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Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis

Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD), also known as diverticular colitis, is a distinct form of chronic segmental colitis that can resemble inflammatory bowel disease, characterized by segmental inflammation confined to the interdiverticular mucosa of the colon, typically the sigmoid region, in patients with diverticulosis, while sparing the rectum and areas without diverticula.^[1]^[2]^[3] This condition primarily affects older adults, with a mean age at diagnosis of approximately 64 years and a male predominance (around 59%), occurring with prevalence estimates ranging from 0.3% to 12% in individuals with colonic diverticulosis, varying by study and population.^[1]^[2]^[4] The most common clinical presentation includes rectal bleeding in over 70% of cases, often accompanied by diarrhea, lower abdominal pain, or constipation, though systemic symptoms like fever or extraintestinal manifestations are rare.^[1]^[2]^[3] The pathophysiology remains incompletely understood but is thought to involve localized factors such as fecal stasis leading to bacterial overgrowth or dysbiosis within diverticular segments, potentially triggering inflammation in genetically susceptible individuals, without evidence of infectious etiology or granulomatous changes, with emerging evidence of triggers including immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy and post-COVID-19 inflammation.^[1]^[3] Diagnosis is established through colonoscopy, which reveals erythema, friability, and ulceration limited to the mucosa between diverticula (classified into endoscopic types A through D based on severity and pattern), confirmed by histologic examination showing non-specific chronic active colitis without granulomas or pANCA/ASCA positivity.^[1]^[2]^[3] Differential diagnosis includes inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis), ischemic colitis, infectious colitis, and colorectal malignancy, necessitating careful exclusion through imaging, serology, and biopsy.^[1]^[2] Treatment is generally conservative and effective, with over 80% of cases achieving remission within six months using oral or topical 5-aminosalicylates (e.g., mesalamine) as first-line therapy; corticosteroids are reserved for moderate to severe cases, and surgery is rarely required (in fewer than 10% of patients).^[1]^[2]^[3] The prognosis is favorable and benign, with most patients experiencing spontaneous resolution or sustained response to medical management, though recurrence may occur years later in about 25% of cases, often manageable with retreatment; however, rare progression to ulcerative colitis has been reported in a small percentage of cases.^[1]^[3]^[5]

Overview

Definition and Characteristics

Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) is defined as a chronic inflammatory condition characterized by non-specific, segmental inflammation confined to colonic segments affected by diverticulosis, typically the sigmoid colon, with consistent sparing of the rectum and right colon.^[1] This entity requires the presence of diverticulosis as a prerequisite, distinguishing it as a complication of diverticular disease rather than a primary inflammatory bowel disorder.^[2] Key characteristics of SCAD include mucosal inflammation that histologically resembles inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) but is strictly limited to the interdiverticular areas between diverticula, without granulomatous features in most cases.^[1] It is differentiated from acute diverticulitis, which involves pericolic fat inflammation centered on diverticula, and from chronic diverticulitis by its luminal, non-infectious mucosal pattern without significant extracolonic involvement.^[6] Anatomically, SCAD predominantly localizes to the sigmoid colon in the majority of cases, with occasional extension to the descending colon, where inflammation appears patchy or circumferential but invariably associates with diverticula-bearing segments.^[2] Among patients with diverticulosis, SCAD prevalence is estimated at 0.3% to 1.3%, though it remains underrecognized due to symptomatic and endoscopic overlap with other colorectal conditions.^[1] The term "SCAD" was coined in the medical literature to describe this distinct clinicopathological entity, separating it from IBD and traditional diverticular complications like diverticulitis.^[7]

Epidemiology

Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) affects approximately 0.3% to 1.3% of patients with diverticulosis undergoing colonoscopy.^[8] Recent studies as of 2024 report prevalence variability, ranging from 0.3-4% in general populations and 1.9-11.4% among those with diverticulosis, suggesting potential increases due to improved detection.^[9] This translates to a relatively low overall population prevalence, given that diverticulosis itself is common in older adults. The condition predominantly occurs in elderly individuals, with a mean age at diagnosis of 63.6 years (range 26–87 years) and most cases in those over 60 years.^[8] There is a slight male predominance, with about 58.7% of cases occurring in men, corresponding to a male-to-female ratio of roughly 1.4:1.^[8] SCAD is more frequently reported in Western populations where diverticulosis prevalence is high, affecting up to 50% of individuals over 60 years in the United States and Western Europe.^[10] In contrast, it is rare in Asia (rates <0.5% to 25% regionally) and Africa (rates ~3-10%), reflecting dietary and lifestyle differences that influence diverticular formation.^[11] Risk factors mirror those for diverticulosis, including advanced age, obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m²; increased risk from BMI ≥25 kg/m²), low-fiber diets, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use.^[10] Comorbid conditions such as hypertension and diabetes are commonly associated, though specific prevalence rates in SCAD cohorts vary.^[12] Recognition of SCAD has increased since the early 2000s, attributable to wider access to colonoscopy and improved endoscopic awareness, leading to more frequent identification during routine evaluations for diverticulosis.^[1]

Clinical Presentation

Signs and Symptoms

Patients with segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) most commonly present with chronic or intermittent left lower quadrant abdominal pain, affecting 11% to 67% of cases depending on the cohort studied.^[13] This pain is often crampy and may be partially relieved by defecation, distinguishing it somewhat from acute diverticulitis.^[6] Rectal bleeding or hematochezia occurs in 76% to 93% of patients, frequently as bright red blood per rectum, and is more prominent than in uncomplicated diverticulosis.^[13] Diarrhea, which can be mixed or bloody, is reported in 44% to 86% of individuals, contributing to the overall symptomatic burden.^[13] Systemic symptoms such as fever, weight loss, or significant malaise are notably absent in the majority of cases.^[14]^[13] Less common manifestations include tenesmus, a sensation of incomplete evacuation, and the passage of mucus in the stool, which may accompany the primary symptoms.^[14] Bloating and urgency can also occur, though these are infrequently highlighted in clinical descriptions.^[14] Rare acute flares may mimic diverticulitis with intensified cramping abdominal pain, but these episodes are not the norm and typically resolve without severe complications.^[14] The symptomatic pattern in SCAD is generally persistent yet mild, with episodes lasting from weeks to months and potentially triggered by dietary factors or minor infections, though specific precipitants remain inconsistent across reports.^[14] On physical examination, mild tenderness in the left lower quadrant is the predominant finding, without evidence of peritonitis, rebound tenderness, or palpable masses in uncomplicated presentations.^[6]^[14] Overall symptom severity tends to be milder than in inflammatory bowel disease, with bleeding often being the most noticeable feature relative to other diverticular conditions.^[14]

Types and Classification

Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) is classified into four endoscopic subtypes (A through D) based on the pattern and severity of mucosal inflammation observed in affected colonic segments, primarily the sigmoid and descending colon, while sparing the rectum and right colon. This classification, proposed by Tursi et al. in a prospective study of 75 patients, emphasizes phenotypic variations to guide clinical assessment and prognosis.^[15] Type A, the most prevalent subtype comprising approximately 53% of cases, features mild, crescentic fold inflammation with small reddish lesions (0.5-1.5 cm) along mucosal folds, resembling non-specific erythema without ulceration or friability. Type B, accounting for about 32%, presents moderate ulcerative colitis-like changes, including patchy loss of vascular pattern, edema, hyperemia, and pinpoint erosions, but without deep ulcers. Type C, rare at around 4%, mimics Crohn's disease with isolated aphthous ulcers amid otherwise normal mucosa. Type D, seen in roughly 7%, involves severe ulcerative colitis-like involvement with diffuse ulceration, bleeding, and potential luminal narrowing or strictures, often affecting over 50% of the circumferential mucosa.^[15]^[16] Classification criteria rely on endoscopic findings in diverticula-bearing segments, with consistent sparing of diverticular orifices across all subtypes and exclusion of contiguous inflammation beyond the diverticular area; pathologic confirmation supports but is not required for subtyping, focusing on chronic active colitis without transmural features. Clinically, Type A correlates with a benign course, minimal complications, and low relapse rates, while Types B and D are linked to greater severity, including persistent symptoms like abdominal pain or hematochezia in 50-60% of cases and higher risks of obstruction or surgical intervention in 10-20%. Type C remains indolent but requires differentiation from Crohn's disease.^[15]^[17]^[18] The classification evolved from early 1980s descriptions of binary mild/severe patterns in small cohorts to the expanded four-subtype system in the 2010s, driven by larger endoscopic studies that highlighted prognostic heterogeneity. Extraintestinal manifestations, such as arthritis, occur in fewer than 5% of cases, and no distinct genetic subtypes have been identified, underscoring SCAD's primarily acquired, segmental nature.^[19]^[20]^[21]

Pathophysiology

Underlying Mechanisms

The primary hypothesis for the development of segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) posits that fecal stasis within diverticula promotes bacterial overgrowth and subsequent local mucosal irritation, leading to chronic inflammation. This stasis arises from the anatomical alterations caused by multiple diverticula, which narrow the colonic lumen and impede normal fecal transit, trapping waste material and fostering an environment conducive to microbial proliferation. Unlike inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), SCAD is not considered autoimmune but rather a localized response driven by mechanical and microbial factors.^[22] The role of diverticulosis in SCAD involves not only stasis but also potential microperforations in the diverticular walls, which may allow bacterial translocation and activate local immune responses, resulting in inflammation confined to the interdiverticular mucosa. Contributing factors include mechanical trauma from colonic contractions or mucosal prolapse, which can cause ischemia and exacerbate irritation in the affected segments. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may further aggravate this process by inducing additional mucosal injury, potentially worsening inflammation in susceptible individuals with diverticulosis. Low-fiber diets, a known epidemiologic risk for diverticulosis, promote stasis by increasing intraluminal pressure and reducing motility.^[23]^[24] Evidence supporting these mechanisms includes human microbiome analyses post-2015, which demonstrate dysbiosis in diverticular disease, characterized by increased Proteobacteria (e.g., Enterobacteriaceae such as Escherichia) and decreased anti-inflammatory taxa like Clostridium cluster IV and Bacteroidetes, correlating with SCAD flares and symptomatic uncomplicated diverticular disease. Treatment with rifaximin has been shown to restore microbial balance, increasing beneficial Faecalibacterium and reducing Ruminococcus in responders, underscoring the role of bacterial overgrowth. Animal models of acute diverticulitis, induced by fecal stasis in rats, exhibit mucosal damage and inflammation similar to SCAD processes, supporting the stasis hypothesis.^[25]^[26] SCAD differs from diverticulitis, which involves acute bacterial translocation and pericolic abscess formation due to diverticular obstruction, whereas SCAD manifests as chronic, mucosal-limited inflammation without systemic perforation. Additionally, unlike IBD, SCAD lacks a clear genetic predisposition and typically spares the rectum and right colon, resolving with targeted interventions rather than progressing chronically.^[22]

Histopathology

The gross pathology of segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) demonstrates segmental involvement confined to colonic regions affected by diverticulosis, most commonly the sigmoid colon, with edematous and hyperemic mucosa primarily in the interdiverticular areas; the diverticular orifices remain uninvolved, and the rectum is typically spared.^[27] This localized pattern distinguishes SCAD from more diffuse inflammatory processes, highlighting the inflammatory changes as restricted to the mucosa between diverticula without extension to adjacent normal segments.^[27] Microscopically, SCAD is characterized by chronic active colitis featuring a prominent lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate within the lamina propria, mild to moderate crypt architectural distortion, basal plasmacytosis, and cryptitis with occasional mild crypt abscesses.^[27] Additional features include surface erosions, reactive epithelial changes, and Paneth cell metaplasia, reported in up to 48% of cases, particularly in longstanding disease.^[28] Unlike Crohn's disease, well-formed epithelioid granulomas are absent or rare, limited instead to possible granulomatous reactions secondary to crypt rupture, and there is no evidence of transmural inflammation.^[27] The histologic severity of SCAD can be graded from mild, with superficial mucosal inflammation and preserved architecture, to severe, involving ulceration, deeper fibrosis, and more intense inflammatory activity.^[27] Diagnostic pitfalls arise from histologic overlap with inflammatory bowel disease, where features such as crypt distortion and basal plasmacytosis may lead to initial misdiagnosis as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease in a subset of cases; 2023 studies underscore the critical role of confirming inflammation's strict localization to interdiverticular mucosa for differentiation.^[19]

Diagnosis

Clinical Evaluation

The clinical evaluation of segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) begins with a thorough history to assess symptom chronicity, typically involving persistent lower abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, and altered bowel habits lasting weeks to months in the context of known diverticulosis.^[1] Patients over 50 years of age, particularly males, with left lower quadrant cramping and hematochezia exceeding 70% of cases, warrant consideration of SCAD when symptoms persist despite dietary fiber supplementation.^[27] Exclusion of inflammatory bowel disease triggers, such as family history or extraintestinal manifestations, is essential, while red flags like unexplained weight loss or fever necessitate prompt investigation to rule out malignancy or complications.^[1] Laboratory tests form a key part of the initial workup, with complete blood count often revealing mild anemia from chronic bleeding but normal or only mildly elevated white blood cell counts, reflecting the absence of acute infection.^[27] Inflammatory markers including C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate are frequently mildly elevated, indicating low-grade inflammation.^[27] Fecal calprotectin levels are raised in SCAD, effectively differentiating it from irritable bowel syndrome or healthy controls but comparable to those in ulcerative colitis, thus not reliably distinguishing from other inflammatory bowel diseases.^[29] Stool cultures and parasitic studies are negative, excluding infectious etiologies, while serological tests for perinuclear antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody and anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibody are generally absent.^[1] Noninvasive imaging modalities aid in supporting suspicion of SCAD prior to procedural confirmation, with contrast-enhanced computed tomography being the preferred initial approach, revealing long-segment circumferential wall thickening in the sigmoid or distal descending colon, often with engorged vasa recta and multiple diverticula but without pericolic abscesses or fistulas.^[6] Computed tomography colonography may demonstrate mucosal hyperenhancement, luminal narrowing, and rectal sparing without obstruction, providing high diagnostic utility in this setting.^[27]

Endoscopic and Biopsy Findings

Endoscopic evaluation is essential for confirming segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD), typically revealing inflammation confined to the interdiverticular mucosa in the sigmoid colon, with characteristic features including erythema, edema, mucosal friability, and shallow erosions or ulcers.^[27]^[19] These changes spare the diverticular orifices themselves and are limited to segments bearing diverticula, distinguishing SCAD from more diffuse conditions.^[30] Rectal sparing is a hallmark finding, observed in the majority of cases and supporting diagnostic specificity when combined with sigmoid involvement.^[13] Flexible sigmoidoscopy is the preferred initial procedure due to the localized nature of SCAD in the sigmoid, reducing the risks associated with full colonoscopy in patients with extensive diverticulosis, such as perforation from insufflation or navigation through narrowed segments.^[16] Endoscopic patterns vary but are classified into four subtypes based on a seminal study: type A (crescentic folds, most common at approximately 52%), type B (mild to moderate ulcerative colitis-like with patchy vascular loss), type C (diverticular disease with Crohn's disease-like features such as aphthoid ulcers), and type D (advanced ulcerative colitis-like with deep ulcers).^[31] The inflammation often affects a limited segment, typically less than 20 cm in length, with isolated sigmoid involvement reported in over 85% of cases.^[16] High-definition endoscopy enhances detection of subtle mucosal changes, as recommended in contemporary guidelines for evaluating inflammatory bowel conditions, though specific SCAD protocols emphasize complete visualization of the rectum and proximal colon to confirm sparing.^[19] Biopsy samples are obtained from multiple sites in the affected interdiverticular mucosa to establish chronic active inflammation, while carefully avoiding the diverticula to minimize perforation risk given their thin walls.^[27]^[13] These biopsies correlate with histopathologic features such as crypt distortion and basal plasmacytosis, confirming the diagnosis when endoscopic findings are equivocal.^[27] Procedural complications are uncommon, with post-colonoscopy bleeding rates approximately 0.2% in general populations, though risks may be slightly higher in diverticulosis patients, especially with therapeutic interventions like polypectomy.^[32]

Management

Medical Management

The medical management of segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) emphasizes conservative and pharmacologic strategies to achieve symptom relief and induce remission, given its typically mild course resembling inflammatory bowel disease. Initial conservative measures include a high-fiber diet and adequate hydration to promote bowel regularity and reduce stasis in diverticular segments, along with probiotics to support gut microbiota balance.^[33] Antispasmodics such as hyoscyamine may be employed for cramp relief during symptomatic episodes.^[1] First-line pharmacologic treatment centers on mesalamine (5-aminosalicylate, 5-ASA), administered orally at doses of 2.4 to 4.8 g daily, which induces remission in 60 to 80 percent of cases, particularly for milder endoscopic subtypes.^[3]^[34] Antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin combined with metronidazole for 4 to 6 weeks, are reserved for acute flares suggestive of bacterial overgrowth or superimposed infection, used as initial therapy in approximately 40 percent of patients.00081-5/fulltext) For steroid-responsive inflammation, budesonide (typically 9 mg daily for induction) offers targeted relief with fewer systemic effects, beneficial in 20 to 30 percent of cases unresponsive to 5-ASA.^[35] Escalation to immunomodulators like azathioprine is uncommon, occurring in less than 10 percent of refractory cases, often those with severe endoscopic features such as deep ulceration.^[3] Biologic agents, including anti-TNF therapies like infliximab, are not standard due to the condition's indolent nature and limited evidence beyond anecdotal reports; routine use is not recommended in recent reviews.^[1] The 2022 German guidelines on diverticular disease prioritize mesalazine over antibiotics for chronic symptomatic management, advocating a stepwise approach starting with conservative therapy.^[33] Overall, 70 to 80 percent of patients achieve remission with these medical interventions, with monitoring via fecal calprotectin every 6 months to assess mucosal healing.^[3] Subtype C lesions may show slightly reduced responsiveness to initial therapy compared to milder forms.^[3]

Surgical Interventions

Surgical interventions for segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) are reserved for cases refractory to medical therapy, typically after 6-12 months of unsuccessful treatment, occurring in approximately 10-25% of patients.^[16]^[34] Indications include persistent symptoms such as chronic pain or bleeding, as well as complications like inflammatory strictures, fistulas, or bowel obstruction.^[1] Severe forms, such as types C or D involving extensive inflammation or strictures, may prompt earlier surgical consideration.^[1] The primary surgical option is sigmoid colectomy, often performed as a segmental resection to remove the affected sigmoid colon while preserving continence and healthy bowel segments.^[36] Laparoscopic approaches are preferred for elective cases due to reduced recovery time and lower complication rates compared to open surgery.^[36] In emergency settings, such as perforated strictures or obstruction, a Hartmann procedure may be employed, involving resection with proximal colostomy and delayed anastomosis.^[36] Perioperative management in SCAD patients with underlying diverticulosis presents challenges, including difficult bowel preparation due to inflammation and the risk of anastomotic leak, reported at 5-10% in similar colonic resections.^[36] Minimally invasive techniques, such as laparoscopic or robotic-assisted sigmoidectomy, help mitigate morbidity by minimizing tissue trauma.^[36] Surgical outcomes demonstrate high efficacy, with symptom resolution achieved in 85-90% of cases and low recurrence rates of 6-8% following resection.^[36] Recent studies emphasize that minimally invasive approaches further reduce postoperative morbidity to around 50%, with mortality under 5%.^[36] Emerging alternatives to surgery include endoscopic stenting for benign strictures, though its use remains limited to less than 5% of cases and is considered investigational for SCAD.^[37] Guidelines recommend reserving surgery for complicated or refractory disease, avoiding it in uncomplicated presentations.^[1]

Prognosis and History

Long-term Outcomes

Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) typically follows a benign long-term course, with over 80% of patients achieving complete recovery within 6 months, either spontaneously in mild cases or in response to medical therapy.^[1] Severe complications are uncommon and the condition rarely leads to life-threatening events.^[38] Recurrence rates for SCAD range from 20% to 30% within 5 years, though these are higher—approaching 50%—in more severe endoscopic subtypes such as types B and D, where persistent inflammation is more likely.^[39] Maintenance therapy with mesalamine has been shown to reduce recurrence risk and promote sustained remission across subtypes.^[39] Complications of SCAD are infrequent but can include progression to colonic stricture and bleeding episodes requiring transfusion; these risks are comparable to those in uncomplicated diverticulosis without colitis.^[1] The risk of colorectal cancer is rare and does not appear elevated beyond that associated with diverticulosis alone, with reported cases typically arising outside the affected segmental area.^[1] Quality of life in SCAD patients is generally mildly impaired, with symptoms such as chronic abdominal pain and altered bowel habits resembling those of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).^[1] Cohort studies indicate an overall benign outcome, though persistent mild symptoms may affect a subset long-term.^[40] Monitoring for high-risk patients, particularly those with severe subtypes or incomplete remission, includes annual colonoscopy to detect potential complications early.^[1] Updates from 2024 cohort analyses show a mostly benign course but with notable recurrence in 61% of cases, surgery requirements in 27%, and progression to an inflammatory bowel disease diagnosis in about 16% of patients, highlighting a distinct yet sometimes overlapping natural history.^[16] Recent 2024-2025 reports document rare progression to ulcerative colitis or IBD in some cases, with over 30 instances noted, underscoring the need for long-term monitoring.^[5]^[41]

Historical Development

Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) was initially described in 1984 by G.E. Sladen and M.I. Filipe in a seminal report that highlighted cases of localized sigmoid colon inflammation in patients with diverticulosis, distinguishing it from standard diverticulitis through its chronic mucosal changes confined to the interdiverticular area.^[42] This early recognition built on prior observations, such as those in 1983 by Cawthorn et al., which noted inflammatory patterns in diverticular segments, but Sladen and Filipe's work formalized the association as a potential distinct entity. In its early years, SCAD was frequently misconstrued as either a variant of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or a direct complication of diverticulitis, leading to diagnostic overlap and inappropriate management.^[43] Studies in the 1990s, including histopathological analyses by researchers like Peppercorn, clarified its unique features, such as sparing of the rectum and proximal colon, and absence of granulomatous changes typical of Crohn's disease, thereby establishing SCAD as a separate inflammatory process rather than an extension of IBD or acute diverticular inflammation. Key milestones in SCAD's recognition include the 2002 study by Jani and colleagues, which popularized the term "segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis" and emphasized its clinical and endoscopic distinctiveness through a case series. In the 2010s, Tursi et al. proposed an endoscopic classification system categorizing SCAD into types A (mild, nonspecific), B (crescentic folds), C (ulcerative colitis-like), and D (Crohn's disease-like), aiding in standardized diagnosis and highlighting prognostic differences. The 2020s have seen increased focus on the microbiome's role in SCAD. Research on SCAD has evolved from pathology-focused descriptions in the 1980s, emphasizing mucosal prolapse and chronic inflammation, to post-2010 investigations incorporating endoscopic classifications and genetic analyses suggesting shared susceptibility loci with IBD.^[43] Current gaps include the scarcity of randomized controlled trials due to SCAD's rarity, limiting evidence-based therapies, and the absence of reliable biomarkers for early differentiation from IBD mimics.^[43] Recent efforts emphasize advanced endoscopic tools for improved detection, though prospective studies remain needed.

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