservation grass for use in ...
Sandberg bluegrass is a native, cool-season, drought-tolerant grass with a deep root system, common in the Intermountain West, and found in dry, stony, or ...
[38]
SPECIES: Poa secunda - USDA Forest Service
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : Sandberg bluegrass is a widespread and highly drought-resistant forage grass. It is one of the earliest grasses to green ...
[39]
[PDF] KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS - USDA Plants Database
It performs satisfactorily on. Page 2. poorly drained and heavy-textured soils. Favorable. pH level for this grass is 6.0 to 7.5. Kentucky bluegrass grows best ...
[40]
[PDF] Sandberg Bluegrass Plant Guide
Environmental Concerns Sandberg bluegrass is a native perennial grass that is considered an increaser under heavy grazing conditions and is a pioneer (early ...
[41]
[PDF] Variation and Names in the Poa secunda Complex
Poa curtifolia is the one exception; it is restricted to serpentine soils in the Wenatchee. Mountains of central Washington. Other members of the P. secunda ...
[42]
SPECIES: Poa compressa - Forest Service
It is generally not recommended for seeding as a pasture grass because of its low productivity, but locally it may be useful as pasture on poor soils [27,33].
[43]
[PDF] Council Germplasm arctic bluegrass - Alaska Plant Materials Center
Jul 17, 2007 · Poa arctica can be found throughout. Alaska, in wet and dry meadows. Many times it is found as a tussock along streams, tundra, slopes, and.
[44]
Poa - O2 Landscapes
Poa is a genus of grasses with around 500 species, found in diverse habitats, with the name derived from the Greek word for meadow or pasture grass.
[45]
Poa pratensis - USDA Forest Service
It is adapted for growth in cool, humid climates, and is most prevalent in the northern half of the United States and the southern half of Canada. It is not ...
[46]
[PDF] Impacts of climate change on mountain biodiversity in Europe
Another widely observed phenomenon is upward or poleward migration of plant species, ... alpestris (late-successional species), Poa alpina, and Poa alpina ssp.
[47]
Soil properties constrain predicted poleward migration of plants ...
Jul 31, 2023 · Many plant species are predicted to migrate poleward in response to climate change. Species distribution models (SDMs) have been widely used ...Missing: Poa Europe post- 2020
[48]
CNPS Alliance: Poa pratensis - Agrostis gigantea
Poa pratensis is not always strongly dominant and appears in many mountain meadow systems and alliances in the state. Due to issues of hybridization and ...<|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] Carbon Sequestration in Native Prairie, Perennial Grass, No-Till ...
Native prairie has the highest soil organic carbon (SOC) compared to other methods. Neither no-till nor perennial vegetation can match native prairie SOC in 10 ...
[50]
Poa Genus: A Guide to Native Australian Grasses - Ozbreed
Mar 14, 2025 · The Poa genus is a group of grasses with over 500 species, native to Australia, that are integral to ecosystems and valued for practical uses.
[51]
Soil microbial properties under permanent grass, conventional ...
The objective of this study was to determine how no-till and conventional tillage affected microbial properties of soil quality.
[52]
[PDF] AN ASSESSMENT OF CURTIS PRAIRIE IN 2021 - Minds@UW
The 2021 survey is the most recent in the 75-year history of vegetation monitoring of Curtis Prairie which has been surveyed semi-regularly since 1946. This ...
[53]
Nitrogen Fixation Associated With 'Park' Kentucky Bluegrass (Poa ...
Associative nitrogen fixation in Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) turfs inoculated with five nitrogen-fixing bacterial isolates was evaluated using the ...Missing: grass associations
[54]
Riparian and terrestrial grasses display unexpected tolerance to ...
Jun 21, 2023 · Poa labillardierei (common tussock grass) is considered moderately flood-tolerant and is often planted on riverbanks at a wide range of bank ...Missing: resilience | Show results with:resilience
[55]
Kentucky Bluegrass Impacts Diversity and Carbon and Nitrogen ...
There are few side-by-side comparisons on how Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) invasion has affected plant diversity and carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) ...
[56]
(PDF) Herbage yield and composition of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa ...
All cultivars persisted over 3 production years. Dry matter yields of bluegrass cultivars were sim-ilar to those of timothy, ranging from 7.87 to 9.76 t ha –1 ...
[57]
[PDF] Texas bluegrass - USDA Plants Database
It is a key management species on some sites that are winter grazed by cattle and sheep. If it is, no more than 50 percent of current year's growth by weight ...
[58]
POA PRATENSIS Continental Semences s.p.a - sementi foraggere ...
It is wear tolerant and is suitable for pasture in temperate wet climates. Mixture adaptation: good; Usage: hay, grazing; Seeding rate: 10 - 15 Kg/ha. Balin.
[59]
Evaluation of N, P, S and B fertilization of Kentucky bluegrass seed ...
Nov 11, 2008 · Fertilization rates evaluated included: 0, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150 and 200 kg N/ha; 0, 30 and 60 kg P2O5/ha; 0, 25, and 50 kg SO4‐S/ha, and 0 and ...
[60]
Optimization of nutrient ratio and quantity in base fertilizer for seed ...
Dec 22, 2023 · The optimal fertilization formula for seed production of Poa pratensis was intermediate levels of fertilizers with N (130 kg·hm−2), P (100 kg· ...<|separator|>
[61]
Connecting nutritional facts with the traditional ranking of ...
Jul 19, 2022 · The results suggested that majority (77%) of these grasses can be regarded as good quality fodders because of their high protein (169 g/kg) and ...Missing: pratensis percentage
[62]
[PDF] nutritional value of warm- and cool-season grasses for ruminants
Cool-season forage grasses are highly digestible, averaging about 70% for DM over the year.
[63]
[PDF] KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS - USDA Plants Database
Kentucky bluegrass is sometimes vulnerable to fungal infections including Fusarium,. Helminthosporium, leaf spot, rust and powdery. Page 3. mildew. Mixing ...
[64]
Bluegrass Billbug Sphenophorus parvulus Gyllenhal (Insecta ...
The bluegrass billbug, Sphenophorus parvulus Gyllenhal, is a weevil that commonly infests cool season turfgrasses, especially Kentucky bluegrass, Poa pratensis ...Missing: rust | Show results with:rust
[65]
Epichloë Endophyte Infection Rates and Alkaloid Content in ... - NIH
Mar 31, 2020 · Fungal endophytes of the genus Epichloë live symbiotically in cool season grass species and can produce alkaloids toxic to insects and ...
[66]
[PDF] Descriptions and Characteristics of Common Horse Pasture Grasses ...
Probably 90% of the Kentucky bluegrass pastures in America developed without seeding. Since it has been grown extensively over the northeastern U.S. for more ...
[67]
Registration of 'Matchless' Kentucky bluegrass - ACSESS
Dec 18, 2024 · In 2012 and 2013, 241PA03 had seed yields of 1046 kg/ha and 754 kg/ha, respectively (Johnston et al., 2015). KenSP03 and the two PI selections, ...Missing: rates pasture
[68]
A-LIST Turf | Evaluating and Promoting Low-input Grass Varieties.
A-LIST is a non-profit that evaluates and promotes high-quality turfgrass varieties requiring less water, fertilizer, chemicals, and pesticides.The Official A-LIST Variety List · Members · Cooperators · AffiliatesMissing: Poa | Show results with:Poa
[69]
Factors Influencing the Purchase of Low-Input Turfgrasses in the US
Jul 26, 2022 · Kentucky bluegrass is the most common cool-season turfgrass grown in the northern US. The fact that Kentucky bluegrass requires s high ...
[70]
Quantitative and qualitative responses of an established Kentucky ...
Fertilizer units needed to increase soil test P averaged 6 kg added P ha-1 mg-1 PM-III kg-1 across soil types. To replenish soil K, 7 kg K ha-1 per mg KM-III kg ...
[71]
https://www.bgsod.com/watering-recommendations
[72]
[PDF] Midnight - Pennington Seed
Midnight possesses good mowing qualities and can be maintained at a cutting height ranging from 1/2 inch to 2 inches (12 – 50 mm). Midnight does well in sand or ...
[73]
Kentucky Bluegrass - The Lawn Institute
Management Tips · Planting Method: 1 to 2 lbs of seed per 1,000 sq ft; · Can also be planted as sod · Mowing Height: 1 to 2.5 inches using a rotary mower · Mowing ...
[74]
Blue Grass Enterprises-Watering Tips | Elite Sod, Lawn Fertilizer ...
Established Kentucky bluegrass lawns need about an inch of moisture weekly, including rainfall. Lawns need less moisture during the spring and fall when ...Missing: mm | Show results with:mm
[75]
[PDF] Turfgrass Disease Profiles: Dollar Spot - Purdue Extension
Various fungicides registered for use on turfgrass perform well against dollar spot. Repeated applications are almost always required on stands of creeping ...
[76]
[PDF] Mixing Kentucky Bluegrass and Perennial Ryegrass
Kentucky bluegrass does take longer to germinate than perennial ryegrass, commonly 7 to 14 days. Because of the germination disparity of Kentucky bluegrass and.
[77]
Bulbous Bluegrass | USU
It grows well in infertile soils high in gravels, stones, and cobbles. Associated Species: Kentucky bluegrass, bluebunch wheatgrass, cheatgrass brome, ...Missing: ornamental rock
[78]
Poa bulbosa - USDA Forest Service
Pollination: When true florets are produced, they are wind pollinated [60]. Breeding system: Spikelets are perfect [53]. Although asexual regeneration is ...Missing: confirmation | Show results with:confirmation
[79]
The global Turf Grass market size will be USD 77581.2 million in 2024.
According to Cognitive Market Research, the Kentucky Bluegrass segment holds the largest market share driven by its attractive appearance and ubiquity in milder ...
[80]
How grass varieties support sustainable turf management | ICL
Nov 14, 2024 · “Sustainability within turfgrass means providing high-quality turf with the lowest possible inputs,” explains Simon Taylor, ICL's Turf Seeds ...Missing: native | Show results with:native
[81]
Poa annua - FNA
### Summary of Poa annua Description
[82]
Poa trivialis - FNA
### Summary of Poa trivialis
[83]
Poa alpina - FNA
### Summary of Poa alpina
[84]
Turf Grass And Turf Solutions Market | Size, Share, Growth - 2030
The Global Turf Grass and Turf Solutions Market was valued at USD 6.6 Billion in 2023 and is projected to reach a market size of USD 9.23 Billion by the end ...Missing: Poa | Show results with:Poa
[85]
A happy accident: a novel turfgrass reference genome - PMC - NIH
Poa pratensis L., commonly known as Kentucky bluegrass, is an economically valuable horticultural crop grown globally on lawns and recreational areas as turf ( ...
[86]
Growth Responses of Hybrid Bluegrass and Tall Fescue as ...
Some of these hybrid bluegrasses (Poa arachnifera × Poa pratensis) have demonstrated markedly better performance when compared with kentucky bluegrass and tall ...
[87]
Growth Responses of Hybrid Bluegrass and Tall Fescue as ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Rapid leaf elongation is a determining factor for high shoot biomass production, which is important for forage grasses , but slow leaf ...
[88]
[PDF] ANNUAL BLUEGRASS (POA ANNUA L.) ECOLOGY AND ...
May 4, 2023 · Typically, plants with longer life cycles, and more prostrate growth produce seed that has a shorter period of dormancy, compared to annual ...
[89]
Increasing impacts by Antarctica's most widespread invasive plant ...
Oct 24, 2019 · Our analysis demonstrates Poa annua has the potential to have negative impacts on the survival and growth of the native Antarctic vascular species.Introduction · Materials And Methods · Results
[90]
[PDF] INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES AND THE JOINT FIRE SCIENCE ...
Invasive nonnative plants may be responsible for serious, long-term ecological impacts, including altering fire behavior and fire regimes. Therefore, knowing ...
[91]
[PDF] Use of Glyphosate for Invasive Plant Control
Glyphosate is a specific inhibitor of an enzyme essential for the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids in plants, fungi, algae and bacteria.
[92]
Annual Bluegrass (Poa annua) Control with Xanthomonas ...
Jun 12, 2017 · California and Michigan strains of Xanthomonas campestris pv. poannua were compared as biocontrol agents for the annual and perennial ...
[93]
Kennedy, A.C. 2016. Pseudomonas fluorescens strains ... - USDA ARS
Sep 28, 2016 · Pseudomonas fluorescens are naturally-occurring soil bacteria that were found to suppress annual bluegrass growth from 55 to 78% in field studies.
[94]
Mann's Bluegrass (Poa mannii) - Center for Plant Conservation
Legal Status: Federally Endangered ... wahuensis (NCN), Cyrtandra wawrae (haiwale), Exocarpos luteolus (heau), Labordia helleri (kamakahala), Nototrichium sp.
[95]
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Our current goals, based on the IUCN Red List Strategic Plan (2021-2030), are to have 260,000 species assessed and to reassess 142,000 of those species to ...About · 3.1 · IUCN Species Information... · Iconic SpeciesMissing: Poa | Show results with:Poa
[96]
The economic cost of managing invasive species in Australia
Sep 14, 2016 · The economic cost of weeds to the Australian economy within agricultural areas alone is estimated to be approximately $4 billion annually ( ...
[97]
Two new reports reveal the true cost of managing invasive species
Dec 12, 2023 · Australian farmers are spending $3.8 billion a year to control vertebrate pests and weeds and are suffering production losses of $1.5 billion.