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Sigmoidoscopy

Sigmoidoscopy is a medical procedure that allows a healthcare provider to examine the rectum and the lower portion of the large intestine, specifically the sigmoid colon, using a specialized instrument called a sigmoidoscope.^[1] This examination helps visualize the mucosal lining to identify abnormalities such as polyps, ulcers, inflammation, or signs of colorectal cancer.^[2] The procedure was first developed in the late 19th century. The initial rigid sigmoidoscope was introduced around 1884–1895, allowing limited visualization of the rectum and distal colon using reflected light.^[3] Advancements in the 1960s with fiber-optic technology led to the development of flexible sigmoidoscopes, improving reach, comfort, and diagnostic capabilities.^[4] There are two main types: rigid sigmoidoscopy, which uses a short, inflexible tube typically limited to about 25 cm and often performed without sedation in an office setting, and flexible sigmoidoscopy, the more commonly used modern variant that employs a longer, bendable tube reaching up to 60 cm for greater visualization of the descending colon.^[5] Flexible sigmoidoscopy is preferred due to its superior patient comfort, diagnostic yield, and ability to perform interventions like biopsies during the procedure.^[6] The procedure is primarily indicated for colorectal cancer screening in average-risk adults starting at age 45, with recommendations for repeat examinations every 5 to 10 years depending on findings and guidelines from organizations like the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.^[2] It is also used diagnostically to evaluate symptoms including rectal bleeding, chronic diarrhea, abdominal pain, unexplained weight loss, or changes in bowel habits, helping to diagnose conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, diverticulosis, or infections.^[1] Unlike colonoscopy, which examines the entire colon, sigmoidoscopy focuses on the distal portion, making it a quicker, less invasive option.^[2]

Introduction

Definition and Purpose

Sigmoidoscopy is a minimally invasive endoscopic procedure designed to examine the rectum and sigmoid colon, which form the distal portion of the large intestine.^[7] It involves inserting a sigmoidoscope—a thin, tube-like instrument equipped with a light source and lens—through the anus to provide direct visualization of the mucosal lining in this region.^[8] This approach enables healthcare providers to inspect the lower gastrointestinal tract for structural and pathological changes without the need for extensive surgical intervention.^[9] The primary purpose of sigmoidoscopy is diagnostic, focusing on the identification of abnormalities such as polyps, inflammatory conditions, diverticula, or tumors within the rectum and sigmoid colon.^[10] It plays a crucial role in evaluating symptoms like rectal bleeding, chronic diarrhea, constipation, or unexplained abdominal pain, helping to pinpoint potential sources of these issues.^[11] Additionally, sigmoidoscopy facilitates early detection of precancerous lesions and colorectal cancer, contributing to preventive screening efforts in at-risk populations.^[1] Unlike a full colonoscopy, which examines the entire colon, sigmoidoscopy is confined to the distal large intestine, typically reaching up to the splenic flexure with a flexible sigmoidoscope, thereby offering a targeted yet less comprehensive assessment.^[2] This limitation makes it particularly suitable for initial evaluations or follow-up of known lower bowel conditions, balancing diagnostic utility with reduced procedural complexity.^[10] Sigmoidoscopy can be performed using either flexible or rigid instruments, with the flexible variant allowing greater maneuverability and patient comfort during the examination.^[8]

Historical Development

The origins of sigmoidoscopy trace back to early 19th-century innovations in endoscopy. In 1805, German physician Philipp Bozzini developed the Lichtleiter, or "light conductor," a rudimentary instrument consisting of a tube with attachments illuminated by candlelight and mirrors, which allowed direct visualization of body cavities including the rectum.^[12]^[13] Although not exclusively designed for the sigmoid colon, this device marked the foundational step toward internal examinations and was used to inspect the rectum and other areas, overcoming previous limitations in lighting and access.^[14] Advancements in the late 19th century focused on rigid instruments with improved illumination for sigmoidoscopy. The first documented rigid sigmoidoscopy was performed in 1884 using a simple reflective lamp to direct light into the sigmoid colon, enabling more reliable visualization of the lower gastrointestinal tract.^[3] This built on earlier endoscopic work, such as that by Howard A. Kelly, who in 1894 introduced a rigid sigmoidoscope with a head mirror and lamp for reflected illumination down a straight tube.^[4] These rigid proctoscopes and sigmoidoscopes, typically 25-30 cm in length, became standard for examining the rectum and distal sigmoid, though they were limited by patient discomfort and inability to navigate bends.^[3] The introduction of flexible fiber-optic sigmoidoscopy in the 1960s represented a major leap forward. In 1963, Basil F. Overholt in the United States performed the first fiberoptic flexible sigmoidoscopy using prototypes that incorporated coherent fiber bundles for image transmission, allowing easier navigation through colonic curves up to 60 cm.^[15] Commercial forward-viewing instruments followed in 1966, enhancing visualization and reducing procedural trauma.^[15] By the 1980s, flexible sigmoidoscopy had largely supplanted rigid methods as the preferred approach, owing to greater patient comfort, extended reach into the descending colon, and higher detection rates for lesions.^[16]^[17] This shift was supported by studies demonstrating the flexible instrument's superiority in routine proctosigmoidoscopy, with yields of pathological findings 2.5 to six times higher than rigid scopes.^[17] The fiber-optic innovations from sigmoidoscopy also directly influenced colonoscopy development in the 1970s, enabling full-colon examination starting with retrograde procedures in 1969 and advancing to therapeutic capabilities like polyp excision.^[18]^[3] In the late 1980s and 1990s, the technology evolved further with the advent of video endoscopy, where fiber-optic bundles were replaced by charge-coupled device (CCD) chips at the instrument's tip, providing higher-resolution color images displayed on monitors. This innovation, introduced around 1983-1984, improved diagnostic accuracy and ease of use, becoming the standard for flexible sigmoidoscopy by the early 2000s.^[3]^[19]

Types of Sigmoidoscopy

Flexible Sigmoidoscopy

Flexible sigmoidoscopy employs a flexible fiber-optic or video sigmoidoscope, a slender tube approximately 60 cm in length equipped with a light source, camera, and channels for passing instruments.^[10] This design allows the instrument to bend and navigate the natural curves of the lower colon, particularly around the sigmoid bend, enabling more comfortable and thorough examination compared to rigid alternatives.^[1] The sigmoidoscope's flexibility facilitates visualization of the mucosal lining, identifying abnormalities such as inflammation, polyps, or tumors.^[20] The procedure's reach extends up to the splenic flexure, providing detailed imaging of the entire rectum, sigmoid colon, and descending colon.^[10] High-resolution video feeds the images to an external monitor, allowing real-time assessment by the clinician.^[1] During the examination, therapeutic interventions are possible; for instance, biopsy forceps or snares can be inserted through the scope's working channel to obtain tissue samples or remove small polyps for pathological analysis.^[10] This capability enhances its utility for both diagnostic and minor interventional purposes. As the predominant form of sigmoidoscopy, flexible sigmoidoscopy is routinely conducted in outpatient clinics or endoscopy suites, often without sedation to support its role in colorectal cancer screening programs.^[1] Preparation typically involves a light bowel cleansing regimen, as outlined in dedicated guidelines, to ensure clear visualization.^[10] Its minimally invasive nature and shorter duration—usually 10 to 20 minutes—make it a practical choice for routine applications in primary care and preventive medicine.^[20]

Rigid Sigmoidoscopy

Rigid sigmoidoscopy employs a short, straight tube constructed from metal or plastic, typically measuring 25-30 cm in length, which is inserted directly into the rectum to visualize the distal gastrointestinal tract.^[21]^[20] This rigid instrument, often equipped with a light source and lens at its tip, allows for direct inspection without the need for advanced maneuverability, making it suitable for straightforward evaluations.^[22] The procedure is limited to examining the rectum and the lower portion of the sigmoid colon, extending up to approximately 25 cm from the anus, which restricts its diagnostic reach compared to more advanced endoscopic methods.^[21]^[23] It is frequently performed in office or outpatient settings for rapid assessments of anorectal conditions or therapeutic interventions, such as obtaining biopsies in uncomplicated cases.^[23] Historically, rigid sigmoidoscopy was the preferred method for lower colon examinations before the advent of flexible endoscopy in the late 20th century.^[23] Due to its inflexible design, rigid sigmoidoscopy generally causes greater patient discomfort, often manifesting as cramping or a sensation of fullness, and it is seldom utilized for routine screening purposes in contemporary practice.^[21]^[23] This variant has become less common today, largely supplanted by flexible alternatives that offer improved tolerability and broader visualization.^[23]

Indications and Contraindications

Medical Indications

Sigmoidoscopy serves as a key endoscopic procedure for colorectal cancer screening in average-risk adults, with guidelines recommending initiation at age 45 years and flexible sigmoidoscopy performed every 5 to 10 years as an effective option.^[24] This approach allows visualization of the rectum, sigmoid colon, and descending colon to detect precancerous polyps or early malignancies in the distal large bowel.^[2] In diagnostic settings, sigmoidoscopy is indicated for evaluating lower gastrointestinal symptoms suggestive of pathology, including rectal bleeding, chronic diarrhea, and abdominal pain localized to the lower quadrant.^[9] These symptoms may stem from conditions such as inflammatory processes, polyps, or tumors confined to the distal colon, where the procedure provides targeted assessment without requiring full colonic preparation.^[25] For surveillance purposes, sigmoidoscopy is appropriate following polypectomy when lesions were limited to the distal colon, enabling monitoring for recurrence or new growths at intervals determined by polyp characteristics and patient risk.^[26] Similarly, in patients with inflammatory bowel disease such as ulcerative colitis restricted to the rectosigmoid region, sigmoidoscopy facilitates periodic evaluation of mucosal healing and dysplasia risk, often as a less invasive alternative to full colonoscopy.^[27] Additionally, a positive fecal occult blood test warrants sigmoidoscopy as an initial investigative tool to identify distal sources of bleeding, such as polyps or vascular abnormalities, potentially guiding further evaluation if findings are inconclusive.^[28]

Contraindications

Contraindications for sigmoidoscopy are conditions or situations that render the procedure unsafe or inappropriate, categorized as absolute or relative to guide clinical decision-making and prioritize patient safety. Absolute contraindications include acute peritonitis, which increases the risk of exacerbating intra-abdominal infection and sepsis during instrumentation of the bowel.^[29] Suspected or known bowel perforation is also an absolute contraindication, as insufflation of air or manipulation could worsen the perforation and lead to mediastinitis or peritonitis.^[23] Fulminant colitis or toxic megacolon prohibits the procedure due to the potential for colonic rupture or hemodynamic instability.^[30] Acute severe diverticulitis represents another absolute contraindication, given the heightened risk of perforation in inflamed diverticula.^[31] Severe coagulopathy, such as marked bleeding dyscrasias, is contraindicated because of the danger of uncontrolled hemorrhage from biopsy or mucosal trauma.^[32] Acute myocardial infarction is considered an absolute contraindication in the immediate phase, though evidence suggests it may not preclude sigmoidoscopy in stable patients beyond the acute period.^[29]^[33] Relative contraindications encompass scenarios where sigmoidoscopy may be performed with caution, additional monitoring, or after risk-benefit assessment. Recent myocardial infarction within 6 months is a relative contraindication due to potential cardiovascular stress, though studies indicate low risk in hemodynamically stable patients.^[33] Unstable angina or severe cardiopulmonary disease falls into this category, as the procedure's minimal sedation requirements reduce but do not eliminate cardiac strain.^[31] Active diverticulitis, if not fulminant, is relative, requiring evaluation of inflammation severity to avoid perforation.^[31] Pregnancy is a relative contraindication, particularly in the third trimester, but flexible sigmoidoscopy is generally safe without inducing labor or fetal harm when clinically indicated and with fetal monitoring.^[31]^[34] Patient-specific factors, such as inability to tolerate the left lateral decubitus position, severe anxiety precluding outpatient performance without feasible sedation, or poor cooperation, are relative contraindications that may necessitate alternatives or procedural modifications.^[29] Additionally, when full colonic evaluation is required, such as for comprehensive screening or proximal pathology suspicion, sigmoidoscopy is relatively contraindicated in favor of colonoscopy for complete visualization.^[30]

Preparation

Dietary and Medication Instructions

Patients preparing for sigmoidoscopy are typically advised to follow a clear liquid diet starting 24 hours before the procedure to facilitate bowel cleansing and ensure clear visualization of the lower colon.^[1] This diet includes fat-free broth, plain water, light-colored juices such as apple or white grape, and sports drinks like lemon, lime, or orange flavors, while strictly avoiding solid foods, red or purple liquids, and dairy products to prevent residue that could obscure the view.^[2] Most chronic medications can be continued as usual, but patients should consult their healthcare provider at least one week in advance to adjust or hold specific drugs that may interfere with the procedure or bowel preparation.^[1] Antidiarrheal medications, such as loperamide (Imodium) or diphenoxylate (Lomotil), should be discontinued 5-7 days prior, as they can impede the evacuation process.^[35] Iron supplements must also be stopped 5 days before the exam to avoid stool discoloration that hinders visualization.^[36] Patients on blood thinners should consult their healthcare provider for individualized management, as guidelines often recommend continuing therapy for low-risk procedures like flexible sigmoidoscopy to balance bleeding and thrombosis risks.^[37]^[38] Adequate hydration is crucial throughout the preparation to counteract potential dehydration from the bowel prep regimen, with patients encouraged to drink clear fluids liberally leading up to the procedure.^[10] Diabetic patients should consult their healthcare provider for adjustments to insulin or oral agents, as the milder preparation may require minimal changes compared to full colonoscopy.^[1] Preparation for rigid sigmoidoscopy is typically simpler, often involving a single enema shortly before the procedure.^[2]

Bowel Cleansing Procedures

Bowel cleansing, also known as bowel preparation, is essential for sigmoidoscopy to ensure clear visualization of the rectal and sigmoid colon mucosa by removing fecal residue. This preparation typically involves a combination of oral laxatives and enemas, tailored to the patient's health status and the procedure type, with instructions provided by the healthcare provider. For flexible sigmoidoscopy, the regimen is less intensive than for colonoscopy.^[1]^[2] Oral laxatives are commonly administered the day before the procedure to initiate evacuation of the lower bowel. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) solutions, such as MiraLAX, are widely used due to their isotonic nature and effectiveness in producing a watery stool without significant electrolyte imbalance; for flexible sigmoidoscopy, a reduced dose (e.g., ~119 grams of PEG powder mixed in clear liquids) may be prescribed, often combined with bisacodyl tablets.^[39] Alternatively, sodium phosphate tablets or solutions (e.g., OsmoPrep) may be prescribed in divided doses with ample water to induce osmotic diarrhea, though they require careful hydration to prevent dehydration. Magnesium citrate, another option, is taken as a 10-ounce bottle between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m. the day prior, leading to bowel movements within 30 minutes to 3 hours. These agents work by drawing water into the colon to soften and expel stool, and dietary restrictions to clear liquids support their efficacy.^[36]^[40] Enema administration provides targeted cleansing of the rectum and sigmoid colon shortly before the procedure. A standard Fleet enema (sodium phosphate-based) is self-administered rectally, with one or two applications recommended 1 to 2 hours prior to arrival; the first enema is retained for 5 to 10 minutes if possible, followed by a second if stool remains, using tap water or saline for repeats until returns are clear. This method directly flushes the distal bowel, minimizing residual fluid during endoscopy.^[41]^[42]^[43] The full bowel preparation should be completed 4 to 6 hours before the scheduled appointment to allow time for residual fluid to dissipate and prevent interference with the examination. Patients are advised to stay near a restroom during the process, as effects can be rapid and frequent.^[1]^[2] During preparation, patients should monitor for side effects such as nausea, abdominal cramping, bloating, or excessive diarrhea, which are common with oral laxatives and usually resolve after completion; persistent symptoms warrant contacting the provider. Enemas may cause temporary rectal discomfort, mitigated by lubrication. Adequate hydration is emphasized throughout to counteract fluid loss.^[36]^[2]^[1]

Procedure

Performing Flexible Sigmoidoscopy

The flexible sigmoidoscopy procedure is typically performed in an outpatient setting by a trained gastroenterologist or healthcare provider, with the patient positioned on their left side and knees drawn toward the chest to facilitate access to the rectum. An initial digital rectal examination is conducted, involving the gentle insertion of a gloved, lubricated finger into the rectum to assess for any abnormalities, ensure the anal canal is patent, and exclude obstructions such as strictures or masses.^[10]^[44] Following the digital rectal exam, the provider applies water-soluble lubricant to the tip of the flexible sigmoidoscope—a thin, flexible tube equipped with a light source and camera—and gradually inserts it through the anus into the rectum. Air or carbon dioxide is insufflated through the scope to gently expand the colon walls, improving visualization of the mucosal lining while minimizing discomfort. The scope is then advanced slowly and carefully through the rectum, sigmoid colon, and descending colon, allowing real-time imaging of the lower gastrointestinal tract; the provider may adjust the patient's position slightly if needed to navigate curves.^[1]^[2] The procedure generally takes 10 to 20 minutes, depending on the extent of examination and any interventions required. If abnormalities such as polyps or suspicious lesions are identified, the provider may perform a biopsy by passing small forceps through the scope to obtain tissue samples or conduct polypectomy to remove polyps using specialized tools, with samples sent for pathological analysis. Upon completion of the visualization, the scope is slowly withdrawn while the provider suctions out any remaining air or fluid to reduce post-procedure bloating.^[2]^[1]

Performing Rigid Sigmoidoscopy

Rigid sigmoidoscopy is a direct endoscopic examination of the distal rectum and sigmoid colon using a short, rigid instrument, typically performed in an outpatient setting to evaluate the lower gastrointestinal tract. The procedure begins with the patient positioned to facilitate straight access to the rectum, commonly in the knee-chest position—where the patient kneels on a table with the chest lowered and hips elevated—or the lithotomy position, with the patient supine and legs elevated in stirrups.^[45] Alternatively, the left lateral Sims position may be used, with the patient lying on the left side and knees flexed.^[22] These positions allow for optimal alignment of the scope with the anal canal and rectum, minimizing discomfort and enabling the examiner to perform a preliminary digital rectal examination using a gloved, lubricated finger to assess for masses, strictures, or tenderness before instrument insertion.^[21] The rigid scope, a hollow metal or plastic tube approximately 25 cm in length and 2-3 cm in diameter, is generously lubricated and gently inserted through the anus toward the umbilicus, advancing to a depth of 20-25 cm under direct vision.^[21] Minimal air insufflation is introduced intermittently via a bulb or valve to gently distend the rectal walls, improving visibility of the mucosal lining while avoiding excessive pressure that could cause discomfort.^[46] The scope is maneuvered carefully, directing it posteriorly at about 4 cm to navigate the anal canal and anterosuperiorly at around 12 cm to follow the sacral promontory curve, allowing examination up to the lower sigmoid colon in some cases, though typically limited to 15-20 cm due to the rectosigmoid angle and the instrument's rigidity.^[46] During advancement, the examiner directly visualizes the rectal and sigmoid mucosa for abnormalities such as polyps, tumors, inflammation, or sources of bleeding, using an attached light source and eyepiece or obturator for clear illumination.^[21] If suspicious lesions are identified, a biopsy can be obtained through the scope's lumen using biopsy forceps passed alongside the instrument, providing tissue samples for histopathological analysis.^[46] The entire procedure is usually completed in 5-10 minutes, with the scope then immediately withdrawn, often requiring no sedation as it is generally well-tolerated despite possible sensations of cramping or fullness.^[21] This simplicity makes rigid sigmoidoscopy suitable for limited distal examinations, though its fixed nature restricts deeper colonic views compared to flexible alternatives.^[46]

Benefits

Diagnostic Advantages

Sigmoidoscopy provides real-time visualization of the rectum and sigmoid colon through a flexible endoscope equipped with a camera, enabling clinicians to identify abnormalities such as polyps, inflammation, or bleeding sources immediately during the procedure.^[1] This direct imaging allows for prompt biopsy of suspicious lesions using tools passed through the scope, facilitating rapid histopathological analysis without the need for a separate intervention.^[10] Additionally, it supports immediate therapeutic actions, such as polyp removal or cauterization of bleeding sites with electrocautery, which can address issues like hemorrhoids on the spot.^[9] Compared to full colonoscopy or other imaging modalities, sigmoidoscopy is notably cost-effective and efficient for evaluating the distal colon, requiring minimal bowel preparation and typically completing in 15-20 minutes without sedation.^[1] This targeted approach reduces overall procedural costs and patient burden while still providing high-resolution views sufficient for most lower gastrointestinal concerns.^[10] Its outpatient nature further enhances accessibility, making it a practical first-line diagnostic tool for symptomatic patients.^[47] The procedure demonstrates high accuracy for detecting colorectal cancer in the distal colon, with sensitivity ranging from 90% to 100%.^[48] This direct visualization ensures reliable identification of rectal and sigmoid issues, such as vascular abnormalities or mucosal tears, often confirming diagnoses that guide subsequent management.^[30] For instance, it effectively detects internal hemorrhoids, which are common findings and can be treated concurrently if needed.^[49]

Screening Efficacy

Sigmoidoscopy has demonstrated substantial efficacy in colorectal cancer (CRC) screening through large-scale randomized controlled trials, particularly in reducing incidence and mortality in the distal colon and rectum. The UK Flexible Sigmoidoscopy Screening (UKFSS) randomised controlled trial, involving over 170,000 participants aged 55-64 years, reported in a per-protocol analysis that a single screening examination reduced overall CRC incidence by 33% and CRC mortality by 43% among attenders, with even greater effects for distal CRC (50% incidence reduction).^[50] These findings underscore sigmoidoscopy's ability to detect and remove precancerous polyps in the reachable segments of the colorectum, thereby preventing cancer development. Benefits are generally stronger in men than in women across trials. Similarly, the Norwegian Colorectal Cancer Prevention (NORCCAP) trial, which screened approximately 100,000 individuals aged 50-64 years, showed in its 2014 update that once-only flexible sigmoidoscopy screening reduced overall CRC incidence by 20% and mortality by 27% in an intention-to-treat analysis, with stronger effects observed in men.^[51] These population-based studies highlight sigmoidoscopy's role as an effective, non-invasive option for average-risk screening, primarily benefiting the distal colorectum while contributing to overall CRC burden reduction. Major health organizations endorse sigmoidoscopy for average-risk individuals, recommending it every 5 years as a standalone test or every 10 years in combination with annual stool-based testing, with screening initiation at age 45.^[24]^[52] This interval aligns with the procedure's ability to provide durable protection against CRC. Long-term follow-up data from these trials confirm sustained benefits, with the UKFSS showing persistent reductions in CRC incidence by 24% and mortality by 25% over 21 years post-screening (as of 2024 data), and similar enduring effects in the NORCCAP cohort up to 15 years, particularly in men (34% incidence reduction and 37% mortality reduction), though minimal in women.^[53]^[54]^[55] These results indicate that a single sigmoidoscopy can yield protective effects lasting 15-21 years, supporting its value in population-level prevention strategies.

Risks and Complications

Common Risks

Sigmoidoscopy commonly causes bloating or cramping due to the insufflation of air or carbon dioxide into the colon, which expands the intestinal walls for better visualization during the procedure. These sensations, often described as gas pain or an urge to defecate, typically occur as the scope advances and usually subside within a few hours after the gas is expelled naturally. Walking or light activity can help relieve this temporary discomfort.^[1]^[10] Minor rectal bleeding is a frequent side effect, particularly if a biopsy or polypectomy is performed, manifesting as small amounts of blood in the stool during the first bowel movement post-procedure. This bleeding is generally self-limiting, resolving without intervention within a day, though persistent or heavy bleeding warrants medical evaluation.^[1]^[10] Patients often report discomfort or feelings of embarrassment stemming from the procedure's invasive nature and the required positioning, such as lying on the left side with knees drawn toward the chest. These psychological and physical sensations are commonly mitigated through patient education, minimal sedation if indicated, and the brief duration of the exam, which lasts 10 to 20 minutes.^[1]^[56] Bowel preparation for sigmoidoscopy, typically involving enemas or mild laxatives, can lead to dehydration or electrolyte imbalances in sensitive individuals, such as the elderly or those with renal issues, especially if oral fluid intake is insufficient during the process. Such effects are uncommon with standard enema use but emphasize the need for adequate hydration to prevent complications like dizziness or fatigue.^[57]^[58]

Rare Complications

One of the rare but serious complications of sigmoidoscopy is colonic perforation, which involves a tear in the colon wall that can lead to peritonitis or other intra-abdominal issues if not addressed promptly. The incidence of perforation during flexible sigmoidoscopy ranges from 0.027% to 0.088%, often requiring surgical intervention depending on the extent of the damage.^[59] In some cases, conservative management with antibiotics and monitoring may suffice for contained perforations, but larger defects typically necessitate operative repair.^[59] Significant bleeding following polypectomy during sigmoidoscopy is another infrequent complication, occurring in less than 1% of procedures and usually presenting as delayed hemorrhage. The overall incidence of delayed post-polypectomy bleeding for colorectal polyps is reported between 0.3% and 1.2%, with most cases manageable through endoscopic hemostasis techniques such as clipping or injection therapy.^[60] Surgical intervention is rarely needed but may be required if bleeding persists despite endoscopic efforts.^[60] Transmission of infection via inadequately sterilized equipment represents an extremely rare risk in sigmoidoscopy, minimized by adherence to established reprocessing protocols. Although the potential for patient-to-patient cross-contamination exists if disinfection fails, the actual incidence of endoscopy-related infections is very low, with no specific outbreaks linked to sigmoidoscopy in modern practice when guidelines are followed.^[61] Vasovagal reactions, characterized by transient hypotension or bradycardia due to a reflexive response to procedural discomfort or insufflation, can occur rarely during sigmoidoscopy and may require supportive measures like positioning or atropine administration. These episodes are self-limiting in most instances but can lead to syncope or brief hemodynamic instability.^[62]

Comparison to Other Procedures

Versus Colonoscopy

Sigmoidoscopy, whether flexible or rigid, is limited to visualizing the distal portion of the colon, including the rectum, sigmoid colon, and descending colon, typically extending up to the splenic flexure in flexible procedures.^[10] In contrast, colonoscopy allows examination of the entire colon, from the rectum to the cecum, and often includes the terminal ileum.^[2] This restricted scope of sigmoidoscopy means it can miss lesions in the proximal colon, where approximately 30-40% of colorectal cancers occur, depending on demographic factors such as race and age.^[63] The procedural differences further distinguish the two methods. Sigmoidoscopy generally takes 10-20 minutes to complete and does not require routine sedation, enabling it to be performed in an outpatient setting without significant recovery time.^[2] Colonoscopy, however, typically lasts 30-60 minutes and often involves sedation or anesthesia to ensure patient comfort, which increases the overall burden and necessitates monitoring post-procedure.^[1] Preparation for sigmoidoscopy is also less intensive, usually involving enemas or mild laxatives rather than the full bowel cleansing required for colonoscopy.^[10] In terms of cost and risk, sigmoidoscopy presents a lower financial and safety profile. It is generally less expensive than colonoscopy due to shorter duration, minimal sedation, and simpler preparation, making it a more accessible option for initial screening.^[64] Risks such as perforation or bleeding are rarer with sigmoidoscopy, occurring in about 1 in 50,000 to 20,000 procedures, compared to higher rates with colonoscopy due to its more extensive scope.^[2] Despite these advantages, sigmoidoscopy's limited reach positions it as an effective triage tool; abnormalities detected during the procedure often prompt a subsequent full colonoscopy for comprehensive evaluation.^[1]

Versus Other Screening Methods

Sigmoidoscopy offers a direct visualization of the distal colon, contrasting with non-invasive stool-based tests like the fecal immunochemical test (FIT), which is recommended annually for average-risk individuals. While FIT is non-invasive and convenient, its specificity for advanced neoplasia is approximately 91%, often necessitating a follow-up colonoscopy for positive results, which can increase overall procedural burden and costs. In comparison, flexible sigmoidoscopy is typically performed every 5 years, providing a longer screening interval with the advantage of immediate detection and potential removal of distal lesions without requiring additional invasive follow-up in many cases.^[65]^[24]^[66] Compared to computed tomography (CT) colonography, sigmoidoscopy avoids ionizing radiation exposure, which for CT colonography typically ranges from 4.5 to 6.0 mSv per screening, equivalent to about 1.5 to 2 years of background radiation. CT colonography also tends to be more costly, with procedure reimbursements often exceeding those for sigmoidoscopy, and positive findings still require therapeutic colonoscopy. Sigmoidoscopy's direct optical examination enables real-time biopsy or polypectomy, enhancing its utility in a single session without the need for separate interventions.^[67]^[68] Stool DNA tests, such as Cologuard, excel at detecting proximal colonic lesions due to their ability to identify molecular markers throughout the colon but demonstrate lower sensitivity for large polyps, around 42%, compared to sigmoidoscopy's near-complete visualization of distal advanced adenomas. These tests require periodic rescreening every 3 years and, like FIT, mandate colonoscopy for positives, potentially leading to higher false-positive rates and patient anxiety. Overall, sigmoidoscopy is often preferred in scenarios where therapeutic intervention during screening is beneficial, balancing efficacy with procedural efficiency.^[69]^[70]

Recovery and Follow-up

Post-Procedure Care

Following a flexible sigmoidoscopy, patients can typically resume their normal diet and daily activities immediately after the procedure, provided no sedation was used or if recovery from sedation is complete. If sedation is administered—which is uncommon for this minimally invasive exam—patients should rest for 30 to 60 minutes in the recovery area for monitoring and avoid driving or operating machinery for at least 24 hours; arranging for a ride home is recommended in such cases.^[1]^[10]^[2] Mild abdominal cramping, bloating, or the passage of gas is common for a few hours post-procedure due to the air introduced during the exam, and walking can help alleviate these sensations. If a biopsy or polyp removal was performed, a small amount of rectal bleeding may occur in the first bowel movement, which is normal and usually resolves quickly without intervention. Patients should monitor these minor symptoms as expected outcomes rather than causes for concern.^[10]^[2] The physician will review the procedure results with the patient, often during a follow-up appointment scheduled within a few days, particularly if tissue samples were taken for analysis; pathology reports from biopsies typically take 3 to 7 days to process. This discussion allows for interpretation of findings and any necessary next steps in care.^[1]^[10]

When to Seek Medical Attention

Patients should seek immediate medical attention if they experience severe abdominal pain that persists or worsens after the sigmoidoscopy procedure, as this may indicate a possible perforation or other serious issue.^[1]^[2] Similarly, the onset of fever above 100°F (37.8°C) or chills following the procedure warrants urgent evaluation, potentially signaling an infection.^[1]^[71] Heavy rectal bleeding, such as more than a teaspoon at a time, or the presence of black, tarry stools, requires prompt medical care to rule out significant hemorrhage.^[71]^[2] Persistent vomiting or an inability to pass gas or stool more than 24 hours after the procedure also necessitates immediate attention, as these symptoms could indicate complications like bowel obstruction.^[2] For emergencies involving severe symptoms such as intense pain, heavy bleeding, or fever, patients should go to the nearest emergency room without delay.^[1] For milder concerns, such as ongoing mild discomfort beyond expected post-procedure symptoms like light cramping or minor spotting, contact the performing physician or healthcare provider promptly for guidance.^[10]

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History of Colonoscopy - Abdominal Key
Jul 13, 2017 · In 1922 Rudolf Schindler created his rigid gastroscope, a later version of which contained an air outlet to clear the lens. Semiflexible ...
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6: Colonoscopy and Flexible Sigmoidoscopy | Abdominal Key
May 30, 2016 · The first was Overholt in the USA, who started on prototypes in 1961, performed the first fiberoptic flexible sigmoidoscopy in 1963, and finally ...
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Superiority of the Flexible to the Rigid Sigmoidoscope in Routine ...
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Flexible Sigmoidoscopy - PubMed
Flexible sigmoidoscopy became available in 1976. To date, studies comparing it with rigid sigmoidoscopy support an increase of 2.5 to six times in the flexible ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Colonoscopy: history and development - PubMed
Retrograde colonoscopy of the entire colon, and endoscopic excision of polyps from anywhere in the colon, began in June and September of 1969, respectively.
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Concerns and challenges in flexible sigmoidoscopy screening - PMC
The flexible sigmoidoscope is approximately 70 cm in length and 1 cm wide, with a lighted lens system. The fiber optic bundle enables it to collect and channel ...Missing: equipment | Show results with:equipment
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Proctoscopy (Rigid Sigmoidoscopy): Procedure & Complications
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Rigid Sigmoidoscopy Periprocedural Care: Equipment, Patient ...
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Rigid Sigmoidoscopy: Background, Indications, Contraindications
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Flexible Sigmoidoscopy: What to Expect - UVA Health
Find the cause of rectal bleeding, diarrhea, constipation, lower abdominal pain or inflammation; See and remove polyps (small growths than can turn cancerous) ...Missing: surveillance positive FOBT
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[PDF] Guidelines for Colonoscopy Surveillance After Screening and ...
The recommendations assume that the baseline colonoscopy was complete and adequate and that all visible polyps were completely removed. NA, not applicable.
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Adequacy of sigmoidoscopy as compared to colonoscopy for ...
May 16, 2024 · In patients of UC with disease extent beyond the sigmoid colon, sigmoidoscopy showed strong agreement and excellent accuracy with colonoscopy ...
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Endoscopy - Gastrointestinal Disorders - Merck Manual Professional Edition
### Contraindications for Sigmoidoscopy (Extracted from Endoscopy Section)
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Flexible Sigmoidoscopy: Screening for Colorectal Cancer - AAFP
Jan 15, 1999 · Contraindications for sigmoidoscopy include acute peritonitis, acute diverticulitis, toxic megacolon and recent bowel surgery. Furthermore ...Missing: coagulopathy | Show results with:coagulopathy
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Flexible Sigmoidoscopy
### Absolute Contraindications for Flexible Sigmoidoscopy
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May 29, 2020 · 1. Lack of patient consent · 2. Absent anus due to congenital condition or postoperative state · 3. Severe pain during examination.
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This study suggests that recent myocardial infarction is not an absolute contraindication to sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy, that sigmoidoscopy is beneficial ...
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Endoscopy is contraindicated in placental abruption, imminent delivery, ruptured membranes, or uncontrolled eclampsia. Topical anesthetics such as lidocaine ( ...
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[PDF] Flexible Sigmoidoscopy
If you are on blood thinners, diabetic, or weight loss medications, you may need to be off these drugs for up to 10 days prior to your procedure. Before ...
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Memorial Sloan Kettering was founded in 1884, and today is a world leader in ... This information will help you get ready for your flexible sigmoidoscopy (sig-MOY ...
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[PDF] Prep Instructions for Flexible Sigmoidoscopy
3 days before the procedure: Stop taking any blood thinning medications such as: Aspirin,. Ibuprofen, Aleve, Plavix, Vioxx, Naproxen, Coumadin, and Heparin.Missing: antidiarrheals supplements
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Dec 30, 2022 · These recommendations in the general population most commonly involve a clear fluid diet starting the day before colonoscopy, or a low-fibre ...
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Sodium phosphate dibasic and sodium phosphate monobasic (oral ...
Sodium phosphate dibasic and sodium phosphate monobasic combination is used to clean or empty your bowels before an imaging procedure called colonoscopy.
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[PDF] Flexible Sigmoidoscopy Preparation Instructions - Michigan Medicine
96 hours before your flexible sigmoidoscopy, stop taking the following ... • Diarrhea or vomiting (that is not related to the bowel prep). → Turn the page ...
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Preparation for Flexible Sigmoidoscopy and Rectal Endoscopic ...
Please use two FLEET enemas two hours before you leave for the hospital. · Once the FLEET enemas are given, DO NOT EAT OR DRINK UNTIL THE TEST HAS BEEN COMPLETED ...
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Flexible sigmoidoscopy - Having an enema
Use the enema up to 2 hours before you leave for the hospital on the day of your procedure. Please do not have it more than 2 hours before your procedure as ...
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Having a flexible sigmoidoscopy
The endoscopist will start by putting a finger into your bottom to perform a rectal exam. This will help lubricate the anal passage, and to check if there ...
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Office Evaluation of Rectal Bleeding - PMC - NIH
The three positions appropriate for proctologic exam are Sims' (modified left lateral decubitus), prone jack-knife (or knee-chest), or dorsal lithotomy.
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Feb 26, 2024 · Under direct vision, advance the scope into the middle of the expanded segment. Repeat the insufflate-advance steps as the scope moves along.
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Flexible sigmoidoscopy is similar to colonoscopy but examines only the rectum and distal part of the colon, while colonoscopy examines the entire colorectal ...
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Flexible sigmoidoscopy provides direct visualization of the distal colon and has a 90% to 100% sensitivity for CRC in the distal colon. Use of flexible ...
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Hemorrhoids Workup - Medscape Reference
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Aug 13, 2014 · Recently, results from 3 large randomized trials comparing flexible sigmoidoscopy screening with no screening showed reductions in colorectal ...
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Jan 29, 2024 · Sigmoidoscopy every 5 years. There are some ... These guidelines are complex and are best reviewed with your health care provider.
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Despite the valuable clinical utility of colonoscopy, its preparation possesses excess risk for kidney impairment and electrolyte disorders.
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Delayed Bleeding After Endoscopic Resection of Colorectal Polyps
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Aug 8, 2017 · Although the risk of transmission of infection through endoscopy is extremely low, institutions have an ethical obligation to inform affected ...
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No. of cancers (%) ; Proximal colon, 125198 (28), 161719 (37) ; Distal colon, 134652 (30), 133590 (31) ; Rectum, 191180 (42), 141115 (32) ...
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However, colonoscopy is expensive compared with other screening modalities, such as fecal occult blood testing and flexible sigmoidoscopy. We sought to ...
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Jun 19, 2017 · The average sensitivity of FIT for CRC was 93% (95% CI, 53%-99%), and the average specificity was 91% (95% CI, 89%-92%), yielding a positive ...
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Mar 22, 2025 · Severe abdominal pain · Fever and chills · Heavy rectal bleeding (greater than 1 teaspoon at a time).