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Red-tailed hawk

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is a large, bulky bird of prey and one of the most widespread and familiar hawks across North America, characterized by its broad, rounded wings adapted for effortless soaring, a short wide tail that is brick-red in adults, and variable plumage often featuring a dark belly band across a pale underbelly.^[1] Adults typically measure 17–26 inches (43–66 cm) in length, with males averaging smaller at 690–1,300 grams and females larger at 900–1,470 grams, and a wingspan of 43–52 inches (114–132 cm) that enables it to glide efficiently over open terrain.^[1] Juveniles lack the red tail, instead showing brown with dark bars, and the species exhibits sexual dimorphism where females are about 25% larger than males, a common trait among raptors.^[1] This hawk occupies diverse habitats including open fields, grasslands, deserts, woodlands, and even urban areas with suitable perches like telephone poles or cliffs, ranging from Alaska and Canada southward through the United States to Mexico and parts of Central America.^[2] Northern populations are partially migratory, with many individuals wintering farther south, while southern residents remain year-round, resulting in higher densities during winter across much of the continent.^[1] It is an opportunistic hunter, primarily preying on small to medium-sized mammals such as voles, mice, rabbits, and ground squirrels—the bulk of its diet—but it also consumes birds, reptiles, amphibians, and occasionally carrion, using keen eyesight to spot prey from perches or while soaring in wide circles.^[3] Breeding pairs form long-term bonds and construct large stick nests in tall trees, on cliff ledges, or on human-made structures, often reusing and refurbishing them annually; the female typically lays 2–3 eggs (ranging from 1–5) in early spring, which are incubated for 28–35 days by both parents, with fledglings leaving the nest after 6–7 weeks but remaining dependent for several more months.^[3] Courtship involves dramatic aerial displays, including mutual soaring and talon-locking dives, and pairs may hunt cooperatively to provision young.^[2] The global breeding population is estimated at over 3 million individuals, with numbers stable or increasing at about 1.3% annually since 1966, reflecting its adaptability to human-altered landscapes and leading to a conservation status of Least Concern.^[3]^[1]

Taxonomy

Classification and Etymology

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) belongs to the order Accipitriformes, which encompasses diurnal birds of prey such as hawks, eagles, and kites, and the family Accipitridae, known for its diverse raptors with hooked beaks and strong talons adapted for seizing prey. Within this family, it is placed in the genus Buteo, a group of broad-winged soaring hawks commonly referred to as buzzards in the Old World. The binomial name Buteo jamaicensis was formally described in 1788 by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his edition of Systema Naturae, originally under the name Falco jamaicensis, drawing on earlier illustrations of the bird by English naturalist George Edwards in his 1743 work A Natural History of Uncommon Birds and specimens collected in Jamaica.^[4] The etymology of the scientific name reflects both linguistic and geographic origins. Buteo stems from the Latin word for a type of hawk or buzzard, evoking the soaring flight and robust build typical of the genus. The specific descriptor jamaicensis is a Latinized form denoting "of Jamaica," honoring the island where the species was first documented by European naturalists. The common name "red-tailed hawk" derives from the prominent rufous-red coloration of the adult's tail feathers, a diagnostic trait that distinguishes it from many congeners.^[6] Taxonomic history has included notable debates, particularly concerning the status of Harlan's hawk, initially described as a distinct species (Buteo harlani) by John James Audubon in 1831 based on its unique dark plumage and white tail markings in juveniles. It was recognized as a separate species by the American Ornithologists' Union from 1944 to 1973, but subsequent morphological and genetic analyses revealed hybridization and clinal variation with other red-tailed hawk forms, leading to its current classification as the subspecies B. j. harlani.^[7] Phylogenetic studies using mitochondrial DNA markers position the red-tailed hawk within a North American clade of the genus Buteo, closely related to species like the Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni).^[8] This evolutionary split highlights adaptations to diverse North American habitats amid Pleistocene climate fluctuations. The species' extensive subspecies diversity further underscores its adaptability and role in understanding Buteo radiation. Recent genomic research as of 2025 indicates mixed support for some current subspecies boundaries, suggesting potential cryptic diversity that may influence future taxonomic revisions.^[9]

Subspecies

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is divided into up to 16 recognized subspecies, distinguished primarily by variations in body size, plumage coloration, and geographic range.^[10] These subspecies reflect adaptations to diverse environments across North and Central America, with polychromatism leading to light, dark, and intermediate morphs ranging from nearly white underparts to fully melanistic forms.^[10] Darker plumage is more common in forested or humid subspecies, serving as camouflage in shaded habitats.^[11] Among the most widespread is B. j. borealis, the eastern or northern subspecies, which dominates in the northern United States and Canada; it typically exhibits a light morph with pale underparts, a prominent dark belly band, and a bright reddish tail, and individuals are relatively large.^[10] In western North America, B. j. calurus prevails, characterized by larger size overall, polymorphic coloration including darker morphs, and a similar reddish tail, though with more variability in ventral streaking.^[10] B. j. harlani, known as Harlan's hawk, breeds in Alaska and northwest Canada; it favors dark morphs with heavily marbled or grayish tails lacking the typical red hue, and shows extensive plumage variation that once led to its consideration as a separate species.^[10] Further south, B. j. fuertesi inhabits regions from west Texas through northern Mexico and Central America, featuring smaller body size and predominantly pale, unmarked underparts in a monomorphic form.^[10] The endemic B. j. socorroensis is restricted to Socorro Island off Mexico, where it displays polymorphic traits including distinct tail and wing markings adapted to its insular environment.^[10] Geographically, northern subspecies such as borealis and harlani are largely migratory, wintering in southern North America, while southern forms like fuertesi are resident year-round.^[10] Hybrid zones occur where ranges overlap, notably in the Great Plains, leading to intermediate plumage traits that challenge identification.^[10]

Description

Size and Morphology

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is a medium- to large-sized raptor, with adults typically measuring 45–65 cm (18–26 in) in length, possessing a wingspan of 114–133 cm (45–52 in), and weighing 690–1,460 g (1.5–3.2 lb).^[12]^[13] Males average smaller, at 45–56 cm in length, 690–1,300 g in weight, and 114–133 cm in wingspan, while females are larger, at 50–65 cm in length and 900–1,460 g in weight.^[12] This pronounced reversed sexual size dimorphism, with females approximately 25% larger than males, is characteristic of many accipitrids and influences roles in hunting and reproduction.^[13] The species exhibits a robust body structure adapted for soaring and predation, featuring broad, rounded wings that facilitate efficient gliding on thermals and a short, wide tail that aids in maneuverability during flight.^[12] The beak is sharply hooked, measuring 2.2–3.0 cm along the culmen, designed for tearing flesh from prey, while the legs are sturdy and scaled, supporting powerful perching and grasping.^[14] Talons are strong and curved, with the rear talon reaching up to 3.4 cm in length, enabling the hawk to secure and dispatch vertebrate prey effectively.^[15] The cere, legs, and feet are yellow, providing a distinctive contrast to the overall plumage.^[13] Sexual dimorphism in size confers adaptive advantages: the lighter, more agile males are better suited for pursuing swift avian or small mammalian prey in dense cover, whereas the larger females support greater energy demands for egg production and incubation.^[16] This pattern, driven by natural selection rather than sexual selection, enhances overall reproductive success in the species.^[16] Juveniles display morphology similar to adults in overall proportions but possess a lighter build with less developed musculature at fledging, allowing gradual strengthening through post-fledging dependence on parents for up to several months.^[17] This developmental stage supports the transition to independent hunting, with body mass increasing steadily after leaving the nest at 42–46 days old.^[17]

Plumage and Variation

The adult plumage of the red-tailed hawk features dark brown upperparts and pale underparts streaked with brown, often including a distinctive dark belly band across the lower chest and abdomen.^[1] The tail is rufous-red or brick-red, a coloration derived from the brick-red feathers that is unique to adults and becomes prominent after the first full molt.^[18]^[19] Red-tailed hawks exhibit plumage polymorphism, with the light morph being the most common form across much of their range, characterized by the pale underparts and red tail described above.^[18] Dark morphs, which appear nearly blackish below with reduced streaking, are rarer and constitute approximately 15% of western populations, while intermediate or rufous morphs show a richer reddish-brown tone on the underparts.^[18]^[20] Rufous morphs occur more frequently in certain tropical subspecies, such as those in Central and South America.^[9] Regional morph frequencies are influenced by subspecies, with dark morphs comprising less than 1% in eastern populations like B. j. borealis but higher in western forms like B. j. calurus.^[9] The species undergoes an annual prebasic molt following the breeding season, during which most individuals replace their flight feathers in a stepwise manner, though a small proportion (5-10%) complete a full replacement cycle.^[21] Juveniles begin molting into adult-like plumage in their first spring, acquiring the characteristic red tail feathers during their second year.^[19] Sexual differences in plumage are minimal, with both sexes displaying similar color patterns once adult feathers are attained.^[18] Juvenile plumage differs markedly from that of adults, featuring buffy or creamy underparts with heavy brown streaking and a brown-streaked tail lacking the red coloration, instead showing narrow dark bands and a white terminal band.^[1]^[19] These age-related changes aid in distinguishing young birds, which also retain some juvenal secondaries during their initial molts.^[19] Plumage coloration in red-tailed hawks provides adaptive camouflage, with the countershading pattern—dark brown above and pale below—reducing visibility against the sky when soaring and blending with ground cover when perched.^[22] Light morph individuals tend to select more open perch sites for hunting, enhancing crypsis in grasslands, whereas dark morphs favor forested edges where their darker tones offer better concealment.^[23]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is native to the Americas, with its breeding range spanning from central Alaska and northern Canada southward through the contiguous United States, Mexico, and Central America as far as Panama.^[24] Isolated populations occur in the Caribbean, notably on Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, while disjunct groups have been documented in northern South America, including Colombia and Venezuela.^[24]^[25] No introduced populations exist outside this native distribution.^[13] During the mid- to late 20th century, its range expanded notably, driven by human-induced habitat conversion that created more open fields and woodland edges from former continuous forests.^[24]^[13] The current extent of the red-tailed hawk's distribution encompasses approximately 31 million square kilometers across North, Central, and parts of South America.^[25] Population densities peak in the western United States at up to 50 pairs per 100 square kilometers in favorable areas, whereas they remain sparser in tropical latitudes.^[26] Northern breeding populations migrate southward for winter, linking the expansive range seasonally.^[27] Since the 1990s, red-tailed hawks have increasingly adapted to urban settings, with established breeding pairs in major cities including New York and Los Angeles, where they exploit available perches and prey in built environments.^[28]

Habitat Preferences

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) primarily inhabits open and semi-open landscapes that provide elevated perches for hunting and nesting, such as open woodlands, grasslands, deserts, and agricultural fields. These environments allow the bird to scan for prey from heights, with scattered trees, utility poles, or rocky outcrops serving as essential vantage points. While the species avoids dense, unbroken forests like interior rainforests, it frequently utilizes forest edges where open ground is accessible for foraging.^[3]^[1]^[13]^[29] The hawk's altitudinal distribution spans from sea level to montane elevations, enabling occupation of diverse elevations from coastal lowlands to montane regions. Tropical subspecies, such as those in Central and South America, adapt to varied ecosystems including mangroves along coastlines and open savannas, where they exploit similar perch-prey dynamics. This broad elevational and ecological tolerance underscores the species' versatility across continental gradients.^[13]^[25]^[29]^[30] Nesting occurs predominantly in tall trees, such as oaks or pines, often at the crown or near the edge of woodlands to afford panoramic views, though cliffs are used in treeless terrains. In human-modified settings, red-tailed hawks demonstrate notable adaptability by nesting on artificial structures like building ledges, power poles, or transmission towers. These sites mirror natural preferences for height and isolation, facilitating defense and hunting efficiency.^[3]^[1]^[31]^[32] Habitat selection emphasizes proximity to abundant prey sources over direct access to water, as the species obtains sufficient moisture from its diet and shows no strong dependence on aquatic features. Red-tailed hawks exhibit high tolerance for anthropogenically altered landscapes, thriving amid highways, farmlands, and suburban expanses that retain open foraging areas and perch opportunities. This adaptability has facilitated range expansion into urban peripheries without compromising core ecological needs.^[33]^[3]^[34]^[35]

Behavior

Flight and Locomotion

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is renowned for its soaring flight, where it exploits rising thermals—columns of warm air—to gain altitude and maintain position with minimal wingbeats, often circling lazily for extended periods.^[2] This style is characteristic of buteos, with the bird's broad, rounded wings held in a slight dihedral (V-shape) to enhance lift and stability during glides.^[36] Cruising speeds during level flight typically range from 20 to 40 mph, enabling efficient coverage of foraging territories, while stoop dives—steep, powered descents—can exceed 120 mph to pursue prey.^[37] On the ground, red-tailed hawks exhibit limited mobility, spending the majority of their daylight hours—approximately 72%—perched on elevated structures such as utility poles, tree branches, or snags, from which they scan for prey.^[38] Walking is awkward and infrequent due to their short tarsi and zygodactyl feet adapted for grasping rather than terrestrial locomotion; when pursuing ground prey like insects or small vertebrates, they resort to energetic hopping in an erratic manner.^[36] The hawk's energy-efficient flight is supported by a relatively low wing loading of 0.46–0.56 g/cm², which allows for sustained soaring over long distances with reduced energetic cost compared to continuous flapping.^[39] The fan-shaped tail serves as a primary control surface, fanning out for braking during dives or landings and twisting for precise steering in tight maneuvers.^[40] Of the remaining flight time (about 22% soaring and 6% flapping), soaring predominates as the most economical mode, with flapping reserved for short bursts to gain initial height or navigate obstacles.^[38] Daily activity patterns reflect this efficiency: red-tailed hawks often initiate the day with soaring flights near woodland edges to hunt, transitioning to prolonged perching in the afternoon for rest and vigilance.^[41] This soaring capability also aids northern populations in seasonal migrations, where they travel thousands of miles by riding thermals to conserve energy.^[3]

Vocalizations

The red-tailed hawk's primary vocalization is a high-pitched, raspy scream often transcribed as "kee-eeee-arr," lasting 2–3 seconds and typically delivered while soaring or perching.^[42] This call rises gradually in pitch before descending and serves primarily for territorial defense and alarm signaling against intruders.^[43] Acoustic analyses indicate that the scream spans a frequency range of approximately 2–6 kHz, contributing to its piercing quality over open habitats.^[44] Other vocalizations include a shrill, high-pitched "chwirk" used during courtship flights to facilitate pair bonding between mates.^[42] Nestlings produce soft peeps, while juveniles emit loud, repetitive hunger or begging calls to solicit food from parents, often intensifying in frequency and volume upon an adult's approach.^[43] At nests, adults may issue hiss-like threat sounds when defending against potential predators or disturbances.^[45] The red-tailed hawk's scream exhibits minor acoustic variations across individuals, with no pronounced regional dialects reported, though it is notably louder and more frequent in spring when territorial activity peaks.^[42] This vocalization is frequently misrepresented in media, where it is dubbed over footage of other raptors, such as bald eagles, due to its dramatic, authoritative tone.^[46] In communication, these calls aid in mate recognition during breeding displays and allow parents to identify and respond to offspring needs, though adults tend to remain relatively silent during non-breeding periods like migration.^[43]

Foraging and Diet

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) primarily employs a sit-and-wait hunting strategy, perching on elevated sites such as trees, poles, or cliffs to scan for prey before launching a stoop or glide to capture it. This perch-based approach accounts for 60-80% of hunts in North American populations, with the remainder involving soaring over open areas or, less commonly, low-level flights to flush prey.^[47] Occasionally, mated pairs engage in cooperative hunting, particularly when pursuing tree squirrels, where one bird flushes the prey while the other intercepts it, though such behavior is rare and not a primary tactic.^[48] The diet of the red-tailed hawk is dominated by mammals, which comprise 70-90% of consumed prey by frequency or biomass in temperate regions, including voles, mice, rabbits, and ground squirrels as staples. Birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates make up the remaining 10-20%, with opportunistic scavenging of carrion supplementing meals during scarcity. In tropical habitats, such as Puerto Rican rainforests and cloud forests, the composition shifts, with reptiles and amphibians increasing to 12-31% of the diet and arthropods up to 30%, reflecting greater availability of lizards and insects. Prey size typically ranges from 50-500 g, allowing the hawk to handle items from small rodents to juvenile rabbits, though larger prey like hares are taken infrequently.^[13]^[33]^[47] Foraging efficiency varies by method, with perch hunts yielding a success rate of approximately 19%, compared to 6% for soaring pursuits, emphasizing the perch strategy's reliability despite lower energy demands. Daily food intake averages 7-10% of body weight, or about 82-135 g for adults, sufficient to meet metabolic needs year-round. Seasonal variations occur, with a greater reliance on birds and carrion in winter when small mammals are less active or abundant in northern latitudes. In urban environments, red-tailed hawks adapt readily by targeting introduced prey like Norway rats and rock pigeons, maintaining stable foraging success amid human-altered landscapes.^[33]^[47]^[1]

Reproduction

Red-tailed hawks form monogamous pairs that typically remain together for life or until one partner dies.^[3] Courtship displays include mutual soaring in circles, steep dives, chasing, and talon-locking spirals, often accompanied by vocalizations such as the female's scream-like calls.^[3] Pairs defend breeding territories ranging from 1 to 2 km², depending on habitat productivity and prey availability.^[13] Nests are bulky structures composed of sticks, often reused and refurbished annually by both parents, and lined with bark, moss, and green foliage.^[3] These nests are typically placed in the crowns of tall trees or on cliff ledges at heights of 10 to 20 m to provide a commanding view of the surrounding area.^[3] Construction or repair takes 4 to 7 days, resulting in platforms up to 2 m in diameter and 2 m deep over multiple seasons.^[3] The female lays a clutch of 2 to 3 eggs (rarely up to 5), spaced 2 to 3 days apart, leading to asynchronous hatching after an incubation period of 28 to 35 days primarily by the female while the male provides food.^[3] Chicks hatch helpless and downy, weighing about 57 g, and are brooded by the female for the first few weeks; the male delivers most prey, which the female tears into small pieces to feed the young.^[1] Nestlings fledge at 42 to 46 days old but remain dependent on parents for food and protection until about 10 weeks after hatching, achieving full independence over the following months.^[3] Pairs usually produce one brood per year, with breeding success yielding 1 to 2 fledglings on average per attempt, though second broods are rare.^[49] Longevity supports repeated breeding efforts, with wild individuals averaging 10 to 15 years, though some survive up to 30 years.^[3]

Migration

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is a partial migrant, with northern populations from Alaska, Canada, and the northern Great Plains undertaking southward movements of 1,000–2,000 km to wintering grounds in the southern United States and central Mexico, while southern populations remain year-round residents.^[27]^[50] Fall migration typically occurs from September to November, with peak passage observed at raptor watch sites such as Hawk Mountain Sanctuary in Pennsylvania, where large numbers funnel along ridges and use thermals for diurnal soaring flights.^[51]^[34] These routes generally avoid extensive overwater crossings, rarely exceeding 25 km, and follow continental landmasses to minimize energy expenditure.^[50] Migration distances average less than 1,500 km for most individuals, with daily progress of 50–100 km during active travel, though juveniles often disperse farther than adults and may explore broader areas post-fledging.^[50]^[34] Adults tend to winter closer to breeding areas and return earlier in spring (February to June), while juveniles arrive later.^[50] Recent satellite telemetry studies, including a 2025 analysis of 27 GPS-tagged adults from Alaska, have revealed weak but significant connectivity between breeding and wintering grounds, with northern Alaskan birds routing to the Great Plains and southern Alaskan birds to southwestern Canada and the western United States.^[52] Migratory triggers include advancing cold fronts and seasonal prey scarcity, which prompt southward shifts in northern populations to access more reliable food resources.^[50]^[53] In years of low food availability, irruptive movements can extend beyond typical routes, leading to irregular winter distributions.^[50] These patterns leverage the species' soaring flight adaptations for efficient long-distance travel along thermal corridors.^[34]

Conservation

Population Status

The global population of the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is estimated at 3.1 million mature individuals, with approximately 2.8 million of these occurring in North America (United States and Canada).^[25] In North America, there are roughly 1.96 million nesting individuals, representing nearly 90% of the global total.^[54] These figures reflect a species that is widespread and abundant across its range, from Alaska to Panama. Population trends in North America are stable to increasing overall, with a large and statistically significant rise of 177% over the last 40 years according to Breeding Bird Survey data.^[25] Regional variations include moderate increases in Canada since 1970 and expansions into urban and suburban habitats in the western United States, where the species has adapted successfully to human-modified landscapes.^[55]^[56] As of 2025, populations continue to demonstrate resilience following the 1972 DDT ban, which had previously contributed to declines in raptor reproduction.^[53] The red-tailed hawk is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (2024 assessment), indicating no immediate risk of extinction due to its large population and stable trends.^[25] It receives legal protection in the United States under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which prohibits take, possession, and commerce of the species without permits.^[57] The species is not listed under CITES appendices, and none of its subspecies are considered endangered.^[57] Long-term monitoring through banding programs, ongoing since the 1920s, provides insights into demographics, with records showing individual longevity up to 30 years and 8 months in the wild.^[58] Banding data from the 1960s onward indicate an adult annual survival rate of approximately 80%, supporting the species' population stability.^[59]

Threats and Management

The red-tailed hawk faces several primary threats from human activities. Vehicle collisions are a leading cause of injury and death, particularly in urban areas where they represent a substantial portion of admissions to rehabilitation centers.^[60] Wind turbine strikes have increased since 2010 with the expansion of renewable energy infrastructure, as larger rotor diameters elevate fatality rates for this species due to its foraging behavior near ground level.^[61]^[62] Secondary poisoning from anticoagulant rodenticides occurs when hawks consume contaminated rodents, with studies showing exposure in up to 68% of tested individuals across regions like New York state.^[63] Illegal shooting remains a persistent threat, both historically as the primary source of mortality and currently in urban and rural settings where persecution continues despite legal protections.^[64]^[65] Habitat fragmentation exacerbates these risks by isolating populations and reducing available foraging areas, though the species shows some adaptability to altered landscapes.^[66] Emerging issues include the effects of climate change, which may alter prey distributions through warming temperatures and lead to potential range contractions in tropical portions of the species' distribution by 2050 according to recent modeling efforts.^[67] Urbanization heightens collision risks with vehicles and structures but also provides abundant food sources like rodents in developed areas, contributing to higher local densities despite elevated mortality.^[68]^[69] The hawk's adaptable diet helps mitigate some nutritional risks from these shifts. Conservation management efforts focus on mitigation and recovery. Raptor rehabilitation centers treat injured individuals, achieving release rates of approximately 37-60% for raptors including red-tailed hawks, depending on injury severity and facility protocols.^[70]^[71] Perch guards installed on utility poles prevent electrocutions by insulating high-voltage lines, a common hazard for perching raptors.^[72] Reduced pesticide use following the 1972 DDT ban and subsequent regulations has lowered contamination levels, aiding overall raptor population recovery.^[73] The 2025 Red-tailed Hawk Project incorporates genetic monitoring to assess subspecies diversity and connectivity, informing long-term conservation strategies.^[9] These interventions have driven mitigation success, with populations rebounding from widespread bounties in the pre-1930s era—when states like Pennsylvania offered payments for hawk scalps—toward current stability through legal protections, public education campaigns, and the creation of habitat corridors to link fragmented areas.^[74]^[73]^[75]

Human Interactions

Falconry and Training

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is one of the most popular species used in falconry in the United States, particularly among beginners, due to its abundance, adaptability to various habitats, and relatively straightforward training requirements.^[76] These hawks are typically captured as passage juveniles (first-year birds during migration) using legal traps such as bal-chatris, or obtained through captive breeding programs approved by state wildlife agencies.^[77] Falconry involving red-tailed hawks is regulated under the federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act, which requires falconers to obtain state or territorial permits, pass an examination on raptor care and laws (scoring at least 80%), and maintain inspected housing facilities.^[77] Apprentices, the entry-level permit holders, are limited to possessing one wild-caught red-tailed hawk or American kestrel, while general and master falconers may hold up to three or five wild raptors, respectively, with no limit on captive-bred individuals.^[77] Annual wild take is capped at two raptors per permittee, reported within 10 days via federal or state systems, ensuring minimal impact on populations.^[77] Training begins with manning, a process of acclimating the hawk to human presence through daily handling and weight management to maintain motivation via controlled food rewards.^[78] Essential equipment includes leather jesses for leg attachment to a swivel and leash, and a hood to calm the bird by blocking vision during transport or rest.^[76] Initial conditioning involves tethering the hawk to a perch and rewarding responses to a whistle or voice command with tidbits of meat, progressing to stepping onto the falconer's gloved fist.^[78] Free-flight training starts on a creance (long line) to a lure—often a padded rabbit or squirrel model swung on a string—reinforcing recall and pursuit instincts.^[76] Once proficient, the hawk hunts alongside the falconer, targeting small game like rabbits and squirrels in wooded or open areas, where its soaring flight and powerful talons prove effective for ground quarry.^[76] The use of red-tailed hawks in North American falconry gained prominence in the mid-20th century, coinciding with the formation of the North American Falconers Association in 1961, which standardized practices and advocated for conservation.^[79] Prior to European contact, there is no archaeological or historical evidence of Native Americans employing red-tailed hawks in falconry, though the species held spiritual significance in some indigenous cultures.^[79] Modern falconry often results in high survival rates for these hawks; juveniles captured for training exhibit high first-year survival rates (approximately 80-90%) compared to 20-50% in the wild, attributed to veterinary care, nutrition, and predator protection.^[80]^[81] In falconry, red-tailed hawks typically live 15 to 30 years, exceeding the average wild lifespan of about 2-3 years (though some wild adults reach 10-20 years) due to consistent care and reduced environmental risks.^[82] Welfare standards mandate spacious mews (housing) with perches, daily exercise, and balanced diets of whole prey to prevent nutritional deficiencies, with federal regulations prohibiting practices that cause undue stress or injury.^[77] Released falconry birds often show successful reintegration due to improved health and hunting skills, though post-release survival rates vary and are generally higher than for untrained juveniles.^[83]

Cultural Significance

In many Native American cultures, the red-tailed hawk holds profound spiritual importance, with its feathers revered as sacred items used in ceremonies and regalia. For instance, Plains tribes incorporate red-tailed hawk feathers into headdresses and ritual objects to symbolize keen vision, strength, and connection to the divine, viewing the bird as a messenger between the physical and spiritual realms.^[84]^[85] Similarly, among the Ute people, the red-tailed hawk represents spiritual maturity and guidance, as illustrated in traditional stories where its appearance signifies personal growth and honor.^[86] Due to this sanctity, many tribes observe taboos against harming or possessing the bird without permission, emphasizing its role as a protected spirit animal rather than a resource for utilitarian purposes.^[84] In modern American culture, the red-tailed hawk embodies freedom and vigilance, often appearing in media and symbolism to evoke power and wilderness. Its piercing cry has been widely dubbed over the calls of other raptors, including bald eagles, in films and television since the mid-20th century, creating an iconic "eagle screech" heard in epic scenes across Hollywood productions.^[46]^[87] This auditory substitution extends to science fiction, such as the sounds of alien birds in the Star Wars franchise starting from 1977, reinforcing the hawk's association with majestic, otherworldly predators.^[46] Additionally, the bird inspires logos for sports teams like the Atlanta Hawks, where its image conveys agility and dominance, though often stylized generically from hawk archetypes.^[88] The red-tailed hawk serves as an emblem in conservation education, highlighting raptor resilience and biodiversity. Organizations like the Audubon Society feature it prominently in programs, such as enrichment activities for rehabilitated birds and public events like Raptor Day, to educate on habitat protection and species recovery.^[89]^[90] In 2025, artistic initiatives, including wildlife paintings and murals, have spotlighted the hawk's subspecies variations to raise awareness about threats to North American raptors.^[91]^[92] Globally, the red-tailed hawk's cultural footprint is limited outside the Americas due to its native range, but raptors like it influence broader symbolism. In Mesoamerican societies, such as the Aztecs, hawks and eagles were linked to warriors and solar deities, with feathers adorning elite regalia to denote martial prowess and divine favor dating back over 2,500 years.^[93]^[94] In Europe, where the species is absent, hawks generally symbolize nobility and caution in folklore and heraldry, but lack specific ties to the red-tailed variant.^[95]

References

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Red-tailed Hawk | Audubon Field Guide
This is the most widespread and familiar large hawk in North America, bulky and broad-winged, designed for effortless soaring.At a Glance · Range & Identification · Behavior
[2]
Red-tailed Hawk Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
The Red-tailed Hawk is common in North America, soars above open fields, has broad, rounded wings, and is one of the largest birds, yet weighs about 3 pounds.Identification · Photo Gallery · Red-tailed Hawk Range Map · Sounds
[3]
Red-tailed Hawk Life History - All About Birds
This is probably the most common hawk in North America. If you've got sharp eyes you'll see several individuals on almost any long car ride, anywhere.
[4]
Buteo jamaicensis (Red-tailed Hawk) - Avibase
Red-tailed Hawk. Buteo jamaicensis (Gmelin, JF 1788). summary; taxon grid; synonyms; map; life history; eBird; Wikipedia ...
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Molecular phylogeny of the genus Buteo (Aves: Accipitridae) based ...
Jul 1, 2025 · Molecular phylogeny of the genus Buteo (Aves ... phylogeny, absolute divergence times and potential shifts in diversification rate.
[6]
Red-Tailed Hawk - Eastside Audubon Society
Aug 19, 2019 · The genus name Buteo is from the Latin for a kind of falcon or hawk. The species name jamaicensis is Latin for island of Jamaica, West Indies, ...Missing: etymology origin
[7]
Taxonomic Status of Harlan's Hawk Buteo Jamaicensis Harlani (Aves
May 30, 2018 · Harlan's Hawk (taxon harlani) has been considered both as a species (Buteo harlani) (1830-1891 and 1944-1972) and as a subspecies of Red-tailed Hawk.
[8]
Systematics - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis - Birds of the World
Oct 22, 2024 · Red-tailed Hawk (Harlan's) Buteo jamaicensis harlani Scientific name definitions · Systematics History · Distribution · Field Identification.
[9]
Subspecies Guide - Red-tailed Hawk Project
The Red-tailed Hawk comprises many subspecies throughout North and Central America, from the Pacific to Atlantic coasts, the tree-line in Alaska and Canada ...
[10]
Cracking the Red-tail Code: Exploring the Diversity of America's ...
Mar 24, 2025 · While the Red-tailed Hawk has a range that stretches across North America top to bottom and east to west, scientists have divvied Buteo ...
[11]
Red-tailed Hawk Identification - All About Birds
Red-tailed Hawks are large with broad wings, a short wide tail, a red tail, brown head, white throat, and a dark belly band. They are mostly brown above and ...
[12]
Buteo jamaicensis (red-tailed hawk) - Animal Diversity Web
There are at least 14 subspecies of Buteo jamaicensis . These subspecies are separated based differences in their color and differences in where they breed and ...
[13]
Red-tailed Hawk (The Flora and Fauna of Palo Duro Canyon)
The tail measures 188 to 258.7 mm (7.40 to 10.19 in) in length. The exposed culmen was reported to range from 21.7 to 30.2 mm (0.85 to 1.19 in) and the tarsus ...
[14]
Red-tailed Hawk (Rio Bosque Wetlands Biological Treasure Hunt)
... claw (the talon of the rear toe, which has evolved to be the largest in accipitrids) measuring from 24.1 to 33.6 mm (0.95 to 1.32 in) in length. Red-tailed hawk ...
[15]
(PDF) The Evolution of Reversed Sexual Size Dimorphism in Hawks ...
Aug 9, 2025 · These results suggest that RSD in hawks, falcons and owls evolved due to natural-selection pressures rather than sexual-selection pressures.
[16]
Breeding - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis - Birds of the World
Dec 11, 2016 · Culmen length averaged 7.0 mm at hatching, and growth was essentially linear with age until day 25. Tarsus length averaged 20.5 mm at ...
[17]
Red-tailed Hawk Fact Sheet - HawkWatch International
Dark-morph Juvenile ranges from completely streaked below to solidly dark. Juvenile typically has outer primaries banded at the tips, and tail tip shows ...
[18]
[PDF] Red-tailed Hawk (RTHA) - North American Banding Council
Juvenile Red-tailed Hawks do not posses the characteristic brick-red ... The next annual molt begins with replacement of the oldest retained feathers, followed.
[19]
[PDF] Dark Red-tailed Hawks - American Birding Association
The Red-tailed Hawk is the most polymorphic raptor in North America, ranging from almost completely whitish to completely blackish underneath, with nu- merous ...
[20]
Plumages, Molts, and Structure - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis
Oct 22, 2024 · Red-tailed Hawks have 10 functional primaries (p7-p10 notched and p6-p9 emarginated), 14-16 secondaries (including three tertials), and 12 rectrices.
[21]
Eastern Red-Tailed Hawk - Connecticut's Beardsley Zoo
This coloration displayed by the hawk, light on bottom and dark on top, is a type of camouflage called countershading. The Eastern Red-Tailed Hawk's feet are ...Missing: significance | Show results with:significance
[22]
Morph specific foraging behavior by a polymorphic raptor under ...
Aug 22, 2017 · For example, in the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), light morph birds were observed to occupy more open perch sites when hunting, compared ...
[23]
Distribution - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis - Birds of the World
Oct 22, 2024 · Breeds throughout North America from s.-coastal and central Alaska southward to the Baja Peninsula (Figure 1). Found in a great variety of habitats throughout ...
[24]
Red-tailed Hawk Buteo Jamaicensis Species Factsheet
Habitat classification ; Artificial/Terrestrial, Pastureland, Breeding ; Artificial/Terrestrial, Arable Land, Non-breeding ; Artificial/Terrestrial, Arable Land ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[25]
Migratory Connectivity of Red-Tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis ...
Sep 6, 2025 · Alternatively, genetic factors such as separation during recent glacial cycles, followed by post-Pleistocene expansion and secondary contact ( ...
[26]
Buteo jamaicensis | NatureServe Explorer
Red-tailed Hawk - Natureserve Global Rank: G5: Large range in North and Central America; increasing or stable populations in most areas of the U.S.and ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[27]
Red-tailed Hawk Range Map - All About Birds
Red-tailed hawks from Alaska, Canada, and the northern Great Plains migrate south for winter, while others stay put across the continent.
[28]
Fearless and Well-Fed, New York City's Red-Tailed Hawks Are ...
Nov 16, 2016 · The number of known Red-tailed Hawk nests in Manhattan has more than doubled in the past six years. The birds usually stick to trees.
[29]
Habitat - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis - Birds of the World
Oct 22, 2024 · Red-tailed Hawks breed in open to semiopen habitats like woodlands, grasslands, and urban areas, using elevated sites, and avoid dense forests.
[30]
Buteo jamaicensis - Forest Service - USDA
Nesting habitat - Red-tailed hawks usually nest in a tall tree in or at the edge of woodlands, or in an isolated tree in an open area [1,9,13]. Red-tailed hawks ...Missing: authoritative sources
[31]
Red-Tailed Hawk - Oakland Zoo
Physical Characteristics Red-tailed Hawks have a sharply hooked beak and strong, curved talons. These act like the hawk's knife and fork. When hunting, the Red ...Missing: juvenile | Show results with:juvenile
[32]
[PDF] Habitat suitability model for Red-tailed Hawk
Jun 19, 1995 · Red-tailed hawk populations in the Midwest have increased over the past four decades despite the increased fragmentation and urbanization of the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
Red-tailed Hawk | Hawk Mountain Sanctuary: Learn Visit Join
With 16 recognized subspecies, this open-habitat generalist varies in plumage across its range. Adult Red-tailed Hawks are best distinguished from other Buteos ...
[34]
LANDSCAPE FEATURES OF RED-TAILED HAWK NESTING ...
We described urban/suburban Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) nesting habitat and compared nesting habitat to unused habitat based on presence and absence ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
Behavior - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis - Birds of the World
Oct 22, 2024 · Generally aggressive. Intruders in breeding territory may be chased and attacked with wings and talons (feet open); these encounters sometimes ...
[36]
Top 10 Facts About Red-Tailed and Other Hawks
Red-tailed hawks are common in the US, average 3 pounds, fly 20-40 mph (up to 120 diving), and mate for life. They build nests in 4-7 days.
[37]
[PDF] The Use of Soaring by the Red-tailed Hawk (buteo Jamaicensis)
Sep 24, 2024 · territorial defense. DISCUSSION. The amount of time Red-tailed Hawks spent perching and in flapping flight appeared to be related to the ...
[38]
[PDF] Predation on Mexican Free-tailed Bats by Peregrine Falcons and ...
... fast-fly- ing aerial hunter. It can attain speeds of >100 km/ hr in level flight and >250 km/hr in a diving stoop. (Ratcliffe 1993). In evenings, bats emerge ...
[39]
[PDF] A Flight of Fantasy - Boulder County
They use their tail to brake and to steer like a rudder on a boat. Their broad wings keep them up in the air. 2. Add some muscle. To power their wings, hawks ...
[40]
Red-Tailed Hawk | NC Wildlife
The red-tailed hawk has a stocky body, mottled brown feathers, a white breast with a brown belly band, and a rust-colored tail. It has a 48-inch wingspan.
[41]
Red-tailed Hawk Sounds, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
It lasts 2-3 seconds and is usually given while soaring. During courtship, they ... Compare the Swainson's Hawk Adult light morph to the Red-tailed Hawk ...
[42]
Sounds and Vocal Behavior - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis
Oct 22, 2024 · Red-tailed hawks make soft peeps as nestlings, loud hunger calls as juveniles, a hoarse scream (kee-eeee-arrr) as adults, and a sharp chwirk ...
[43]
Sonograms of the stimuli used in the current study. a Red-tailed ...
frequency range of the raven calls (0.5-5 kHz) was similar to the frequency range of the hawk calls (2-6 kHz) and the power drill (1.5-9 kHz). In figure 1 ...Missing: spectrum | Show results with:spectrum
[44]
[PDF] Behavior and food habits of the Red-tailed Hawk.
As before, the adults spent much time soaring. At 10:41 a.m., the male ... its growing period consumed an average of 134 grams of food daily over a fifteen-day.
[45]
Hollywood's Voice of Choice | Missouri Department of Conservation
Red-tailed hawks have a raspy scream that calls out for attention. Often their sound is chosen for eagles, other hawks, or heard in the background of scary ...
[46]
Diet and Foraging - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis
Oct 22, 2024 · Small prey is typically taken to a feeding perch, where mammals are swallowed whole and birds are beheaded, plucked, and eaten.Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[47]
ECOVIEWS: Do hawks hunt cooperatively? - The Tuscaloosa News
Mar 15, 2020 · I saw a red-tailed hawk fly into a tree and knock a squirrel into ... But, there are isolated instances of red-tails cooperating when hunting ...
[48]
[PDF] The Nesting and Reproductive Success of Red-Tailed Hawks and ...
This paper describes nesting and reproductive performance of the Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) and the Red-shouldered Hawk.Missing: mating | Show results with:mating
[49]
Movements and Migration - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis
Oct 22, 2024 · ... flight more frequently (> 79%) than any other form of flight. ... Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), version 1.1. In Birds of the ...
[50]
Raptorpedia | Hawk Mountain Sanctuary: Learn Visit Join
Large numbers of sharp-shinned hawks pass the Mountain in late September and early October. The peak of red-tailed hawk migration occurs in early November.
[51]
Red-tailed Hawk - Fawkes Focus Photography
This enormous distribution reflects their remarkable habitat flexibility and adaptability to human-modified landscapes. These adaptable raptors show strong ...Breeding And Nesting... · Migration Patterns And... · Conservation Status And...Missing: altered | Show results with:altered
[52]
Demography and Populations - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis
Oct 22, 2024 · An estimated 1,960,000 nesting Red-tailed Hawks, or nearly 90% of the global population, according to one estimate, reside in North America (279 ...
[53]
The State of Canada's Birds - NatureCounts
The Canadian population of Red-tailed Hawk has shown a moderate increase relative to 1970 based on the Breeding Bird Survey.
[54]
Conservation and Management - Red-tailed Hawk - Buteo jamaicensis
Oct 22, 2024 · Red-tails are attracted to open, grassy areas of airfields due to increased prey availability and the presence of nearby fences, communications towers, and ...
[55]
Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
The Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) prohibits the take (including killing, capturing, selling, trading, and transport) of protected migratory bird species ...
[56]
Longevity Records - Bird Banding Laboratory - USGS.gov
This page lists all longevity records for each species by taxonomic order. You can narrow the list by selecting a species group, and then a species.Missing: survival rates
[57]
[PDF] Population Dynamics of the Red-tailed Hawk (buteo Jamaicensis) at ...
Sep 6, 2024 · Active nests were later reexamined to ascertain nestling survival rates and dates of fledging. Nestlings were aged by comparing weights against ...
[58]
[PDF] LOS ANGELES RAPTOR STUDY - Friends of Griffith Park |
Sep 22, 2024 · One of the leading causes of injury and death for raptors in urban areas are collisions with vehicles and buildings. Dead adults and ...
[59]
[PDF] Wind Turbine Interactions with Wildlife and their Habitats
Certain species that forage for prey in close proximity to turbines (e.g., red-tailed hawk and golden eagle) appear to have higher fatality rates, while ...
[60]
[PDF] Investigation-of-the-effect-of-wind-turbine-size-on-bird-and-bat ...
Feb 13, 2024 · Increased rotor diameter led to increased fatality rates for red-tailed hawk in particular (mean = 0.285, 95 % CI = − 0.063, 0.634; Fig.
[61]
Rodenticide poisoning widespread among state's red-tailed hawks
Jul 7, 2022 · 68% of red-tailed hawks have anticoagulant rodenticide (AR) toxins in their systems, indicating that poisoning of this kind is widespread across New York state ...
[62]
[PDF] Hawks and Owls - usda aphis
All hawks and owls in the United States are federally pro- tected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 USC,. 703−711). ... Range of the red-tailed hawk in ...
[63]
Full article: Shooting is still a main threat for raptors inhabiting urban ...
The high frequency of admissions of raptors due to shooting in urban and suburban Rome shows that persecution of raptors is not restricted to rural areas of ...
[64]
Triumph in the Skies: Red-Tailed Hawks Refuse the Quiet Life
Red-tailed hawks have mostly thrived despite urbanization due to their ability to adjust to almost any habitat. While they are currently able to adapt, this may ...
[65]
[PDF] Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment For Species of Greatest ...
... climate exposure within its migratory range, with climate change habitat modeling projecting a 22% breeding range contraction by 2050. (Rosenberg et al. 2016 ...
[66]
Conservation Letter: Raptor Collisions in Built Environments
Jul 5, 2024 · (2024) found collisions with human-made objects, especially windows and vehicles, were the greatest cause of death in urban Cooper's Hawks in ...
[67]
Seeing More Hawks in Your Yard? It's Not Your Imagination
Mar 7, 2019 · By attracting and concentrating feeder birds, these areas might provide the best winter food resources for hawks as well as songbirds. This ...<|separator|>
[68]
'Dead birds flying': can north American rehabilitated raptors released ...
Apr 5, 2024 · From these same 24 facilities, approximately 37% of those were rehabilitated and released equaling between 22 600 and 130 500 raptors (of these ...
[69]
[PDF] Movements and Survival of Released, Rehabilitated Hawks
Four Red-tailed Hawks survived for more than two wk after release and were thought to be acclimated to the wild. One Red-tailed Hawk died, and the Red- ...
[70]
[PDF] Raptor Electrocutions - North American Wood Pole Council
... perch directly below the phase wire on the grounded pole top. This new condition can be lethal to birds such as the red-tailed hawk that are sufficiently ...
[71]
[PDF] A Brief History of Raptor Conservation in North America 1
The Bald Eagle Protection Act, together with bans on the widespread use of DDT in 1972, enabled the species to undergo a remarkable come- back beginning in the ...
[72]
[PDF] A History of Human Attitudes towards Pennsylvania's Birds of Prey
Raptors were unprotected in Pennsylvania throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and in 1885 a 50-cent bounty was placed on all species of raptors.Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[73]
Conserve the Corridor | Hawk Mountain Sanctuary: Learn Visit Join
Feb 20, 2021 · As a leader in raptor conservation, Hawk Mountain understands the need for conservation and education at every phase of the raptor life cycle.
[74]
[PDF] New York State Falconry Guide - NY.gov
Mar 3, 2014 · The red- tailed hawk is our most common buteo, and has become the most popular raptor used in falconry. Harris hawks, of the genus Parabuteo, ...
[75]
50 CFR 21.82 -- Falconry standards and falconry permitting. - eCFR
You must report your recapture of the bird to your State, tribal, or territorial agency that regulates falconry no more than 5 working days after the recapture.
[76]
Basic Training - Ohio Falconry Association
Training is accomplished through careful weight management, positive reinforcement, and repetition. The first step in training entails a period known as “ ...
[77]
A Brief History of Falconry in North America
Introduction of the Red-tailed Hawk and Harris' Hawk into international falconry. The sixth such major 20th Century advance was the development by British ...
[78]
Hawk Life - RedTail Land Solutions
May 15, 2024 · In the wild, red-tailed hawks have a 5% survival rate in their first year. When trapped for falconry, their chance of survival increases to 95%.
[79]
The Red-Tail Hawk - The Modern Apprentice
Roughly 5% will live to the age of 5 years old in the wild. The average lifespan is 2 years old. There are falconers with quite old Red-Tail Hawks as their ...
[80]
Where Every Feather Counts - Reasons to be Cheerful
Oct 30, 2023 · We utilize feathers, hawk tails, talons and different parts of the bird for ceremonies and as a cultural component for recovery,” King says.Missing: taboos | Show results with:taboos
[81]
Feathers in Southeast American Indian Ceremonialism
The Southern Indians have honored birds and their supernatural counterparts through ritual and have used feathers as agents of spiritual power.Cultural Heritage Of The... · The Green Corn Ceremony · The Ball Game
[82]
Aldean and the Red-Tailed Hawk: A White Mesa Ute Story | eMedia
But overall, Native Americans views the Red-Tailed Hawk as a protector and a spiritual messenger. Hawks are often seen as a symbol of power, courage and ...
[83]
Hollywood has been lying about what bald eagles really sound like
Jul 3, 2025 · One famous example is the Colbert Report intro sequence, where a bald eagle flies up at the end and makes a red-tailed hawk vocalization. Even “ ...
[84]
https://reasonstobecheerful.world/sacred-feathers-repository-native-american-traditions/
[85]
A Creative, Behavior-Focused Approach to Bird Enrichment | Audubon
Aug 20, 2025 · For Scarlet the Red-tailed Hawk, a paper towel tube with tissue paper flowers will provide maximum shredding opportunities. Young Bald ...
[86]
Xtreme Raptor Day 2025 - Schlitz Audubon Nature Center
Join us for our annual raptor festival on Saturday, November 8, where you'll meet owls, hawks, falcons, and a Bald Eagle on our trails!
[87]
Brushstrokes for Wildlife: A Red-tailed Hawk Painting
Sep 3, 2025 · In this red-tailed hawk, I wanted to reflect not only its strength and beauty, but also the hope its story represents: that with care, ...Missing: Audubon | Show results with:Audubon
[88]
Audubon Mural Project
Audubon commissions artists to paint murals of climate-threatened birds throughout New York City. Many are concentrated in the Harlem and Washington Heights ...<|separator|>
[89]
2500 years of human-raptor interactions in Mesoamerica
Raptors-including vultures, hawks, eagles, owls, and falcons-have played a significant role in Mesoamerican cultures dating back to at least 500 BCE. In many ...
[90]
Especial Birds in the Americas - Mexicolore
Sometimes they are warriors with human bodies and bird wings and beaks. An eagle or hawk is a universal and obvious choice to symbolize a warrior.
[91]
The Red-Tailed Hawk - Notable Inklings - WordPress.com
Sep 29, 2014 · “In the traditions of some Native Americans, the hawk is a messenger of God. Its appearance is a blessing, for it alerts an individual to go to ...Missing: taboos | Show results with:taboos