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Power-on reset

A power-on reset (POR) is an essential circuit in electronic systems, particularly in microprocessors and integrated circuits (ICs), that initializes digital and analog blocks to a predetermined known state immediately after power is applied, thereby ensuring reliable startup and preventing unpredictable behavior due to unstable supply voltages.^[1]^[2] The primary function of a POR is to hold the processor or device in a reset condition until the power supply voltage exceeds a specified threshold—typically around 1.6 V to 3.15 V depending on the technology—and stabilizes, often incorporating a delay timer to allow clocks and other signals to settle before releasing the reset.^[1]^[2] This mechanism is crucial for system-on-chip (SoC) designs and embedded applications, where it resets latches, flip-flops, and registers to avoid race conditions or invalid states during power-up transients.^[3] In implementation, POR circuits commonly employ comparators to monitor supply voltage against reference thresholds, with features like hysteresis to ignore brief glitches (e.g., drops of 100 mV for 10 ms) and brownout detection to trigger resets during low-voltage events, ensuring an orderly sequence of events such as proper bias current establishment and memory loading.^[1]^[2] Integrated POR solutions are preferred over discrete components for their reliability, as they handle multiple supply voltages in multi-rail systems and support supervisory functions like manual reset inputs, power-fail warnings, and voltage sequencing to maintain operational integrity.^[1] These circuits have evolved to support low-voltage processes (e.g., below 3 V) and energy-harvesting applications, emphasizing low power consumption and fast response times for modern portable and IoT devices.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition

A power-on reset (PoR or POR) is a hardware mechanism or circuit that automatically generates a reset signal to a digital system, such as a microcontroller or microprocessor, immediately upon the application of power, ensuring initialization in a predictable, known state.^[1] This reset signal forces the system's sequential logic elements and registers (such as the program counter) to default values, preventing erratic behavior from incomplete power-up transients.^[4] Key characteristics of a PoR include generating a pulse or holding the reset line active until the supply voltage stabilizes, typically introducing a delay of 1-10 ms to allow for voltage settling.^[5] Unlike manual resets, which are user-initiated via external switches, or software resets, which are triggered by program code, a PoR is strictly power-triggered and operates independently of user or software intervention.^[1] The PoR mechanism emerged in the 1970s with the rise of integrated circuits (ICs), particularly to address unreliable startup conditions in early TTL and CMOS logic families, where power supply variations could lead to undefined states. The mechanism was first implemented in the Intel 4004, the world's first commercial microprocessor, released in 1971.^[6] In terms of basic signal behavior, the reset signal is typically asserted low (active low convention) during power-up and remains so until the voltage threshold is met and the delay period elapses, after which it is deasserted high to release the system for normal operation; some designs use active high conventions depending on the target architecture.^[5]

Purpose

The power-on reset (PoR) serves as a critical initialization mechanism in digital systems, ensuring that all flip-flops, registers, and other storage elements start in a predetermined default state, typically zero or a known configuration, upon application of power. This initialization prevents undefined states that could arise from residual charges or power glitches during startup, thereby avoiding metastable conditions where logic levels hover indeterminately and risk propagating errors through the circuit. By holding the system in reset until the supply voltage stabilizes above a threshold, PoR inhibits premature logic operations that might otherwise trigger false signals or corrupt initial data, guaranteeing an orderly transition to active functionality.^[7]^[1]^[2] Beyond core initialization, PoR enhances overall system reliability, particularly in environments prone to electrical noise, by suppressing transient-induced false resets that could lead to oscillations or malfunctions. It minimizes boot-time errors in firmware execution by enforcing a predictable startup sequence, allowing processors to load and verify code without interference from unstable power conditions. In safety-critical applications, such as those governed by functional safety standards, PoR is indispensable for achieving compliance, as it contributes to the required safety integrity levels by mitigating risks from power-related failures in electrical/electronic/programmable electronic systems.^[8]^[9]^[10] Without a proper PoR, systems may exhibit erratic behavior, including infinite loops in software execution or hardware lockups, due to unpredictable initial states in logic elements; this was a common issue in early 1980s microprocessor designs, where inadequate reset handling led to fouled operations despite apparent functionality. To ensure complete propagation of the reset signal across the circuit, the reset duration must typically exceed multiple clock cycles—often more than 10 cycles for most microcontrollers—to synchronize internal elements and prevent partial resets that could leave portions of the system in undefined states.^[11]^[12]

Circuit Designs

Discrete Components

A basic discrete power-on reset (PoR) circuit employs an RC network to generate a delayed reset signal during power-up, ensuring that connected logic devices initialize in a defined state once the supply voltage stabilizes. The design typically connects the supply voltage (Vcc) in series with a resistor (R, ranging from 10 kΩ to 100 kΩ) to charge a capacitor (C, 0.1 μF to 10 μF) to ground, with the junction between R and C feeding the input of a Schmitt trigger inverter for signal conditioning. The reset signal remains asserted (active low) until the capacitor voltage (Vc) exceeds the Schmitt trigger's upper threshold voltage (Vth, typically around 2-3 V for a 5 V supply), at which point the output transitions to deassert the reset.^[13]^[14] The timing of the reset pulse is governed by the RC time constant τ = R × C, where the pulse width t_reset is approximately 3τ to achieve over 90% voltage rise on the capacitor, providing reliable triggering. For instance, with a 5 V supply and τ = 1 ms (using R = 10 kΩ and C = 0.1 μF), t_reset ≈ 3 ms, sufficient for many low-power applications to stabilize. This configuration produces a clean, monotonic reset edge due to the Schmitt trigger's hysteresis, preventing false triggering from noise or slow supply ramps.^[13] Additional components enhance reliability: a diode (e.g., 1N4148) connected in parallel with R (anode toward the RC junction, cathode toward Vcc) enables fast capacitor discharge during power-off or supply glitches, reducing recovery time for repeated power cycles. A Schmitt inverter such as the 74HC14 provides the necessary hysteresis (typically 0.5-1.5 V) and clean output edges, operating over a wide supply range (2-6 V).^[1] These circuits offer advantages including low cost (under $0.10 in volume for basic parts) and straightforward prototyping with off-the-shelf components, making them ideal for custom designs or retrofitting legacy systems. However, limitations include sensitivity to temperature variations, where capacitor drift can reach ±20% across -40°C to 85°C, potentially altering the reset timing, and dependence on supply ramp rate, which may cause incomplete resets if Vcc rises too slowly (e.g., <1 V/ms).^[2]^[1] In a representative schematic, Vcc connects to one end of R, the other end of R joins one terminal of C and the anode of the diode (with the diode's cathode back to Vcc); the other terminal of C grounds; this junction drives the input of a 74HC14 Schmitt inverter, whose output connects directly to the system's reset pin (active low).^[13]^[1]

Integrated Circuits

Dedicated power-on reset (PoR) integrated circuits provide compact, low-power solutions for voltage monitoring and reset generation in microprocessor-based systems, contrasting with discrete component approaches by offering monolithic integration and high reliability in production environments. Devices such as the MAX809 and MAX810 series from Analog Devices feature fixed reset thresholds ranging from 2.63 V to 4.63 V across variants, with a typical 200 ms reset delay to ensure stable power-up sequencing. These ICs include open-drain or push-pull outputs, low supply current of 12 µA, and transient rejection capabilities, making them suitable for supervising supplies in +5 V, +3.3 V, and +2.5 V systems.^[15] Similarly, Texas Instruments' TL7705 offers a precision 4.55 V threshold for 5 V systems, programmable delay via an external capacitor (typically 200 ms), and an open-drain RESET output valid down to 1 V, with automatic reset assertion following voltage drops below threshold. In microcontroller units (MCUs), PoR functionality is embedded as a peripheral to enable self-contained startup without external supervision. For instance, AVR and PIC MCU families from Microchip Technology incorporate internal PoR detectors that monitor VDD against a bandgap reference voltage, approximately 1.2 V, automatically holding the device in reset during power-up until the supply exceeds the threshold and stabilizes.^[16] The Stellaris family (now part of TI's Tiva C series) employs a similar internal PoR circuit that releases reset once VDD surpasses a device-specific threshold, typically around 2.3 V for 3.3 V operation, integrating with brown-out detection for enhanced supply tolerance.^[17] These on-chip implementations achieve propagation delays under 1 µs, standby power consumption below 1 µA, and threshold accuracy of ±5% or better, minimizing external components while maintaining robust performance against supply variations.^[15] Integration of PoR in MCUs involves direct connection to the reset pin, where the circuit asserts an active-low signal to initialize the processor core and peripherals. In STMicroelectronics' STM32 MCUs, for example, the PoR maintains reset until VDD exceeds the POR threshold (typically 1.7-1.8 V) and holds for a temporization period of typically 2.5 ms (1 to 4.5 ms), ensuring sufficient stabilization before code execution begins.^[18]^[19] The evolution of integrated PoR traces back to 1980s supervisory ICs like ON Semiconductor's MC34064, which introduced undervoltage sensing with a 4.6 V threshold and capacitor-timed reset for early microprocessor systems.^[20] Contemporary system-on-chips (SoCs) advance this with programmable PoR via eFuses, enabling post-fabrication customization of thresholds and delays, as implemented in AMD's Zynq-7000 series to support flexible security and power management configurations.^[21]

Applications

Microcontrollers and Embedded Systems

In microcontrollers (MCUs), power-on reset (PoR) serves as the initial safeguard to establish a predictable starting state upon applying power, asserting the reset signal to initialize the program counter to address 0x0000, thereby preventing execution from unpredictable or corrupted states.^[22] This process ensures that the MCU begins operation from the boot vector, loading firmware reliably without residual voltage effects; volatile RAM contents are cleared by the power cycle. For instance, in the ATmega328P microcontroller featured in the Arduino Uno board, the internal PoR circuit monitors the supply voltage rise and holds the reset active for approximately 65 ms under default fuse settings, allowing time for voltage stabilization and clock oscillator startup before release.^[22] This duration balances rapid boot-up with robustness against supply ramp variations typical in embedded prototypes. In embedded systems, PoR is integral to applications like Internet of Things (IoT) devices and automotive electronic control units (ECUs), where it guarantees a secure boot sequence by resetting the processor core and peripherals to default configurations, mitigating risks from power glitches or incomplete shutdowns in low-power scenarios.^[23] In IoT sensors, for example, PoR prevents erratic data processing during intermittent power from harvested sources, while in automotive ECUs, it coordinates with other supervisory functions to maintain functional safety under varying electrical loads.^[24] Often, PoR is paired with a watchdog timer in these systems for comprehensive runtime monitoring, where the watchdog periodically verifies system health and enforces resets if software anomalies occur, ensuring continuous operation in mission-critical environments like vehicle engine controls.^[1] Design considerations for PoR in MCUs emphasize resilience in harsh conditions, particularly in automotive settings with 12 V supplies prone to transients reaching up to 40 V during load dumps from alternator disconnection.^[25] Internal PoR may suffice for clean environments, but external circuits—such as dedicated supervisors—are recommended for noisy supplies to provide adjustable thresholds and delays immune to ripple or electromagnetic interference. Decoupling capacitors of 100 nF are commonly placed near the MCU power pins to suppress high-frequency noise and stabilize the voltage during reset assertion, reducing false triggers in dynamic systems.^[26] Failure modes in battery-powered wearables highlight the criticality of robust PoR, where marginal voltage thresholds or absent monitoring can cause incomplete initialization, leading to locked states or corrupted memory and contributing to production yield challenges during validation.^[27] For example, in energy-harvesting wearables, power intermittency without PoR can result in volatile execution loss, exacerbating reliability issues in compact, low-power designs. Solutions frequently incorporate specialized ICs like the TPS3808, a low-quiescent-current (2.4 µA typical) supervisor with programmable reset delays from 1.25 ms to 10 s and 0.5% accurate thresholds, ideal for extending battery life while ensuring precise power-up sequencing.^[28] Compliance with JEDEC standards is essential for PoR circuits in MCUs, particularly regarding electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection on reset pins, which are highly sensitive during assertion and must withstand human body model (HBM) levels up to 2 kV to avoid latch-up or permanent damage in assembly and operation.^[29] These guidelines, including JESD22-A114 for charged-device model (CDM) testing, guide the integration of on-chip clamps and external series resistors to safeguard against system-level ESD events without compromising reset timing.^[30]

Mainframe Systems

In IBM mainframe systems, such as the System/360 and its successors in the zSeries lineage, the power-on reset (PoR) serves as the foundational initialization mechanism that ensures reliable startup across large-scale, multi-cabinet configurations designed for continuous operation. Upon activation via the hardware console—typically the Hardware Management Console (HMC) or Support Element (SE)—PoR holds all central processing units (CPUs) in a reset state until power rails have stabilized throughout the system, preventing erratic behavior from voltage fluctuations. This process initiates the Initial Program Load (IPL), loading the operating system or Coupling Facility Control Code (CFCC) into logical partitions (LPARs) after hardware verification.^[31]^[32] The PoR sequence begins with power sequencing across multiple redundant power supply units (PSUs), which distribute power from dual feeds (typically 200-480V AC input converting to internal DC rails) to ensure fault tolerance in enterprise environments. The PoR signal then propagates through the system's backplane and interconnects, coordinating synchronization among cabinets and modules, with typical delays of several seconds to allow full voltage stabilization before releasing CPUs from reset. This includes support for dynamic reconfiguration, enabling hot-plug insertion of modules like I/O adapters without full system downtime, by reassigning resources via Licensed Internal Code (LIC) during or post-PoR. In zSeries systems, such as the z900 (2000), PoR builds I/O control blocks from the Input/Output Configuration Data Set (IOCDS) to define channel paths and partitions. As of 2024, in the IBM z16, PoR supports high-reliability initialization for AI and hybrid cloud workloads.^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35] Unique to mainframe PoR implementations are redundant detection mechanisms integrated into each LPAR for fault isolation, ensuring that power anomalies in one partition do not propagate system-wide, alongside logging of power-up events in system event logs (similar to SELs in related IBM architectures) for post-initialization diagnostics and error analysis. These features evolved to meet the high-reliability demands of OS/360 in the 1960s, which required robust initialization to support multiprogramming and 24/7 uptime in business-critical applications. At scale, zSeries PoR manages configurations exceeding 100 configurable processors (equivalent to thousands of effective cores via LPARs and virtualization), with power thresholds optimized for low-ripple DC supplies (e.g., +12V rails with ripple under 1%) to maintain signal integrity across extensive cabling. Historically, earlier systems like the IBM 7090 (1959) relied on manual reset switches for operator-initiated clears, whereas PoR automation emerged in the 1970s with System/370 to enable seamless recovery and reduce human intervention for uninterrupted service.^[32]^[36]^[37]

Advanced Topics

Variations

Low-voltage power-on reset (PoR) circuits are essential for systems operating with sub-1V supplies in advanced nanometer processes, where traditional designs fail due to reduced voltage headroom. These circuits typically utilize current-starved inverters or subthreshold comparators to generate a reliable reset signal at low supply levels, ensuring proper initialization without excessive power draw. For example, a robust self-timed PoR designed for low-voltage applications employs threshold detection insensitive to supply ramp rates, achieving operation down to 0.5V while maintaining signal integrity during power-up. Another implementation in 16 nm FINFET technology demonstrates reset assertion at 0.4 V with sub-10nW quiescent power and low temperature coefficient, suitable for energy-harvesting and IoT devices. Such designs prioritize minimal area and power, often integrating adaptive biasing to handle process variations in subthreshold operation.^[3] Noise-immune PoR designs incorporate hysteresis and filtering to mitigate false triggering from supply fluctuations, enhancing reliability in noisy environments like mixed-signal systems. Hysteresis levels of 50-100mV prevent oscillation around the threshold, while low-pass filters (e.g., with 1kHz cutoff) suppress high-frequency noise. A dual-supply SRAM PoR circuit from the mid-2010s exemplifies this approach, adding hysteresis for improved noise immunity against voltage variations, resulting in up to 30% better performance under process-temperature-voltage (PTV) conditions compared to non-hysteretic designs. These enhancements ensure stable reset pulses, with propagation delays tuned to avoid metastability in downstream logic.^[38] Adjustable PoR circuits allow customization of reset thresholds and durations via programmable elements such as resistor networks or digital trimming, accommodating diverse system requirements in reconfigurable hardware. In field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), external components enable user-defined delays, for instance, in Xilinx Artix-7 devices where configuration reset timing can be extended from 50ms to 1s using RC-based overrides on the INIT_B pin. This programmability supports applications needing precise synchronization, such as multi-voltage domain startups, while internal global set/reset (GSR) signals handle core logic initialization post-delay.^[39] Power-off reset extensions complement standard PoR by asserting a clear signal on the falling supply edge, preventing data corruption in latches during shutdown. These circuits often use zener diodes to detect voltage drops below a safe level (e.g., 2-3V), triggering a reset pulse to flush volatile memory. In supervisory ICs, zener-based detection ensures reset when the supply falls, combining with capacitors for edge sharpening and providing accuracy within 5% for brown-out conditions. This bidirectional reset approach is critical for non-volatile state preservation in battery-backed systems.^[40] Brown-out reset (BOR) is a supervisory mechanism that detects and responds to supply voltage sags below a predefined threshold during normal operation, thereby triggering a system reset to prevent erratic behavior in microprocessors or microcontrollers.^[41] Unlike power-on reset (PoR), which activates solely at initial power-up to ensure stable initialization, BOR operates continuously in runtime to safeguard against transient undervoltages, such as those caused by power supply fluctuations.^[42] For instance, in 5 V systems, the BOR threshold is typically set at approximately 4.55 V to maintain reliable operation. This distinction allows BOR to complement PoR by addressing operational hazards that PoR does not monitor. Watchdog timer reset functions as a fail-safe that initiates a full system reset if a hardware or software timer expires without being periodically refreshed by the application code, thereby detecting and recovering from hangs or faults.^[43] PoR plays a critical role in this integration by asserting reset during power-up, which initializes the watchdog timer and ensures it starts in a known state before the system begins execution.^[44] In combined designs, such as those using dedicated reset ICs, the watchdog output is often logically combined with PoR to provide layered protection, where PoR handles boot-time reliability and the watchdog enforces ongoing software integrity.^[45] Manual or external resets are user-initiated or logic-driven signals, typically from a push-button or external circuit, that force an immediate system reset independent of power conditions.^[46] These are frequently integrated with PoR through a wired-OR configuration, where open-drain outputs from both sources connect to the system reset pin, allowing any reset event—whether from power-up or manual intervention—to assert the signal collectively.^[40] This approach enables flexible control in embedded designs, ensuring that external triggers can override or supplement PoR without requiring separate reset lines. Power-good signals, generated by switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) or regulators, indicate when output voltages have stabilized within specified tolerances after power-up, often asserting high once rails are within ±10% of nominal.^[47] In systems incorporating PoR, these signals may be used to delay PoR deassertion until all supplies are confirmed stable, preventing premature release of reset during voltage ramp-up transients.^[48] For example, PMICs like the TPS659037 provide power-good outputs tied to SMPS monitoring, which interface with PoR circuits to sequence initialization reliably.^[47] Integration strategies for reset mechanisms often employ multi-function supervisory ICs that consolidate PoR, BOR, and undervoltage lockout (UVLO) into a single device, streamlining design and minimizing external components.^[41] The ADM809, for instance, is a compact supervisory circuit that monitors supply voltage for power-up, power-down, and brownout events while providing UVLO down to 1 V, all within a 3-lead SOT-23 or SC70 package that reduces overall board space compared to discrete implementations.^[49] Such devices, with low quiescent currents around 17 µA, enable efficient multi-reset supervision in space-constrained applications like portable electronics, where combining functions lowers part count and enhances reliability.^[41]

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