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Sart

Sart is a historical term denoting the settled, urban and agricultural Muslim inhabitants of Central Asia, particularly those in oases and cities of regions such as the Fergana Valley, Samarkand, and the Syr Darya basin, who were primarily Turkic-speaking with an Iranic cultural substrate and distinguished from nomadic pastoralist groups like Kazakhs and Kyrgyz.^[1] The designation, employed by Russian imperial administrators and local nomads up to the early 20th century, encompassed populations that later formed the basis of modern ethnic identities including Uzbeks and Tajiks, reflecting a socio-economic divide between sedentary traders, artisans, and farmers versus mobile herders rather than strict linguistic or genetic categories.^[2] In contemporary usage, the label has become obsolete and often derogatory, rejected by the groups it once described in favor of national self-identifications established during the Soviet era.^[3]

Etymology and Historical Origins

Linguistic and Cultural Roots

The term Sart (or Sārt) entered usage around the eleventh century as a designation for "merchant" or "trader," likely deriving from an Indic source akin to Sanskrit sārthavāha, denoting a caravan leader or commercial agent.^[4] Alternative theories trace it to a dialectal form of Sogdian or a phonetic adaptation reflecting pre-Islamic trade networks across Central Asia, though these remain speculative without direct attestation.^[5] By the thirteenth century, nomadic Turkic and Mongol groups repurposed the word in their languages to broadly label sedentary Iranian-speaking populations encountered during expansions into Transoxiana and Khorasan, distinguishing them from pastoralists based on lifestyle rather than strict ethnicity.^[6] In Persian contexts, sart retained its mercantile connotation into medieval Islamic texts, often applied to urban artisans and bazaar dwellers in cities like Samarkand and Bukhara, where it connoted cultural sophistication tied to Persianate literary and administrative traditions.^[4] Turkic speakers, including early Chagatai elites, adopted and expanded the term to encompass bilingual communities fluent in both Persian (as a high-register language of poetry, law, and diplomacy) and local Turkic dialects, reflecting the Turco-Persian synthesis that defined much of Central Asian urban life from the Timurid era onward.^[6] This linguistic borrowing underscored a cultural binary: Sarts as town-dwellers engaged in agriculture, craftsmanship, and commerce, embodying settled Islamic civility against the mobility of steppe nomads like Kazakhs or Kyrgyz.^[7] Culturally, Sart roots embedded in the legacy of Sogdian merchant networks, which facilitated Silk Road exchanges and left enduring imprints on Central Asian bazaar economies and urban planning, with Persian as the lingua franca of trade and administration persisting among these groups despite Turkic vernacular dominance.^[8] Ethnographic accounts from the nineteenth century, drawing on earlier Persian chronicles, portray Sarts as inheritors of this hybrid identity—ethnically diverse yet unified by Sunni Hanafi jurisprudence, Sufi orders, and shared architectural motifs like iwans and minarets—contrasting with nomadic tribal structures.^[6] This distinction fostered a self-perception among Sarts as custodians of oases-based civilization, evidenced in their patronage of madrasas and caravanserais, which preserved Persian literary forms even as Turkic epics gained oral currency.^[7]

Early Usage in Turkic and Persian Contexts

The term sart entered recorded Turkic usage by the 11th century, deriving from an Old Turkic root denoting merchants or traders, though its application soon broadened to encompass sedentary urban dwellers. Its earliest known literary appearance occurs in the Qutadgu Bilig (Wisdom of Royal Glory), a didactic poem composed in 1070 CE by Yusuf Balasaguni during the Karakhanid Khanate in Kashgar. In this text, sart distinguishes settled town populations—likely including Persian-speaking communities—from nomadic Turkic groups, reflecting early socio-economic divisions in Transoxiana where urban commerce and agriculture contrasted with pastoral mobility.^[5] This semantic shift from mercantile to sedentary connotations underscores sart's role in Turkic ethnographic categorization, as evidenced in the Qutadgu Bilig's portrayal of sart communities as culturally refined yet potentially effeminate or less martial compared to steppe nomads, a trope persisting in later Turkic literature. By the 13th century, Mongol chroniclers and Turkic sources extended sart to Iranian-speaking settled peoples across Central Asia, integrating it into broader imperial taxonomies of subject populations.^[6]^[9] In Persian contexts, sart was borrowed from Turkic as a loanword for merchants (sart or sart-bāz), appearing in medieval administrative and historiographic texts to describe urban trading classes in regions like Khorasan and Transoxiana. Adopted amid Turko-Persian cultural synthesis under Seljuk and later Ilkhanid rule, it denoted Persianized sedentary groups engaging in bazaar economies, often without strict ethnic boundaries but emphasizing lifestyle over descent. Persian usage retained mercantile overtones longer than in Turkic, as seen in references to sartān (plural merchants) in 12th-13th century commercial records, though it increasingly connoted cultural intermediaries between Iranian urbanites and incoming Turkic elites.^[10]^[11]

Pre-Modern Identity in Central Asia

Sedentary vs. Nomadic Distinctions

The term "Sart" in pre-modern Central Asia referred to the sedentary, urbanized populations of Turkic and Persian linguistic backgrounds who inhabited oases, towns, and agricultural heartlands such as Transoxiana (modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), distinguishing them from nomadic pastoralists of the steppe.^[6] This binary was not strictly ethnic but socio-economic and lifestyle-based, with Sarts embodying settled agrarian, mercantile, and artisanal pursuits in irrigated river valleys like the Zeravshan and Amu Darya basins, fostering dense populations in cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara by the Timurid era (14th–15th centuries).^[9] Nomadic groups, conversely, comprised mobile tribes—often Turkic-speakers like Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, or pre-Uzbek confederations—who relied on seasonal herding of livestock across arid steppes, prioritizing portability over permanent infrastructure.^[12] The distinction gained salience following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, which disrupted urban centers but ultimately reinforced the resilience of sedentary communities through their control of trade routes along the Silk Road, where Sarts served as intermediaries exchanging grains, textiles, and ceramics for nomadic wool, hides, and mounts.^[7] By the 16th century, invading Shaybanid Uzbeks, themselves nomadic warriors, appropriated and popularized "Sart" pejoratively to denote these pre-existing settled folk—often labeling them as culturally Persianized or "Tajik-like" despite their Turkic vernaculars—as opposed to the conquerors' own tribal mobility.^[6] This usage highlighted causal tensions: sedentary Sart economies depended on nomadic protection against raids and access to pasture-derived goods, yet nomads frequently exacted tribute or conducted predatory incursions, viewing settled life as emblematic of effeminacy or subservience, a sentiment echoed in Turkic oral traditions.^[13] Culturally, Sarts exhibited greater embedding in Islamic orthodoxy, with madrasas and mosques proliferating in their urban enclaves—evidenced by architectural patronage under Timur (r. 1370–1405), who drew from both sedentary artisans and nomadic cavalry—contrasting nomadic reliance on shamanistic residues, clan genealogies, and epic poetry like the Manas cycle among Kyrgyz tribes.^[9] Intermarriage and clientage ties blurred lines, as some Sart villages adopted semi-pastoralism during droughts, but the core divide persisted in governance: sedentary polities emphasized tax-farming and waqf endowments, while nomadic khanates favored charismatic leadership and booty redistribution.^[12] Russian explorer-ethnographers in the 19th century, building on indigenous categories, quantified this through censuses showing Sarts comprising 70–80% of the settled populace in khanates like Bukhara (ca. 1860s), underscoring the distinction's empirical basis in land use and demography prior to colonial overlays.^[7]

Role in Urban and Trade Centers

In pre-modern Central Asia, Sarts represented the sedentary urban and oasis-dwelling populations, primarily Turkic- or Persian-speaking Muslims, who formed the backbone of town-based economies in khanates such as Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand.^[9] ^[14] These communities contrasted sharply with nomadic pastoralists, focusing instead on irrigated agriculture, craftsmanship, and commerce within fortified cities and market towns that dotted the Transoxiana region.^[15] By the 19th century, Russian ethnographers like Vasily Radlov identified Sarts as the Turkic-speaking urban dwellers distinct from rural or steppe groups, underscoring their role in sustaining localized trade networks.^[7] Sarts played a pivotal intermediary function in regional trade, operating bazaars (tim) and caravanserais that linked nomadic suppliers of livestock and raw materials—such as wool and hides from Kazakh and Kyrgyz herders—with downstream markets for finished goods.^[15] In hubs like Samarkand, a longstanding Silk Road entrepôt with documented trade activity dating to the 4th century BCE, Sarts engaged in artisanal production of textiles, ceramics, and metalwork, exporting these to Persia and Russia while importing spices, dyes, and metals.^[16] Their urban settlements, often numbering in the tens of thousands per city (e.g., Bukhara's population exceeding 100,000 by the 1800s), facilitated credit systems and guild-like organizations (hirat) that regulated crafts and ensured quality for caravan trade.^[17] This economic niche positioned Sarts as cultural brokers, blending Persian administrative traditions with Turkic mercantile practices amid the khanates' feudal structures.^[14] Despite their economic centrality, Sarts often faced tributary obligations to nomadic overlords, paying in-kind levies (e.g., grain or cloth) that reflected the interdependent yet hierarchical dynamics between urban sedentaries and mobile elites.^[18] In Khiva, for instance, Sarts comprised the bulk of the khanate's taxable urban populace until the mid-19th century, supporting fiscal stability through market taxes (bazar-i) on staples like rice and cotton.^[14] This role persisted into the Russian conquest era, where colonial records noted Sarts' dominance in indigenous commerce, though the term increasingly carried pejorative undertones implying subservience or cultural hybridity.^[7] Overall, Sarts' urban embeddedness enabled the resilience of Central Asian trade circuits, adapting to disruptions like Timurid expansions in the 14th-15th centuries by leveraging family-based merchant networks.^[19]

Imperial and Colonial Perceptions

Russian Empire Classifications

In the Russian Empire's administrative and ethnographic framework for Turkestan, conquered between 1865 and 1881, "Sart" classified the sedentary, Turkic-speaking Muslim population primarily engaged in urban trade, crafts, and oasis agriculture, distinguishing them from nomadic groups like the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs (collectively termed "Kirgiz" in imperial records).^[20] This categorization emphasized lifestyle over strict tribal or linguistic purity, positioning Sarts as culturally advanced relative to mobile pastoralists, whom Russian observers associated with Mongoloid features, Turkic speech, and perceived backwardness.^[21] Ethnographers such as those in the Turkestan Statistical Committee viewed Sarts as heirs to pre-Islamic urban traditions in centers like Samarkand and Tashkent, often employing them as intermediaries in colonial tax collection and governance due to their literacy and economic roles.^[20] The 1897 All-Russian Census formalized this classification, recording 951,337 individuals as Sarts in Turkestan's core oblasts of Syr-Darya, Fergana, and Samarkand, representing a major demographic bloc among the empire's Central Asian subjects.^[12] Imperial reports noted Sarts' self-identification with the term, though it encompassed diverse subgroups without rigid tribal boundaries, contrasting with separate listings for Persian-speaking sedentary Tajiks.^[12] This approach reflected a pragmatic colonial taxonomy prioritizing administrative utility and perceived civilizational hierarchies over modern ethnic nationalism, with Sarts often romanticized in Russian scholarship as a bridge between Persianate heritage and Turkic vitality.^[20]

19th-Century Ethnographic Descriptions

In the latter half of the 19th century, Russian ethnographers and colonial administrators, amid the conquest of Turkestan (1865–1884), classified Sarts as the sedentary, urbanized Muslim population inhabiting oases and towns across regions like the Fergana Valley, Bukhara, and Khiva, distinguishing them from nomadic Turkic groups such as Kazakhs and Kyrgyz. These accounts emphasized Sarts' roles as merchants, artisans, and irrigating farmers, with a cultural profile marked by Sunni Islam, patrilineal clans, and a socio-economic hierarchy favoring bazaar traders over rural peasants. For instance, in Khiva, mid-century observers noted Sarts' descent from pre-Mongol settled communities, their use of a hybrid "Sart" language blending Turkic and Persian elements, and their exclusion from nomadic ruling elites, reflecting a persistent urban-rural divide predating Russian rule.^[13] A seminal ethnographic work emerged from Vladimir Nalivkin, a Russian officer, and his wife Maria Nalivkina, who resided in a Sart village in the newly annexed Fergana Valley from 1878 to 1884. Their observations, compiled as A Sketch of the Everyday Life of Women of the Eastern Sarts, detailed the seclusion (parda) of Sart women, who rarely ventured outdoors without a horsehair veil (paranja) and padded overcoat, limiting public interactions to kin and markets under male oversight. Women managed household economies through silk reeling, cotton spinning, and embroidery, while marriages were arranged by age 12–14, often polygamous among affluent men, with dowries emphasizing jewelry and livestock; childbirth and child-rearing followed Islamic rituals, including circumcision feasts and Quranic education for boys. These depictions, drawn from direct immersion, highlighted rigid gender norms and economic interdependence, though filtered through colonial lenses that exoticized Islamic practices without deeper causal analysis of pre-colonial adaptations to arid environments.^[22]^[23] Photographic "ethnographic types" commissioned by Russian authorities further codified Sart appearances, portraying men in turbans and robes as bazaar vendors or mullahs, and women—when unveiled in staged images—as possessing almond-shaped eyes, olive complexions, and ornate headdresses, underscoring a visual anthropology that reinforced Orientalist binaries of static tradition versus imperial modernity. Such records, produced in studios from Samarkand to Tashkent circa 1880–1900, prioritized typological categorization over dynamic social change, yet preserved tangible details of attire like the chapan robe and kalpak hat, verifiable against surviving artifacts. Russian sources' reliability stems from administrative incentives for accurate governance data, though they underemphasized intra-Sart linguistic diversity (e.g., Chagatai dialects) in favor of broad settler-nomad dichotomies.^[24]

20th-Century Transformations

Soviet Ethnic Engineering

During the national-territorial delimitation of 1924–1925, Soviet authorities dismantled the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic, and the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic, establishing the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, and adjusting boundaries for Kazakh and Kyrgyz units to align with purported ethnic majorities.^[25] This process, guided by Bolshevik ideology emphasizing korenizatsiya (indigenization) to foster loyalty through localized governance, systematically categorized Central Asia's sedentary Muslim populations—historically grouped under the umbrella term "Sart"—into linguistically defined nationalities.^[26] Turkic-speaking Sarts, who formed the bulk of urban and agricultural communities in oases like the Ferghana Valley and Zeravshan region, were predominantly reclassified as Uzbeks, with the Uzbek SSR encompassing territories around Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bukhara where such groups predominated.^[27] Persian (Tajik)-speaking elements among the Sarts, concentrated in areas like Samarkand and northern Afghanistan's borderlands, were initially included in the Uzbek SSR but separated into the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924, elevated to full union republic status in 1929 after linguistic surveys confirmed their distinct Iranian heritage.^[25] The 1924 census explicitly discontinued "Sart" as a self-reported identity category, redirecting respondents into the new ethnic bins of Uzbek, Tajik, or others, effectively erasing the term's broad applicability to mixed sedentary Turkic-Iranian communities and tying identity to standardized languages promoted via literacy campaigns and territorial units.^[28] Soviet ethnographers, drawing on pre-revolutionary Russian surveys but subordinating them to Marxist-Leninist frameworks, viewed "Sart" as a relic of feudal fragmentation lacking proletarian basis, thus unfit for modern socialist nation-building.^[26] This engineering prioritized administrative control over historical fluidity, resulting in enclaves and mixed demographics—such as Uzbek majorities in Tajik-claimed Samarkand (assigned to Uzbekistan despite 40–50% Tajik population)—that sowed long-term border disputes.^[27] By the 1930s, under Stalin's consolidation, remaining Sart usages in folklore or local dialects were marginalized through purges of "bourgeois nationalists" and Russification drives, though the policy inadvertently solidified titular ethnic elites in republics like Uzbekistan, where Uzbeks rose from 3.2 million self-identified in 1926 to institutional dominance.^[26] Critics, including some post-Soviet analysts, argue the division artificially cleaved a cohesive Sart cultural sphere—unified by shared sedentary lifestyles, Chagatai literary heritage, and Sart tili dialects—into rival nations to weaken pan-Turkic or pan-Islamic solidarity, a view echoed in Tajik historiography decrying the loss of cultural centers like Bukhara.^[27] Empirical data from Soviet censuses (1926: 3,904,000 Uzbeks; 1939: 6,455,000) reflect this engineered growth, attributable to reclassification, natural increase, and boundary shifts rather than organic ethnogenesis alone.^[28]

Post-Soviet Ethnic Reassertions

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991, Central Asian states prioritized the ethnic identities formalized during the 1924-1930 national delimitation process, which had subdivided broader groups historically termed "Sarts"—settled urban Turkic- and Iranic-speaking Muslims—into distinct nationalities like Uzbeks and Tajiks. In Uzbekistan, official policies under President Islam Karimov reinforced Uzbek as the dominant identity, leading to the closure of Tajik-language schools and media outlets by 1993 in historically Persianate cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara, where Tajik-speakers (estimated at 10-15% of the population despite official figures under 5%) resorted to terms like "Eroni" (Iranians) to subtly assert pre-Soviet cultural ties without invoking suppressed identities.^[29] ^[30] This assimilation effort heightened ethnic tensions, as Tajiks—often linked to historical Sarts through bilingual urban traditions—faced restrictions on cultural expression, prompting informal reassertions of Persian linguistic and historical heritage amid Uzbek nationalist narratives claiming regional legacies.^[31] In Tajikistan, independence triggered the 1992-1997 civil war, which killed an estimated 50,000-100,000 people and exposed fractures between regional clans, urban intellectuals, and rural Islamists, ultimately strengthening a state-sponsored Tajik identity emphasizing Samanid-era Persian roots and figures like Spitamenes over Soviet-era cosmopolitanism. Mosque attendance surged from 13% in the early 1990s to 52% by 2010, and daily prayers from 1% to 63%, reflecting a religious reassertion intertwined with ethnic consolidation, though the "Sart" label remained absent from official discourse, viewed as a pre-modern or pejorative Soviet relic denoting settled non-nomads.^[32] ^[29] Interethnic usage persisted sporadically, as in Kyrgyzstan or Kazakhstan, where Kyrgyz or Kazakhs applied "Sart" derogatorily to neighboring settled Uzbeks or Tajiks during resource disputes, underscoring lingering nomadic-sedentary divides without broader self-adoption.^[33] Minority subgroups historically qualified as "Sarts," such as the Sart Kalmyks in Kyrgyzstan—a community of approximately 200-300 Oirat-Mongol descendants—experienced identity transitions amid post-Soviet Kyrgyz nation-building, blending ancestral Buddhist practices with Islamic influences and Kyrgyz citizenship while resisting full assimilation. Ethnographic accounts note their self-perception as distinct yet integrated, avoiding "Sart" revival in favor of pragmatic alignment with titular identities, as state policies promoted civic nationalism over archaic ethnonyms. Overall, post-Soviet dynamics entrenched Soviet-engineered categories, with "Sart" confined to scholarly analysis of pre-20th-century urban traders rather than active ethnic mobilization.^[15]^[34]

Regional Variations in Central Asia

In the khanates of Bukhara and Khiva, encompassing much of modern Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, the term "Sart" designated the sedentary, urbanized indigenous population engaged in trade, agriculture, and crafts, often tracing origins to pre-Uzbek settled communities and distinguished from the nomadic Uzbek conquerors who arrived in the 16th century.^[14] ^[7] This usage emphasized cultural and economic roles, with Sarts forming the backbone of oasis economies in regions like Samarkand and Bukhara, where they comprised a significant portion of the population by the 19th century.^[7] In contrast, across the Kazakh steppe, "Sart" acquired a derogatory connotation among nomadic Kazakhs, applied to sedentary groups—particularly Uzbeks or Turkicized Tajiks—as a marker of perceived cultural inferiority tied to town-dwelling lifestyles versus mobile pastoralism.^[35] This reflected broader nomadic-sedentary tensions, with the term rarely used for self-identification and instead signaling ethnic othering in interactions along borders or trade routes by the late 19th century.^[36] Kyrgyzstan presented a hybrid pattern, where "Sart" functioned as an exonym for settled Turkic speakers like Uzbeks in northern and eastern areas, while also prefixing subgroups such as the Sart Kalmaks—Oirat Mongols who sedentarized in the 19th century around Issyk-Kul, blending with local Uzbeks and adopting the label to denote their non-nomadic status.^[37] In the Fergana Valley, straddling Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, the term broadly encompassed pre-Soviet mixed sedentary natives of Turkic and Iranian descent, serving as a neutral ethnonym for valley dwellers until Soviet reclassifications in the 1920s redistributed them as Uzbeks or Tajiks.^[38] In Tajik-majority areas, "Sart" was less prevalent and often overlapped with Persian-speaking sedentaries, but carried implications of Turkic influence in urban centers, differing from its stronger Turkic association in Uzbek contexts.^[7] Post-Soviet, these variations persist in residual derogatory uses—especially in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan toward Uzbeks—but the term's overall application has declined, supplanted by national ethnic categories established in the 1920s censuses.^[36] ^[35]

Usage Among Specific Minorities

In Kyrgyzstan, the term Sart is applied derogatorily by segments of the Kyrgyz majority to Uzbek minorities, particularly in southern regions like Osh where Uzbeks form a significant portion of the population and historical sedentary communities. This usage revives pre-Soviet distinctions between nomadic Kyrgyz and settled Turkic-speakers, often implying traits like economic parasitism or cultural stagnation rooted in perceived advantages of urban Uzbeks over rural Kyrgyz.^[39] The slur gained prominence during the June 2010 ethnic violence in Osh, where it was invoked as a threat amid clashes that killed over 400 people, mostly Uzbeks, and displaced tens of thousands; Kyrgyz perpetrators reportedly used Sart to dehumanize targets, linking it to grievances over land access and Soviet-era policies that curtailed nomadic pastoralism.^[39] Tensions persisted into 2012, with graffiti such as "Death to Sarts" appearing on Uzbek cultural sites and monuments in Osh, prompting panic, restricted mobility, and avoidance of interethnic interactions among Uzbeks fearful of renewed pogroms.^[40] Anthropological analysis attributes the term's enduring sting to Kyrgyz narratives framing historical and post-Soviet inequities—such as collectivization's disruption of mobility and uneven privatization—as inflicted by sedentary groups, rendering Sart a vessel for broader ressentiment rather than mere linguistic relic.^[39] While less publicly documented, informal reports suggest parallel pejorative deployment in Kazakhstan toward its Uzbek minority (around 3% of the population), though without the same incidence of overt violence.^[41]

Associated Groups and Subgroups

Dongxiang Self-Identification

The Dongxiang people, numbering approximately 621,000 as of the 2010 Chinese census, primarily inhabit Gansu Province in northwest China and self-identify using the autonym Sarta or Santa.^[42] This term is etymologically connected to "Sart," historically denoting sedentary Muslim traders and urban dwellers of Persian and Turkic origin in Central Asia, reflecting the Dongxiang's Islamic identity and possible historical ties to merchant migrations.^[43] Among the Dongxiang, Santa carries a specifically religious connotation, often reserved for practicing Muslims, thereby intertwining ethnic self-perception with devout adherence to Sunni Islam.^[44] Prior to their official recognition as a distinct ethnic group in 1950, the Dongxiang were sometimes labeled "Mongolian Huihui" by external observers, but internal usage of Sarta persisted, underscoring a self-view as part of a Muslim continuum rather than strictly Mongolic lineage.^[45] Linguistic evidence suggests the term may derive from Mongolian sarta'ul, meaning "Musulman," indicating adaptation through Mongol imperial contexts where Central Asian Muslim elements integrated into eastern communities.^[44] This self-identification highlights causal influences of religious solidarity over linguistic or genetic isolation, as Dongxiang speech belongs to the Mongolic family yet incorporates Persian and Arabic loanwords tied to their faith.^[43] In modern practice, Santa remains an endonym in informal and religious settings, even as state classifications emphasize "Dongxiang" (meaning "Eastern Township") for administrative purposes, preserving a layer of identity linked to historical Sart-like roles as settled agrarian Muslims amid Han and Hui neighbors.^[42] Ethnographic accounts note that this usage fosters cohesion within their endogamous communities, where Islam structures social norms, though external perceptions often overlook the Sart etymological bridge in favor of regional geographic labels.^[45]

Sart Kalmyks in Kyrgyzstan

The Sart Kalmyks, a subgroup of Oirat-Mongol descent also referred to as Issyk-Kul or Karakol Kalmyks, inhabit the Issyk-Kul Region in eastern Kyrgyzstan, particularly the Ak-Suu District near the Chinese border.^[46]^[47] Their ethnonym incorporates "Sart" to denote a shift to sedentary living, distinguishing them from historically nomadic Kalmyk populations and aligning with broader Central Asian usage of the term for settled, urbanized, or agricultural communities of Turkic or Iranic origin.^[15] This group traces its roots to Ööled tribes under the Dzungar Khanate, whose remnants migrated westward following the Qing Empire's conquest of Dzungaria in the 1750s; subsequent subgroups entered Russian imperial territories in Semirechye (now spanning Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan).^[48] Resettlement intensified during the 1860s–1890s amid the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in the Ili Valley (Ghulja/Yining) of Xinjiang, where some Kalmyks had sought refuge under Qing rule.^[48] Russian authorities facilitated the movement of these groups from Semirechye to Przhevalsky Uyezd (centered on present-day Karakol), supporting their establishment as border settlers; most migrants initially returned to China post-revolt, but a small core remained, founding villages including Chelpek and Ber-Bash (also spelled Börü-Bash or Beryu-Bash).^[48] By the late 19th century, they had expanded to additional settlements like Burma-Suu and Tash-Kyya, maintaining mixed pastoral-agricultural economies adapted to the region's lake basin terrain.^[47]^[15] Demographically, the four primary villages—Chelpek, Burma-Suu, Tash-Kyya, and Beryu-Bash—house populations totaling about 12,000, with Sart Kalmyks comprising roughly 90% of residents.^[47] The 2009 Kyrgyz census recorded 4,176 self-identified Sart Kalmyks nationwide, including 3,801 in Issyk-Kul, suggesting potential undercounting due to partial assimilation or reidentification as Kyrgyz.^[15] They profess Sunni Islam, adopted through prolonged contact with Uyghur, Dungan, and Kyrgyz Muslim communities, supplanting any prior Tibetan Buddhist practices common among Oirats.^[46] Linguistically, original Oirat Mongolian dialects have largely yielded to Kyrgyz (a Turkic language), with residual Kalmyk vocabulary persisting in domestic and folklore contexts; multilingualism incorporating Russian is common, as evidenced by a 1990s Sart-Kalmyk-Kyrgyz-Russian dictionary compiled in Chelpek.^[46] Culturally, they have integrated Kyrgyz norms in dress, cuisine, and social organization while retaining Mongol-derived elements like epic oral narratives, proverbs, and songs, though these face erosion from urbanization and intermarriage.^[46]^[15] Ethnographic accounts describe ongoing identity flux, with younger generations navigating between asserted Oirat heritage and pragmatic alignment with the Kyrgyz majority, exacerbated by Soviet-era policies promoting sedentarization and post-independence economic pressures in a minority context.^[15] Limited scholarly attention, including 2021 field expeditions, underscores their preservation of clan structures amid these transitions.^[46]

Siberian and Peripheral Applications

In Siberia, the term Sart was applied during the Russian Empire era to Muslim migrant communities from Central Asia, particularly those originating from Bukhara and identifying with Uzbek cultural elements. These groups, known as Siberian Bukharans, explicitly self-identified as Sartlar (plural of Sart), tracing their origins to southern Uzbek territories and emphasizing their role as Islamic preachers and settlers who arrived to propagate faith among local populations.^[49] This usage reflected a broader ethnographic pattern where Sart denoted sedentary, urbanized Turkic or Iranic Muslims distinct from nomadic steppe peoples, with Siberian applications highlighting migration networks linking Central Asia to Russian frontier zones for trade and religious expansion.^[49] Among indigenous Siberian Tatars—a Turkic-speaking Muslim group concentrated in the Tobol-Irtysh basin and surrounding areas—Sart emerged as one of over 250 historical ethnonyms, alongside terms like Kurchak and Nugai, used by both self-designation and external observers to categorize settled subgroups.^[50] Russian imperial records and early ethnographies documented this application, associating Sart with Tatar clans exhibiting sedentary lifestyles, Islamic adherence, and ties to Volga or Central Asian Muslim networks, though the term's fluidity often blurred distinctions between local and migrant identities. By the late 19th century, such labels facilitated administrative classifications under the empire's policy of indirect rule over Muslim peripheries, but they also perpetuated ambiguities in ethnic mapping, as Sart could interchangeably reference Tajik-influenced settlers or Turkicized groups without precise linguistic or genetic delineation.^[50] Peripheral applications extended beyond Siberia to Russian borderlands like Semipalatinsk (now Semey, Kazakhstan), where Sart described Tajik and Uzbek merchant enclaves interacting with Kazakh nomads and Siberian outposts. In these zones, the term underscored economic roles—Sart as trader or townsman—while carrying occasional pejorative undertones from nomadic perspectives, viewing sedentaries as culturally diluted. This usage persisted into early Soviet ethnography but waned with national delimitation policies that reclassified populations into modern ethnic categories like Uzbek or Tatar, rendering Sart obsolete in official discourse by the 1920s.^[51]

Controversies and Scholarly Debates

Derogatory Connotations and Interethnic Tensions

The term "Sart" has carried pejorative implications since at least the 19th century, when nomadic groups such as Kazakhs and Kyrgyz applied it to sedentary Turkic-speaking populations in Central Asia, associating it with traits like cowardice, stinginess, and urban effeminacy in contrast to the perceived martial virtues of steppe nomads.^[10]^[7] This usage reflected deep-seated cultural divides between mobile pastoralists and settled traders or farmers, often embedded in folk proverbs that demeaned Sarts as unwarlike merchants.^[10] Sedentary communities themselves rejected the label as externally imposed and abusive, akin to other ethnic slurs that outsiders used to assert superiority.^[10] In post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan, "Sart" evolved into a potent ethnic slur primarily targeting Uzbeks, evoking stereotypes of cunning bazaar traders or "melon sellers" who allegedly exploit Kyrgyz through economic dominance in urban areas like Osh and Jalal-Abad.^[52]^[53] These connotations intensified during the June 2010 interethnic violence, which killed over 400 people—mostly Uzbeks—and displaced tens of thousands, with the slur appearing in chants, graffiti, and media rhetoric that framed Uzbeks as disloyal settlers undermining Kyrgyz sovereignty.^[54] Post-conflict incidents, such as 2012 racist graffiti labeling Uzbeks as "Sarts" on theaters and buildings in southern Kyrgyzstan, underscored ongoing resentments tied to land disputes, resource competition, and historical nomadic-sedentary animosities.^[40] The slur's deployment has exacerbated Kyrgyz-Uzbek tensions by reinforcing narratives of cultural incompatibility, where Uzbeks are portrayed as Persianate-influenced urbanites resistant to Kyrgyz nation-building, while northern Kyrgyz occasionally apply it intra-ethnically to southern co-ethnics perceived as more sedentary.^[55] In Kazakhstan, similar pejorative echoes persist in references to sedentary Uzbeks or Tajiks, though less violently than in Kyrgyzstan, highlighting how Soviet-era ethnic engineering failed to fully eradicate nomadic disdain for settled lifestyles.^[7] Despite official discouragement since the 1920s, when the term was deemed derogatory and phased out of ethnic classifications, its resurgence in informal discourse perpetuates interethnic friction amid economic disparities and border sensitivities.^[56]

Disputes Over Origins and Authenticity

The etymology of "Sart" remains contested among scholars, with primary theories tracing it to an Old Turkic adaptation of the Sanskrit term sārthavāha, denoting "merchant" or "caravan leader," which entered Central Asian usage via Persian intermediaries to describe urban traders and sedentary populations.^[12] Alternative proposals suggest a Turkic derivation from Sogdian roots or a dialectal form of "Sogd," linking it to ancient Iranian-speaking merchants in the region, though evidence for direct phonetic continuity is limited.^[5] These origins underscore a functional rather than ethnic connotation, emphasizing economic roles over lineage, but debates persist due to sparse pre-Mongol attestations, with some linguists arguing for indigenous Turkic evolution independent of Indo-Aryan influences.^[10] Authenticity as a self-applied ethnonym is widely questioned, as historical records indicate that Central Asian sedentary communities—primarily Turkic- and Persian-speaking—rarely adopted "Sart" voluntarily, viewing it instead as an exonym imposed by nomadic Turkic groups like Kazakhs or by Russian ethnographers to denote non-tribal, urban dwellers.^[10] V.V. Barthold, a leading Orientalist, characterized it as a post-Mongol synonym for "Tajik" among Turkic speakers, reflecting cultural rather than genetic distinctiveness, yet this interpretation has been critiqued for overemphasizing linguistic shifts at the expense of socio-economic fluidity in pre-colonial identities.^[12] Soviet historiography further eroded its legitimacy by reclassifying "Sarts" into binary Uzbek or Tajik categories during the 1920s national delimitation, dismissing it as a colonial artifact lacking primordial roots, though this process itself reflected ideological priorities over empirical continuity.^[36] Contemporary scholarly disputes center on whether "Sart" represents an authentic proto-ethnic marker for mixed sedentary groups or merely a transient occupational label, with evidence from 19th-century Russian surveys showing its application to both Turkic Uzbeks and Iranian Tajiks without consistent self-identification.^[7] Critics of revivalist uses in post-Soviet contexts argue that such claims fabricate continuity, ignoring how the term's derogatory undertones—implying sedentariness as inferior to nomadism—undermined its viability as a unifying identity.^[10] Proponents, drawing on archival distinctions in khanates like Khiva, contend it preserved real distinctions in origin and lifestyle until the mid-19th century, predating modern national constructs.^[13] These debates highlight tensions between archival literalism and constructivist views of ethnicity, with no consensus on its role beyond a heuristic for pre-modern social stratification.

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