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Replacement player

A replacement player is an athlete hired by a professional sports franchise to occupy a roster position during a labor dispute, such as a strike or lockout involving the league's players' union, typically as a non-union strikebreaker sourced from minor leagues, free agents, or other non-regular talent pools.^[1] The role emerged prominently in instances like the National Football League's 1987 players' strike, during which teams utilized replacement players for three weeks of regular-season games (Weeks 4–6), resulting in asterisked records and widespread debate over game legitimacy.^[2] Similarly, in Major League Baseball's 1994–95 strike, replacement players participated in 1995 spring training and exhibition contests before the union's return averted a full non-union season.^[3]^[4] The employment of replacement players has sparked enduring controversies, primarily centered on union opposition viewing them as undermining collective bargaining leverage, leading to social ostracism, derogatory labeling as "scabs," and informal blacklisting that limited many to brief or nonexistent post-dispute careers.^[5] Despite this, select replacement participants achieved later success, such as former minor leaguer Kevin Millar, who transitioned to a decade-long MLB tenure after crossing lines in 1995, and members of the Washington Redskins' 1987 replacement squad, who received Super Bowl rings in 2018 for their contributions en route to the team's championship.^[6] These episodes highlight tensions between owners' operational rights and players' labor solidarity, with outcomes influencing subsequent collective bargaining agreements across leagues.^[7]

Definition and terminology

Core concept

A replacement player in professional sports denotes an athlete recruited by team owners to occupy roster positions left vacant by unionized players engaged in a labor strike or lockout, thereby enabling leagues to sustain game schedules and generate revenue during disputes. These substitutes are commonly sourced from minor league affiliates, unsigned free agents, retired professionals, or walk-on talent unaffiliated with the players' union, signing short-term contracts that expire upon resolution of the conflict.^[8]^[3] This practice hinges on owners' authority to hire non-union labor, distinct from the collective bargaining agreements governing regular rosters, and has been upheld in U.S. jurisdictions where right-to-work laws limit union coercion against such workers.^[9] The deployment of replacement players functions primarily as a strategic countermeasure in negotiations, illustrating to stakeholders—including fans, broadcasters, and advertisers—that operations can persist without the withheld labor, which incentivizes unions to compromise on issues like salary structures, free agency eligibility, or revenue splits. Games featuring replacements typically exhibit diminished competitive quality, as the ad hoc assemblies lack the cohesion, talent depth, and star power of standard lineups, resulting in altered strategies, higher injury risks, and viewer metrics reflecting public disinterest in non-union contests.^[10]^[2] Nonetheless, isolated instances have seen replacements deliver unexpectedly viable performances, such as in the NFL's 1987 strike where certain teams maintained winning streaks amid the three-week disruption.^[2] From a labor dynamics perspective, replacement players embody the tension between owners' operational imperatives and unions' monopoly on talent supply, with the former leveraging market availability to erode striking leverage while the latter deploys social and professional ostracism to deter participation. Empirical outcomes vary: in some cases, like Major League Baseball's 1995 exhibition games, the tactic accelerated settlements by highlighting fan backlash to diluted product quality; in others, it prolonged animosities, as evidenced by enduring bans or reputational harms imposed on participants by player associations.^[9]^[3] This mechanism underscores broader causal realities in sports economics, where uninterrupted play preserves franchise valuations tied to broadcast deals—such as the NFL's mid-1980s television contracts worth hundreds of millions annually—over ideological solidarity with labor actions.^[2]

Derogatory usage and counter-narratives

The term "scab" originated in medieval English as a reference to skin diseases or sores, evolving by the 18th century into slang for a scoundrel or person of low character, and by the 19th century specifically denoting a strikebreaker who undermines union solidarity by accepting employment during a labor action.^[11]^[12]^[13] In professional sports contexts, replacement players hired by team owners during player strikes—such as the NFL's 1987 work stoppage or MLB's 1994–1995 strike—have been routinely labeled "scabs" by striking athletes, unions, and fans to invoke disdain and moral condemnation, portraying them as traitors who dilute collective bargaining leverage.^[14]^[15] This usage often manifests in overt hostility, including picket-line confrontations, fan signage like "Scabs Suck," and post-strike blacklisting that bars replacement players from union membership or future league opportunities.^[16]^[17] Such derogatory framing serves union tactics by enforcing solidarity through social ostracism and reputational damage, discouraging non-strikers from participating and pressuring owners to concede demands; in the 1987 NFL strike, for instance, replacement players faced verbal abuse, physical threats, and exclusion from regular-season record books demanded by the NFL Players Association.^[18]^[19] Empirical outcomes reveal variability in performance, with some replacement units underperforming due to inexperience—yet the label persists as a blanket pejorative irrespective of individual merit or the legality of their employment under right-to-work doctrines.^[2] Counter-narratives emphasize that replacement players exercise a fundamental right to voluntary employment, unencumbered by union coercion, and that shaming them ignores the agency of striking workers to withhold labor while denying others the same choice.^[20] In the 1987 NFL case, Washington Redskins replacements—derided as "scabs"—contributed to a three-game win streak that propelled the team to Super Bowl XXII victory, earning retrospective recognition including Super Bowl rings awarded in 2018 and praise from some veterans like Darryl Grant, who expressed support despite initial opposition.^[21]^[22] NFL management upheld the legitimacy of those games by refusing to expunge statistics, affirming their place in official records against union protests.^[19] Proponents argue this highlights causal realism in labor dynamics: strikes risk operational continuity, and replacements—often drawn from non-roster talent earning modest per-game pay of around $4,000 after taxes—enable continuity without inherent moral failing, as evidenced by isolated successes like future coach Sean Payton's brief stint as a 1987 replacement.^[2]^[23] Documentaries like ESPN's "Year of the Scab" reframe these players as underdog participants fulfilling professional aspirations amid adversity, challenging the union's monopoly on narrative control.^[24]

Labor and legal framework

Right-to-work principles in sports

Right-to-work laws, adopted in 28 U.S. states as of 2024, prohibit private-sector employers from requiring employees to join a union or pay union dues as a condition of employment, thereby protecting workers' freedom to choose whether to affiliate with organized labor.^[25] These state-level statutes, authorized under Section 14(b) of the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), contrast with federal labor policy that permits union-security agreements in non-right-to-work jurisdictions, but they apply to professional sports teams based in those states, influencing player decisions during disputes. In the context of replacement players, right-to-work principles reinforce the NLRA's allowance for employers to hire non-union workers to sustain business operations amid economic strikes, as replacements are not bound by union solidarity obligations and face no compulsory dues or membership penalties.^[9] Federal precedent in NLRB v. Mackay Radio Corp. (304 U.S. 333, 1938) affirms employers' right to hire permanent replacements for economic strikers without committing an unfair labor practice, provided strikers retain recall rights upon resolution, a doctrine directly enabling sports leagues to field substitute rosters.^[9] In professional sports, where collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) govern but strikes suspend them, right-to-work environments amplify this by deterring union coercion; players in such states, uncompelled to fund or follow strikes, more readily cross picket lines or accept short-term contracts. During the 1987 NFL strike, for example, teams in right-to-work Texas, including the Dallas Cowboys, saw notable player defections, with local anti-union sentiment and legal opt-outs reducing adherence to the NFL Players Association (NFLPA) walkout, contributing to the hiring of over 200 replacements league-wide.^[26] ^[27] This dynamic pressured unions, as evidenced by the strike's collapse after three weeks of replacement games, yielding no major concessions for players on free agency or benefits.^[28] Critics, including sports unions, argue that right-to-work undermines collective bargaining by diluting strike leverage, yet empirical data shows these laws correlate with lower unionization rates (approximately 4 percentage points post-adoption) without prohibiting voluntary union participation.^[29] In multi-state leagues like the NFL or MLB, right-to-work principles manifest unevenly—favoring owners in Sun Belt franchises—but federal preemption limits state interference in interstate commerce, ensuring replacements remain viable nationwide under Mackay protections.^[30] Historical instances, such as the 1994-95 MLB strike where replacement plans faltered partly due to uneven owner resolve rather than legal barriers, underscore that while right-to-work bolsters individual worker agency, operational success hinges on league unity and NLRB compliance.^[9]

Union tactics and historical shaming

Unions in professional sports have employed derogatory labeling and public ostracism to deter replacement players during strikes, framing them as "scabs" who undermine collective bargaining power. The term "scab," rooted in 19th-century labor movements, serves as a potent insult to shame individuals crossing picket lines, evoking imagery of betrayal and moral inferiority to enforce solidarity among members.^[12]^[31] In sports contexts, this tactic extends to professional repercussions, including blacklisting from future employment and expulsion from union-affiliated networks, as seen in threats to withhold negotiation until replacements were sidelined.^[32] During the 1987 NFL strike, the players' union intensified shaming by portraying replacement players—often retirees, amateurs, or career minor leaguers—as illegitimate interlopers who degraded the game's integrity. Union leaders and striking players publicly vilified them, with some teams refusing to fraternize or share facilities, while fans amplified the hostility through signs like "Scabs Suck" and physical confrontations, such as pelting players with projectiles in Philadelphia.^[16]^[2] This approach contributed to plummeting attendance, averaging under 30,000 per game for the three weeks of replacement play from September 22 to October 15, 1987, underscoring the tactic's role in eroding public and league support for owners' strategies.^[9] In the 1994-1995 MLB strike, the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) adopted similar measures, declaring on March 14, 1995, that it would not end the work stoppage if replacement players participated in exhibition games, effectively leveraging shaming to preserve bargaining leverage.^[33] Post-strike, the union enforced informal blacklists against those who had played as replacements, barring them from major league contracts and perpetuating professional isolation, a practice that highlighted unions' use of long-term reputational damage over legal fines or suspensions.^[32] These tactics, while effective in maintaining strike discipline, reflect a causal reliance on social coercion rather than purely economic incentives, as evidenced by the absence of formal disciplinary funds in early NFL strikes that necessitated heightened emotional appeals.^[34]

Instances in player disputes

National Football League – 1987 strike

The 1987 National Football League players' strike commenced on September 22, following the second week of the regular season, as members of the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA) walked out demanding post-contract free agency, a higher percentage of league revenues allocated to salaries and benefits, and improved pension contributions.^[34]^[35] The NFL owners, facing pressure to maintain the schedule amid lucrative television contracts, responded by declaring union players ineligible and signing over 200 replacement players—often journeymen, recent college graduates, or former players from lower leagues and taxi squads—to fill rosters, with teams required to use at least 21 such players per game to comply with league rules.^[2]^[35] These replacement games occurred during weeks 3 through 6 of the season (September 27 to October 18), spanning 57 contests in total, as 15 of the league's 28 teams fielded predominantly non-union squads while a minority of veterans, including quarterbacks Joe Montana and Doug Williams, crossed picket lines to play alongside replacements.^[2] The quality of play varied, with some contests featuring high-scoring outputs due to defensive lapses—such as the Washington Redskins' replacement team going 3-0 and advancing to the playoffs—but overall drawing criticism for diminished competition and fan disinterest, evidenced by attendance drops of up to 30% in affected markets.^[34]^[2] NFLPA picketing and public shaming campaigns labeled participants as "scabs," aiming to deter participation and preserve leverage, though the strategy failed to halt operations, as owners prioritized revenue continuity over concessions.^[34]^[35] The strike concluded after 24 days on October 15, with players returning to work under the prior terms without achieving their core demands, resulting in an average loss of $15,000 per missed game for union members and the inclusion of replacement-era statistics in official records despite NFLPA protests to expunge them.^[34] Short-term, the owners' successful deployment of replacements underscored the replaceability of labor in a high-revenue sport, weakening immediate union bargaining power; however, the episode contributed to long-term shifts, including an NFLPA antitrust lawsuit that facilitated unrestricted free agency in the 1993 collective bargaining agreement.^[19]^[35] Few replacement players secured lasting NFL careers, with exceptions like wide receiver Anthony Miller, who parlayed his performance into a regular roster spot.^[37]

Major League Baseball – 1995 strike

The 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike, initiated on August 12, 1994, stemmed from disagreements over a new collective bargaining agreement, with owners seeking a salary cap, enhanced revenue sharing, and elimination of salary arbitration to curb escalating player costs, while the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) resisted these concessions.^[38]^[39] As the dispute extended into the 1995 offseason, MLB owners, facing pressure to salvage the season, approved the use of replacement players for spring training and potential regular-season games on January 13, 1995, via their executive council.^[3] This decision followed unsuccessful negotiations and was positioned by owners as a means to resume operations without union labor, drawing parallels to tactics in prior sports labor disputes.^[1] Replacement players were recruited through open tryouts held in mid-February 1995 at various sites, including minor league facilities, attracting over 2,000 applicants comprising minor leaguers ineligible for union membership, former major leaguers whose contracts had lapsed, college players, and amateurs.^[40] Each of the 28 teams (including expansion franchises) signed approximately 30–32 such players to fill rosters, with rules permitting up to 25 active per exhibition game and prohibiting cuts below certain thresholds to ensure viability.^[3]^[41] These players, often derided by union members as "scabs," participated in spring training games starting early March 1995, such as the Chicago Cubs' intrasquad contests and inter-team exhibitions, which drew sparse crowds and highlighted the makeshift quality of the rosters—many participants lacked professional experience, leading to lopsided scores and logistical challenges like inadequate equipment.^[40] On March 31, 1995, 28 of 30 MLB owners voted to commence the regular season with replacement players on April 3 if no agreement was reached, prompting the MLBPA to seek a federal injunction.^[41] U.S. District Judge Sonia Sotomayor granted the union's request that day, ruling that owners could not unilaterally impose new work rules post-strike without bargaining, which halted preparations and accelerated talks.^[1] The strike concluded on April 2, 1995, with a tentative deal restoring the prior salary structure without a cap, allowing regular players to return for a shortened 144-game season starting April 25 after abbreviated training.^[39] No official regular-season games featured replacement players, though a handful of them, such as Rickey Henderson (who briefly appeared in exhibitions before union reinstatement), later debuted in MLB; however, those who crossed picket lines were barred from MLBPA membership for life, limiting career opportunities.^[15]^[3] The episode underscored owners' leverage in deploying non-union labor to pressure concessions but also amplified fan backlash, contributing to eroded attendance in the ensuing season.^[38]

United States men's national soccer team – 2005

In January 2005, the United States Soccer Federation (USSF) entered negotiations with the United States National Soccer Team Players Association (USNSTPA) for a new collective bargaining agreement covering compensation, appearance fees, and performance bonuses for senior national team players.^[42] The USNSTPA rejected the USSF's proposal on January 11, prompting the federation to threaten the use of replacement players to maintain team readiness for impending CONCACAF World Cup qualifiers, including the Hexagonal final round beginning in February.^[42]^[43] By late January, the USSF followed through by summoning over 20 alternate players to a national team training camp, drawing primarily from United Soccer Leagues (USL) rosters—then the second-tier professional circuit in the United States—as senior players remained sidelined amid the impasse.^[44]^[45] These replacements, lacking the experience of Major League Soccer (MLS) stars like Landon Donovan or Claudio Reyna, underwent sessions to prepare for potential matches, underscoring the federation's strategy to prioritize competitive continuity over player demands during a critical qualification phase.^[44]^[46] The escalation pressured both sides, as deploying unproven replacements risked undermining U.S. qualification prospects against regional rivals like Mexico and Costa Rica.^[43] An agreement was finalized by January 23, 2005, restoring the senior roster and deferring unresolved issues to post-Hexagonal talks, thereby avoiding on-field use of the alternates while securing incremental pay improvements for players.^[47]^[48] This resolution built on prior pacts from 2001, reflecting a pattern of federation leverage through replacement preparations to counter player associations' bargaining power without formal strikes.^[48]^[43]

Toronto Triumph – 2011

In October 2011, the Toronto Triumph, an expansion franchise in the Lingerie Football League's (LFL) Canadian division, faced a mass player exodus after its inaugural game, prompting the recruitment of replacement athletes to sustain operations. The team, based in Toronto, Ontario, had debuted on September 24, 2011, with a 36-6 loss to the Regina Riot, following limited preparation including only two practices and inadequate protective gear such as insufficient padding and helmets.^[49] Shortly thereafter, LFL commissioner Mitch Mortaza announced the release of four underperforming players, which triggered resignations from 22 of the remaining 26 roster members by October 20, 2011, including team captain Krista Ford.^[50]^[49] The departing players cited multiple grievances, primarily safety deficiencies from rushed training protocols—totaling under 10 hours—and equipment shortages that heightened injury risks in full-contact play, alongside abrupt coaching changes that included the mid-week dismissal of head coach Ted Milani and assistants.^[50]^[51] Internal communications revealed further discord, with Mortaza's emails to the team labeling the quitters as "uncommitted" and threatening reputational consequences, while players countered that the league prioritized spectacle over athlete welfare, lacking medical staff on-site and enforcing minimal recovery periods between sessions.^[51] This walkout effectively constituted a player-led dispute akin to a wildcat action, halting team activities temporarily and exposing operational flaws in the LFL's expansion into Canada.^[49] To fulfill scheduled matches, the LFL swiftly onboarded replacement players, recruiting over a dozen new athletes through open tryouts and direct outreach to fill positional gaps, enabling the Triumph to field a reformed roster for subsequent games.^[52] These substitutes, often with limited prior experience in the league's format, faced steep integration challenges amid ongoing instability, including further coaching turnover. The reconstituted team endured three additional defeats, culminating in a 74-0 rout by the Saskatchewan Stripers on November 19, 2011, underscoring the performance dip from the abrupt roster overhaul.^[52] No formal union existed in the LFL, rendering the replacements non-union labor by default, though the incident highlighted vulnerabilities in player retention for semi-professional women's tackle football leagues reliant on volunteer or low-compensated talent.^[49]

Arena Football League – 2012

In early 2012, the Arena Football League (AFL) encountered a labor dispute between the AFL Players Union (AFLPU) and team owners, centered on negotiating a new collective bargaining agreement (CBA) after the prior deal expired. Players demanded a wage increase from $400 per game to $850 per week, while owners countered with $500 per game, citing the league's financial constraints following its 2009 suspension and 2010 relaunch.^[53] Negotiations had stalled since December 2011, prompting the AFLPU to authorize strikes to pressure owners.^[53] The dispute escalated on March 9, 2012, when the AFLPU called a strike hours before the season-opening game between the Pittsburgh Power and Orlando Predators, broadcast on NFL Network. Pittsburgh responded by releasing its entire 24-man active roster, including quarterback Kyle Rowley, and fielding replacement players to ensure the game proceeded.^[53] ^[54] Orlando similarly prepared replacements, though some original players crossed picket lines or rejoined mid-game after negotiations.^[53] The contest was played as scheduled, with replacements comprising a significant portion of the rosters, demonstrating owners' strategy to maintain operations amid the work stoppage.^[53] The Tampa Bay Storm also readied replacement players for their opener against the Chicago Rush, though the extent of their use remains unclear as the strike's immediate impact varied by team.^[53] Further union actions included mass firings by teams like the Spokane Shock, who released their roster during a pregame meal before a matchup against the Tampa Bay Storm, opting for hastily assembled replacement players—some arriving minutes before kickoff—to complete the game.^[55] Owners threatened a league-wide lockout if no agreement was reached, escalating tensions and leading to additional player grievances, such as those filed by fired individuals like Rowley.^[54] A critical escalation occurred on June 8, 2012, when AFLPU-ordered walkouts by the Cleveland Gladiators forced the forfeiture of their home game against the Pittsburgh Power, resulting in a 2-0 league-awarded victory for Pittsburgh as the hosts were unprepared with sufficient replacements.^[56] ^[57] Unlike earlier instances, Cleveland's strike led to cancellation rather than substitution, highlighting limits to replacement viability in high-stakes scenarios.^[56] The conflict resolved on June 17, 2012, with a five-year CBA (plus a sixth-year option) ratified by players, doubling per-game pay to approximately $800, adding win bonuses of $25, and including a no-strike/no-lockout clause to stabilize the league through its final season before suspension.^[54] ^[57] Replacement players proved essential in sustaining play during the dispute's early phases, allowing teams to avoid broader cancellations despite union leverage tactics.^[54]

Norway national football team – 2020

In November 2020, the Norway national football team encountered a crisis during the UEFA Nations League matches against Romania and Austria, stemming from stringent COVID-19 quarantine protocols enforced by the Norwegian government and player concerns over club obligations. A confirmed COVID-19 case within the original squad triggered mandatory quarantine for all players upon return from international duty, prompting senior players including Erling Haaland and Martin Ødegaard to express reluctance to travel, citing risks of extended isolation that could jeopardize their domestic club schedules and fitness.^[58]^[59] The Norwegian Football Federation (NFF) faced the prospect of forfeiting points under UEFA regulations, which require teams to field competitive squads or risk 3-0 losses and fines. To avert this, the NFF hastily assembled an emergency B-team from overseas-based players not included in the initial call-up, such as midfielder Ghayas Zahid and defender Sondre Tronstad, who agreed to strict pre- and post-match quarantine at designated facilities.^[60]^[61] This approach effectively utilized replacement players to fulfill fixtures amid the standoff, bypassing the unavailable main squad without union involvement, as Norwegian players lack a formalized national team bargaining unit comparable to professional leagues.^[62] The match against Romania on November 15 was ultimately cancelled by UEFA due to travel prohibitions, with Norway avoiding forfeiture through negotiations but receiving no points. Against Austria on November 18, the B-team held firm for a 1-1 draw at Ernst-Happel-Stadion, with Zahid scoring the equalizer in the 61st minute before Austria's Adrian Grbić leveled in stoppage time.^[63]^[64] This outcome preserved Norway's promotion hopes in League B Group 1, though the federation later reflected on the episode as a test of resilience amid pandemic disruptions, highlighting tensions between national duty and individual career safeguards.^[65] Private communications among players, later leaked in 2024 via a book on Norwegian football, revealed frustrations over the NFF's initial planning and perceived undervaluation of player input, with Haaland forwarding quarantine policy screenshots and Ødegaard questioning travel feasibility.^[66] These disclosures underscored the informal nature of the dispute but did not lead to formal labor action, distinguishing it from strikes in club contexts; instead, the B-team deployment served as a pragmatic federation response to ensure continuity.^[67] The incident prompted no lasting structural changes to player-federation relations, though it exposed vulnerabilities in international scheduling during health crises.^[68]

Replacement officials

National Hockey League – 1993 lockout

The National Hockey League experienced its first full strike by on-ice officials in November 1993, when the 35 referees and 35 linesmen walked out after rejecting the league's final contract offer.^[69] The dispute centered on compensation, with officials demanding a 60 percent salary increase and improved benefits to reflect rising league revenues and demands for professionalism, while the NHL countered with a 29 percent raise over three years.^[69] ^[70] Negotiations broke down on November 14, prompting the strike to begin the following day, just as the 1993-94 regular season was underway.^[71] To maintain game schedules, the NHL hired approximately 70 replacement officials from minor professional leagues, amateur hockey, and international circuits, including referees such as Jim Anderson, Larry Antoniuk, and George McCorry, and linesmen like Scott Adams.^[69] ^[72] Replacements were compensated at $800 per game for referees and $500 for linesmen, significantly below regular NHL rates.^[69] These officials presided over games starting November 15, with initial matches in Calgary, Chicago, and New York showing varied performance; Toronto Maple Leafs coach Pat Burns praised their efforts, but Florida Panthers coach Roger Neilson criticized missed high-sticking calls that posed safety risks.^[73] ^[74] No major disruptions or fan protests occurred, though some players expressed frustration over inconsistent rulings.^[70] ^[75] The strike concluded on December 1, 1993, after 17 days, when a four-year collective bargaining agreement was ratified, providing rookie referees a salary increase from $50,000 to $65,000 annually and adjusting pension benefits from $1.5 million to $750,000 total.^[69] ^[76] Striking officials returned to duty on December 2, ending the use of replacements without any reported long-term effects on league operations or officiating standards.^[69] The event highlighted the NHL's strategy of employing temporary officials to ensure continuity during labor disputes, similar to tactics in other sports, though it drew limited media attention compared to player strikes.^[77]

Major League Baseball – 1999 umpires

In July 1999, negotiations between Major League Baseball (MLB) and the Major League Umpires Association (MLUA), led by executive director Richie Phillips, broke down over issues including salary increases, pension contributions, and MLB's proposals for merit-based umpire evaluations and easier dismissals.^[78] On July 15, 1999, Phillips announced that 57 of MLB's 68 umpires had submitted resignation letters effective September 2, 1999, as a high-stakes tactic to compel concessions, with the umpires expecting to receive approximately $15.5 million in termination pay under their collective bargaining agreement.^[79] ^[78] MLB, under the guidance of executive vice president for baseball operations Sandy Alderson, treated the resignations as irrevocable and moved swiftly to hire permanent replacements to avoid operational disruptions during the season's final weeks and playoffs.^[80] On July 22 and 23, 1999, MLB announced the recruitment of 25 minor-league umpires for major-league positions, expanding crews from four to six members per game to incorporate the newcomers alongside remaining veteran umpires.^[81] ^[82] These replacements, primarily from Triple-A and other minor leagues, began officiating regular-season games in late August 1999 and continued through the postseason, including the World Series between the New York Yankees and Atlanta Braves.^[80] The influx of replacement umpires drew mixed reactions, with some games proceeding without significant controversy, though isolated errors—such as incorrect calls on balks and safe/out decisions—prompted debates over officiating quality.^[80] MLB maintained that the hires ensured continuity, rejecting offers to reinstate 10 resigned umpires at major-league levels and three at minor-league ones in September 1999.^[78] Ultimately, 35 umpires who quickly sought to rescind their resignations were reinstated, but the 22 who remained aligned with Phillips had their departures finalized on September 2, 1999, after failed legal challenges.^[82] ^[78] In the aftermath, Phillips was ousted from the MLUA in November 1999 amid internal revolt, leading to the formation of the World Umpires Association.^[80] Several of the 22 displaced umpires achieved partial redress: an arbitrator ordered the reinstatement of nine in May 2001, including Drew Coble, Gary Darling, Bill Hohn, Greg Kosc, Larry Poncino, Larry Vanover, and Joe West; subsequent settlements through 2006 provided back pay, pensions, and severance totaling millions for others, though many replacements retained their roles long-term.^[83] ^[78] This episode marked a rare successful deployment of replacement officials in MLB, demonstrating leagues' capacity to sustain operations amid labor unrest.^[80]

National Football League

The 1987 National Football League (NFL) players' strike, initiated by the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA) on September 22, 1987, sought greater free agency rights, higher minimum salaries, and a larger share of league revenues following the expiration of the collective bargaining agreement on August 31, 1987.^[28]^[34] With the first three weeks of the season already completed using regular rosters, NFL team owners refused to cancel scheduled games, instead assembling makeshift teams primarily from replacement players sourced from amateur leagues, former professionals, and walk-ons to fulfill television contracts and maintain revenue streams.^[2] These replacements, often derisively termed "scabs" by striking players, filled rosters for weeks 4 through 6 (October 4 to October 18, 1987), resulting in 42 games played across those weeks with mixed participation from a small number of veteran players who crossed picket lines.^[34]^[5] Replacement rosters varied by team, with approximately two-thirds of the league's 28 franchises relying heavily on non-union players who signed short-term contracts promising to play through the dispute, while others incorporated holdouts like quarterbacks Joe Montana and Doug Williams or defensive stars such as Lawrence Taylor and Howie Long.^[28]^[2] Game quality suffered, evidenced by inflated statistics—such as Philadelphia Eagles quarterback Randall Cunningham's 7 touchdown passes in a single game—and lower attendance, yet all contests counted toward standings, preserving the season's 15-game format per team.^[2] The Washington Redskins' replacement squad notably achieved a 3-0 record during this period, contributing to their overall 11-4 finish and eventual Super Bowl XXII victory, a feat later honored when the franchise awarded championship rings to those players in 2018.^[21] The 24-day strike concluded on October 15, 1987, when the NFLPA ordered players to return without concessions on core demands, as owners demonstrated superior leverage through the viability of replacement games that sustained broadcast revenue exceeding $1 billion annually at the time.^[5]^[28] Striking players forfeited an estimated average of $15,000 per missed game, totaling significant losses amid divided loyalties that strained team dynamics and led to post-strike blacklisting of many replacements by unions.^[34] While immediate labor gains eluded the NFLPA, the episode exposed vulnerabilities in player bargaining power and catalyzed long-term changes, including the union's 1989 decertification to pursue antitrust litigation, ultimately securing free agency in 1993.^[5]^[28]

2001 officials dispute

In August 2001, the National Football League (NFL) locked out members of the NFL Referees Association (NFLRA) following failed contract negotiations centered on retirement benefits and pension contributions.^[84] The lockout began on August 28, 2001, after both sides rejected final offers, affecting the final week of preseason games and the opening week of the regular season.^[85] The NFL hired approximately 120 replacement officials, primarily drawn from collegiate conferences, the Arena Football League, and other lower-tier professional leagues, each contracted for two games at $4,000 per official.^[85] ^[84] These substitutes officiated all Week 1 regular-season games on September 9, 2001, marking the league's first use of replacement officials in regular-season play since a brief 1987 dispute.^[86] ^[87] The NFLRA rejected a subsequent league offer on September 6, 2001, citing insufficient improvements in pension terms, prompting the league to proceed with replacements despite concerns over officiating quality.^[86] The dispute resolved rapidly, with regular officials returning for Week 2 games starting September 23, 2001, after an agreement was reached on enhanced retirement benefits and salary increases.^[88] Unlike longer labor stoppages in other sports, the brief duration minimized widespread disruptions, though some games featured higher penalty counts and officiating errors attributed to the replacements' inexperience at the professional level.^[89]^[90] The episode highlighted tensions over officials' compensation, with the NFL offering fifth-year referees $62,103 in 2001 salaries amid demands for better long-term security.^[91]

2012 officials lockout

The National Football League (NFL) locked out its officials on June 3, 2012, following the expiration of their collective bargaining agreement with the NFL Referees Association (NFLRA) and a breakdown in negotiations over pension benefits, pay, and working conditions.^[92] The league began recruiting replacement officials as early as June 4, 2012, drawing primarily from lower-tier sources such as Division II and III colleges, high schools, and semi-professional leagues, as the NFL initially anticipated a short dispute and did not pursue elite NCAA Division I referees.^[88]^[93] These replacements officiated preseason and regular-season games starting in early September 2012, but their inexperience with NFL rules and pace led to widespread errors, including inconsistent enforcement of pass interference penalties and failure to control game flow, drawing criticism from players, coaches, and analysts.^[94] The situation escalated on September 24, 2012, during a Monday Night Football game between the Green Bay Packers and Seattle Seahawks, where replacement referee Lance Easley ruled a final-play desperation pass a touchdown for the Seahawks after deeming wide receiver Golden Tate and Packers safety M.D. Jennings had simultaneous possession, despite video evidence showing Jennings had sole control before Tate wrestled the ball away; the call stood after replay review, handing Seattle a 14–12 victory.^[95] The "Fail Mary" incident, as it became known, triggered immediate backlash, including lawsuits from Packers shareholders alleging officiating incompetence undermined league integrity, and prompted NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell to resume negotiations overnight.^[95] An eight-year tentative agreement was reached between the NFL and NFLRA shortly after midnight on September 27, 2012 (announced as September 26 in some reports), featuring a 55% pay increase for officials over the term but concessions on defined-benefit pensions in favor of a 401(k)-style plan.^[96]^[97] Locked-out officials returned for the Thursday night game between the Cleveland Browns and Baltimore Ravens on September 27, 2012, ending the use of replacements after three weeks of the regular season.^[96]

Applications in motorsports

NASCAR driver replacements

In September 1969, a group of prominent NASCAR Grand National drivers boycotted the inaugural Talladega 500 race at the newly constructed Alabama International Motor Speedway, citing safety hazards on the 2.66-mile oval with its 33-degree banking, which enabled speeds exceeding 190 mph during practice.^[98] ^[99] Tire failures from suppliers Firestone and Goodyear exacerbated fears, as multiple blowouts occurred without sufficient guardrails or barriers to mitigate crashes, prompting leaders like Richard Petty to organize the walkout under the newly formed Professional Drivers Association.^[98] ^[100] The boycott involved top talents including David Pearson, the Allison brothers (Bobby and Donnie), Cale Yarborough, Buddy Baker, and Wendell Scott, effectively halting preparations as they demanded race postponement or enhanced safety measures.^[99] ^[100] NASCAR founder Bill France Sr. rejected the drivers' demands after personally testing the track at over 160 mph, insisting on proceeding with the September 14 event to assert organizational authority and deter unionization efforts reminiscent of a failed 1961 drivers' push that led to bans for figures like Curtis Turner.^[98] ^[99] To fill the field, France recruited approximately 35 replacement drivers primarily from lower-tier series such as the Grand American division, local racers, and prospects, offering incentives like $1,000 bonuses to participants; only two established Grand National regulars, Bobby Isaac and Tiny Lund (a prior Daytona 500 winner), crossed the picket line.^[98] Notable among the replacements was 24-year-old Richard Childress, who debuted in the series driving a Plymouth for owner Bud Moore, finishing 23rd after starting 28th.^[98] The 500-mile race unfolded amid persistent tire issues, resulting in 22 caution periods and frequent pit stops, with underdog Richard Brickhouse securing victory by leading 173 of 188 laps in a Dodge Charger owned by James Hanley.^[98] ^[101] Attendance reached about 62,000 spectators—below projections—with many complimentary tickets distributed to offset the absence of stars, underscoring the boycott's impact on fan interest while highlighting France's strategy of operational continuity over driver concessions.^[98] The event's completion via replacements fractured the boycott, as boycotting drivers faced financial losses from skipped purses (winner's share: $9,300) and returned to subsequent races without formal resolution, leading to the Professional Drivers Association's dissolution by late 1969.^[100] ^[99] This episode reinforced NASCAR's non-unionized structure, where drivers operate as independent contractors tied to team owners rather than a collective bargaining unit, rendering widespread strikes improbable and limiting replacement scenarios to isolated disputes.^[100] Subsequent safety enhancements, including better tires and the introduction of Winston's performance bonuses in 1971, addressed some grievances without yielding to organized labor, while France's precedent of deploying substitutes curtailed future collective actions.^[98]

IndyCar series

In the IndyCar Series, teams routinely utilize replacement drivers to maintain participation when primary drivers are unavailable due to injuries, practice crashes, or scheduling conflicts, a practice governed by the series rulebook which treats substitutes equivalently to regulars for purposes such as engine allocations and chassis usage.^[102] This approach minimizes disruptions to team operations and preserves competitive balance, as open-wheel racing demands specialized skills and rapid adaptation to high-speed ovals, road courses, and street circuits.^[103] Unlike some sports leagues' lockout-driven replacements, IndyCar substitutions are typically reactive to individual driver circumstances rather than labor disputes, with teams often drawing from reserve pools including former series champions or developmental series talents.^[104] Series regulations prohibit driver changes once a race has begun, emphasizing pre-race qualification and setup stability, though post-qualification swaps can occur under strict oversight for the Indianapolis 500.^[105] In April 2025, IndyCar updated protocols for the 109th Indianapolis 500 to accommodate rare dual-event attempts, allowing replacements only if the entered driver competes in a conflicting marquee race like NASCAR's Coca-Cola 600; such substitutes forfeit the original qualifying position, start from the rear of the field, and must complete a 15-lap orientation at speeds of 210-215 mph.^[106]^[107] This framework was implemented to facilitate high-profile crossovers, such as designating 2013 Indy 500 winner Tony Kanaan as backup for Kyle Larson's potential "Double" attempt.^[104] Injury-related replacements have been prominent, particularly around the demanding Indianapolis 500 practices. In May 2015, James Hinchcliffe sustained severe injuries including lacerations and internal bleeding from a debris-impacted crash during Indy 500 practice, prompting Ryan Briscoe to qualify the No. 5 Schmidt Peterson Honda and Conor Daly to substitute for the Detroit Grand Prix.^[108]^[109] Similarly, in May 2023, Stefan Wilson fractured a vertebra in a practice shunt at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, leading Andretti Autosport to release Graham Rahal from Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing to fill the No. 24 Dreyer & Reinbold seat for the race.^[110] In 2021, Oliver Askew stepped in for Rinus VeeKay, sidelined by a cycling accident ahead of the Detroit Grand Prix, and earlier that weekend for Felix Rosenqvist after the latter's qualifying crash.^[111] These instances highlight the series' reliance on versatile journeyman drivers to sustain team momentum, often resulting in opportunistic performances amid adversity.^[112]

Broader impacts and evaluations

Economic continuity and fan benefits

The deployment of replacement officials during labor disputes has permitted major professional sports leagues to maintain operational continuity, thereby safeguarding substantial revenue streams that would be jeopardized by game cancellations or postponements. In the National Football League's 2012 referee lockout, the league initiated the regular season on schedule using substitutes, preserving access to its approximately $9 billion in annual revenues derived primarily from television contracts, ticket sales, and sponsorships, rather than risking delays that could erode fan trust and broadcaster commitments.^[113] Similarly, during the National Hockey League's 1993 officials' strike, replacement crews officiated games for roughly two weeks, enabling teams to complete early-season matchups and sustain gate receipts and local broadcasting income without halting the 84-game schedule.^[114] This approach contrasts with player lockouts or strikes, such as the NHL's 2004-05 season cancellation, which resulted in total revenue forfeiture estimated in the hundreds of millions for the league and affiliated economies.^[115] Economically, such continuity mitigates cascading losses beyond direct league income, including impacts on stadium vendors, hospitality sectors, and advertising partners who depend on uninterrupted events. Analysis of professional sports work stoppages indicates that even brief suspensions can diminish local economic activity by 10-20% in host cities due to foregone spending on travel, dining, and merchandise, underscoring the value of replacements in averting broader fiscal disruptions.^[115] Leagues like Major League Baseball in its 1999 umpire dispute similarly utilized substitutes to complete the season, avoiding the revenue shortfalls experienced in the 1994-95 player strike, which cost an estimated $1.1 billion league-wide from 948 unplayed games. While replacement officials often operate at lower compensation—such as $3,000-$3,500 per game in the NFL case versus $149,000 average annual salaries for regulars—this cost-saving tactic, combined with schedule adherence, supports short-term financial stability amid negotiations.^[116]^[117] For fans, the primary benefit lies in sustained access to live competition and associated entertainment, preventing the alienation from prolonged absences that erode loyalty and viewership. In the NFL's 2012 scenario, all 48 games across three weeks proceeded, allowing audiences to consume content via broadcasts that averaged 15-17 million viewers per primetime slot, thereby upholding the seasonal narrative and playoff qualification processes despite officiating inconsistencies.^[118] Replacement usage in motorsports, such as NASCAR driver substitutions during injuries, similarly ensures event completion, maintaining fan engagement through predictable racing calendars and reducing no-race outcomes that could halve attendance-driven revenues. However, empirical fan responses reveal mixed outcomes: while continuity averts outright cancellation frustration, widespread dissatisfaction with erratic calls—evident in social media outcry and petitions during the NFL episode—temporarily undermined perceived product quality, prompting quicker resolutions to restore regular officiating.^[119]^[120] This tension highlights that while economic imperatives drive replacement strategies, fan tolerance hinges on balancing immediacy against performance standards.

Effects on league innovations and labor dynamics

The use of replacement workers during labor disputes in professional sports has shifted bargaining power toward league management by enabling operational continuity, thereby diminishing unions' strike leverage and often forcing concessions or structural changes in labor agreements. In Major League Baseball's 1999 umpires dispute, replacements filled roles after a mass resignation by 57 officials, allowing games to proceed uninterrupted and resulting in the non-reinstatement of 22 umpires, which precipitated the decertification of the Major League Umpires Association and the establishment of a successor union with revised governance and evaluation standards.^[121] This outcome exemplified how replacements can erode union cohesion, as management's ability to hire alternatives exposed vulnerabilities in coordinated action strategies. Similarly, economic studies on temporary replacements indicate they mitigate financial losses for employers during stoppages, sustaining revenue and pressuring workers to accept terms closer to initial offers, as seen in broader industrial contexts adaptable to sports.^[122]^[9] However, the quality of replacements can reverse dynamics when poor performance alienates stakeholders, amplifying union negotiating strength through public pressure. During the National Football League's 2012 referees lockout, replacement crews officiated for three weeks, but egregious errors—such as the disputed "Fail Mary" touchdown ruling on September 24, 2012, between the Seattle Seahawks and Green Bay Packers—drew intense criticism from fans, players, and media, culminating in a swift settlement on September 27, 2012.^[123] The resulting eight-year deal granted officials annual pay increases averaging 4-6% (rising from about $150,000 to $205,000 for head referees by 2020), protected pensions for five years, and expanded the officiating roster, illustrating how replacement failures can compel owners to yield on compensation and benefits to restore game integrity.^[124] In the National Hockey League's 1993 officials strike, which spanned 17 days starting November 15, replacements handled 24 games amid complaints of missed calls, yet the league's operations persisted, leading to a settlement with salary hikes but highlighting management's resilience in short-term disruptions.^[69]^[74] These episodes have driven innovations in league operations, particularly in officiating evaluation, training, and labor structures to mitigate future vulnerabilities. The 1999 MLB restructuring empowered centralized oversight under the commissioner's office, streamlining umpire assignments, promotions, and dismissals based on performance metrics, which laid groundwork for subsequent technological aids like QuesTec strike-zone monitoring introduced in 2001 to enforce consistency.^[121] In the NFL, the 2012 debacle accelerated professionalization, including expanded full-time staffing (from 121 to over 140 officials by 2013) and refined training regimens incorporating video analysis and rules simulations, aimed at reducing error rates and dispute frequency.^[94] NHL experiences similarly influenced post-1993 bargaining, embedding provisions for ongoing official development programs to enhance readiness and limit strike impacts, reflecting a causal push toward resilient systems blending human expertise with procedural safeguards.^[125] Overall, while replacements underscore labor's fragility, they catalyze adaptive innovations that prioritize efficiency and quality to preempt recurring conflicts.

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Refs due back Thursday night - ESPN
Sep 26, 2012 · The NFL and the officials' union announced shortly after midnight that a tentative eight-year agreement had been reached to end a lockout that began in June.
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NFL referees agree deal with league to end lockout - Reuters
Sep 27, 2012 · The eight-year deal with the NFL Referees Association (NFLRA) will allow locked-out officials to return to action for this week's games ...
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How a 1969 NASCAR Driver Strike Helped Richard Brickhouse Win ...
The driver boycott at Talladega opened a spot for Richard Childress to make his NASCAR Cup debut in 1969. Childress finished 23rd in the inaugural race at the ...
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Talladega 1969: The year NASCAR's star drivers boycotted the big ...
Oct 3, 2024 · He had previously busted up an attempt to form a union in 1961, banning star drivers Curtis Turner and Tim Flock. They ended up suing NASCAR, ...
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Up to Speed: The Tale of the Talladega Boycott, 50 Years Later
Oct 14, 2019 · Its first-ever Cup Series race, the 1969 Talladega 500, was marred by a drivers' boycott that saw most of NASCAR's top wheelmen sit the race out.
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Sep 16, 2015 · 1969 - Brickhouse Wins Boycotted Race at Talladega · 1. Richard Brickhouse, Rocky Point, N.C. · 2. Jim Vandiver, Charlotte, N.C. · 3. Ramo Stott, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] ntt indycar series | rulebook
the Season Start of a given Racing Season until the Season start of the following Racing Season. A substitute Driver is the same Driver for purposes of Engine ...
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https://www.indycar.com/news/2025/04/04-17-500-replacement-driver
[104]
IndyCar clarifies Indy 500 replacement driver guidelines - RACER
Apr 17, 2025 · A replacement driver will only be considered if the primary (entered) driver also is participating in another marquee event with the driver's ...
[105]
Around the Corner: 108th Indianapolis 500 - INDYCAR.com
May 26, 2024 · The other drivers include Mario Andretti, Johnny Rutherford, Al ... INDYCAR no longer allows replacement drivers once the race starts.<|separator|>
[106]
INDYCAR Updates Replacement Driver Status for Indianapolis 500
Apr 17, 2025 · INDYCAR has informed race teams of a procedural update involving eligible drivers ahead of the 109th Indianapolis 500 presented by Gainbridge.
[107]
Indy 500: IndyCar's replacement driver rules for Kyle Larson, Tony ...
Apr 17, 2025 · IndyCar clarifies Indy 500 replacement driver protocols for Kyle Larson, Tony Kanaan ... That program includes running 15 laps between 210 to 215 ...
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Ryan Briscoe to replace injured Hinchcliffe in Indy 500
May 21, 2015 · Ryan Briscoe to replace injured Hinchcliffe in Indy 500. Australian racer Ryan Briscoe will pilot the No. 5 Schmidt Peterson Motorsports Honda ...
[109]
James Hinchcliffe, injured IndyCar driver, out of hospital | CBC Sports
May 27, 2015 · Conor Daly will replace Hinchcliffe this weekend in Detroit for Schmidt Peterson Motorsports. Ryan Briscoe replaced Hinchcliffe in Sunday's ...
[110]
"Bittersweet moment" for Rahal as he replaces injured Wilson on ...
May 23, 2023 · RLL has released Graham Rahal to replace the injured Stefan Wilson in the car co-run by D&R and Cusick for this weekend's Indy 500.
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IndyCar driver Rinus VeeKay injured in cycling accident - AP News
Jun 15, 2021 · Oliver Askew will fill in for VeeKay at Dertoit. Askew was also the replacement driver Sunday after Felix Rosenqvist was injured in a crash. “I ...
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Théo Pourchaire back for Toronto after Alexander Rossi injured
Jul 20, 2024 · Théo Pourchaire is returning to Arrow McLaren for Sunday's IndyCar race in Toronto after Alexander Rossi broke his right thumb in practice.
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The NFL Referee Fiasco Isn't About Money: It's About Power
Sep 25, 2012 · Since the NFL grossed $9 billion in revenues last season, you might think that this is case of extending a bitter work stoppage over a ...
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NHL OFFICIALS GO BACK TO WORK - Chicago Tribune
Dec 2, 1993 · The agreement gives the officials pay raises ranging from $18,000 to $84,000 and ends the use of replacement officials, whose performance was ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] The Economic Consequences of Professional Sports Strikes and ...
In the past, league and industry-sponsored studies have estimated that the presence of a professional sports franchise increases economic activity by hundreds ...Missing: replacement officials
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Replacement referees blew the Packers-Seahawks call but it's the ...
Sep 25, 2012 · The NFL is paying the replacement head officials only $3,500 a game. All other officials are making only $3,000 a game. The average NFL official ...
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NFL Caves to Referees Union to End Lockout - Business Insider
Sep 27, 2012 · They'll average $149,000 in 2012, $173,000 next year (a 16 percent raise), and $205,000 by 2019. The NFL can only hire 1/3 the number of new ...
[118]
NFL fans and players relieved at agreement to end referee lockout
Sep 27, 2012 · NFL players and fans have reacted with relief to an agreement ending the league's bitter dispute with referees that had disrupted the start of the season.
[119]
Roger Goodell apologizes to fans - ESPN
Sep 27, 2012 · Commissioner Roger Goodell apologized to fans for the anxiety of the past three weeks while denying that using replacement officials increased ...Missing: major | Show results with:major
[120]
Celebs React to Replacement Refs Controversy - E! News
Sep 25, 2012 · Twitterverse is abuzz as celebs bash the NFL's substitute referees for an obvious error that gave Seattle the game over Green Bay.
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Major League Umpires and Unionization
Aug 15, 2017 · Umpires started on the road to formation of a union that would eventually be recognized as the official bargaining agent for major-league umpires.Missing: innovations | Show results with:innovations
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[PDF] The Economic Effects of Banning Temporary Replacement Workers
Meanwhile, workers participating in a strike are able to lessen their own financial pressure by finding employment elsewhere while the strike or lockout is ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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NFL Reaches Labor Deal With Referees - The New York Times
Sep 26, 2012 · The National Football League reached agreement on an eight-year labor deal with its game officials late Wednesday night, effectively ending a lockout.
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Sorry about that, NFL chief says of replacements - CNN
Sep 27, 2012 · The NFL labor deal with referees locks in pay raises, protects pensions for five years. It comes 48 hours after furor erupted over Monday ...
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NHL, Officials Ironing Out New CBA - Scouting The Refs
Sep 12, 2019 · Officials did strike back in November of 1993, frustrated at a lack of progress on a new deal with the league. The strike lasted 17 days, with ...