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Self-as-context

Self-as-context is a core process within Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), a form of psychotherapy aimed at enhancing psychological flexibility by encouraging individuals to accept their inner experiences while committing to actions aligned with their values. It conceptualizes the self not as the transient content of thoughts, feelings, or sensations—such as "I am anxious" or "I am a failure"—but as a stable, observing perspective or locus that provides a transcendent context for noticing these experiences without fusion or attachment. This distinction allows individuals to contact the present moment more fully and respond effectively to challenges, rather than being dominated by rigid self-concepts.^[1]^[2] Developed by Steven C. Hayes and colleagues as part of ACT's foundational model, self-as-context emerged from early ideas in behavioral therapy dating back to Hayes' 1984 work and was formalized in the therapy's six core processes alongside acceptance, cognitive defusion, present-moment contact, values, and committed action. Grounded in Relational Frame Theory (RFT), a behavioral account of human language and cognition, it arises from deictic relational frames (e.g., I/You, Here/There, Now/Then) that enable flexible perspective-taking and meta-awareness. This process underpins key language abilities like empathy, theory of mind, and self-regulation, while distinguishing the "observing self" from the "conceptualized self," which can lead to psychological suffering when overly identified with.^[1]^[3]^[4] In clinical practice, self-as-context is cultivated through mindfulness-based exercises, such as metaphors like the "passenger on the bus" or "sky and weather," and experiential techniques that highlight the continuity of awareness across changing experiences. Research, including systematic reviews, indicates provisional evidence that targeting self-as-context independently can improve emotional well-being by promoting defusion from unhelpful self-narratives and acceptance of difficult emotions, though findings are mixed due to methodological variations and the need for more robust studies. Its integration with other ACT processes supports its role in treating conditions like anxiety, depression, and chronic pain, emphasizing a holistic approach to mental health.^[2]^[5]^[4]

Origins and Philosophical Foundations

Buddhist Influences

The concept of self-as-context finds significant philosophical precursors in Buddhist teachings, particularly the doctrine of anatta (no-self), which emerged in ancient India around the 5th century BCE through the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. This doctrine, articulated in early Buddhist texts such as the Pali Canon, asserts that there is no permanent, unchanging self or soul at the core of human experience; instead, what is conventionally called the "self" is an illusory construct arising from interdependent processes that are inherently impermanent and devoid of inherent existence. The Anatta-lakkhana Sutta in the Samyutta Nikaya, for instance, describes how all phenomena, including the sense of self, lack a fixed essence and are subject to arising and cessation, challenging the notion of a substantive identity. Central to realizing anatta is the practice of vipassana (insight) meditation, a contemplative method outlined in the Pali Canon that fosters direct awareness of the transient nature of mental and physical phenomena. Through vipassana, practitioners observe the flux of thoughts, sensations, and perceptions without identification, cultivating an understanding of the self as a dynamic process rather than a static entity. This meditative insight, as detailed in texts like the Satipatthana Sutta, encourages detachment from clinging to a fixed self, allowing for the recognition of an observing awareness that transcends momentary contents of experience. A key framework supporting this perspective is the Buddhist analysis of the five aggregates (skandhas): form (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formations (sankhara), and consciousness (vinnana). These aggregates, as explained in the Majjhima Nikaya, deconstruct the apparent self into impermanent, conditioned components that arise and dissolve without a unifying core, providing a foundational distinction between the transient "content" of experience (the aggregates themselves) and the contextual awareness that observes them. This deconstruction underscores the illusory quality of self-identification, aligning with the broader Buddhist emphasis on emptiness (sunyata) and interdependence.

Integration into Modern Psychology

The concept of self-as-context was introduced by Steven C. Hayes in the early to mid-1980s as a core component of early Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), initially under the framework of "comprehensive distancing," which originated around 1981-1982 and emphasized observing thoughts and feelings from a detached perspective to reduce their literal impact.^[6] This approach emerged from Hayes' efforts to extend behavioral principles to clinical issues involving language and cognition, marking a shift toward integrating mindfulness-like processes into empirical psychology.^[3] By the mid-1980s, self-as-context had evolved to include the "observer exercise," fostering a transcendent sense of self that allowed individuals to experience internal events without over-identification, laying the groundwork for ACT's broader model.^[6] Key early work included Hayes' 1984 publication, which seeded ideas central to self-as-context.^[3] In the 1990s and 2000s, self-as-context gained a theoretical foundation through Relational Frame Theory (RFT), developed by Hayes and colleagues, which posits that it arises from deictic relational frames—such as I/You, Here/There, and Now/Then—that enable perspective-taking and a stable locus of awareness amid changing experiences. RFT formalized these processes in the early 2000s with the 2001 publication of Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian Account of Human Language and Cognition, providing an empirical behavioral account of how language creates a "contextual self" distinct from transient content, thus bridging Eastern philosophical notions with Western scientific inquiry.^[7] This integration positioned self-as-context as one of the six core processes in ACT's hexaflex model, alongside acceptance, defusion, present-moment contact, values, and committed action, as outlined in Hayes, Strosahl, and Wilson's seminal 1999 publication, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An Experiential Approach to Behavior Change. The adaptation of self-as-context into modern psychology also drew influences from existential and humanistic traditions, such as Viktor Frankl's logotherapy, which emphasized self-transcendence and finding meaning amid suffering, and Carl Rogers' concept of the self, which highlighted congruence between experienced and idealized aspects of identity to promote growth.^[8] These elements helped synthesize Eastern ideas of a non-attached self with empirically testable Western frameworks, transforming self-as-context into a practical tool for enhancing psychological flexibility.^[9] The timeline of development began with the initial ACT protocols in 1981 and Hayes' early workshops in 1982-1983, progressed with the 1999 ACT book formalizing the hexaflex, and culminated in RFT's 2001 publication, which solidified self-as-context's role in the 2000s through extensive experimental validation.^[3] This progression established self-as-context as a pivotal bridge between philosophical precursors and contemporary therapeutic practice.

Defining Self-as-Context

Core Definition

Self-as-context refers to a transcendent sense of self characterized as the "observing self" or stable locus of awareness that witnesses thoughts, emotions, and sensations without being fused with or defined by them.^[1] This perspective emerges from deictic relational frames in human language and cognition, such as distinctions between "I/You," "Here/There," and "Now/Then," allowing individuals to experience a consistent vantage point amid changing inner experiences.^[2] Unlike transient psychological content, self-as-context provides a contextual foundation for perspective-taking, often described as unknowable in its full extent but essential for transcendent awareness.^[1] Common metaphorical explanations in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) illustrate this concept, such as the "sky" analogy, where the self-as-context is the unchanging sky through which thoughts and feelings pass like transient weather patterns. Another is the "witness" perspective, evoked in awareness exercises where one observes the flow of experiences as a neutral observer, fostering detachment from self-narratives.^[2] These metaphors emphasize the stability of the observing self, enabling contact with a safe, consistent perspective for all inner events.^[1] Psychologically, self-as-context promotes psychological flexibility by facilitating cognitive defusion from rigid self-stories and reducing attachment to a fixed identity, allowing individuals to respond to experiences more adaptively.^[1] It functions as a process rather than a fixed entity, distinct from ego or personality constructs, which are often tied to conceptualized content like roles or traits; instead, it supports ongoing perspective-taking without investment in the validity of those contents.^[2] This contrasts with self-as-content, which involves evaluative stories about the self derived from thoughts and memories.^[1]

Relation to the Observing Self

The observing self represents the practical manifestation of self-as-context as a stable locus of awareness that notices internal experiences, such as thoughts, emotions, and sensations, without becoming fused or identified with them. This perspective fosters a sense of continuity and transcendence, allowing individuals to view experiences as transient events occurring within a broader field of consciousness rather than defining the self. For example, in response to anxiety, one might shift from "I am anxious" to "I am noticing my anxiety," thereby creating psychological distance and reducing reactivity.^[3] Experiential exercises in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) directly cultivate access to this observing self through targeted mindfulness techniques. A foundational practice involves labeling thoughts to highlight the distinction between content and awareness, such as verbally prefixing a recurring idea with "I am having the thought that..." to observe it as a mental event rather than literal truth. Complementary methods, like the "leaves on a stream" visualization—where thoughts are imagined as leaves drifting on a current—reinforce this by directing attention to the unchanging observer amid fleeting experiences, promoting defusion and present-moment contact.^[3] Neuroimaging research on mindfulness and defusion tasks, which align with observing self practices, reveals activation patterns in the default mode network (DMN), a set of brain regions including the medial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex involved in self-referential processing and internal mentation. For instance, functional MRI studies of experienced meditators demonstrate reduced DMN activity during focused attention tasks, correlating with decreased mind-wandering and enhanced meta-awareness, though these associations do not establish causality for self-as-context specifically.^[10]^[11] From a developmental standpoint, self-as-context builds on the acquisition of deictic relational frames in Relational Frame Theory (RFT), such as "I-here-now," which enable perspective-taking by relating the self to coordinates of space, time, and others. Typically developing children establish these frames between ages 3 and 5, as evidenced by training studies where 4- to 5-year-olds successfully learned I-You, Here-There, and Now-Then relations through operant shaping, leading to improved perspective-taking abilities that form the behavioral foundation for the adult observing self.^[12]

Contrasting Self-as-Content

Components of Self-as-Content

Self-as-content refers to the sense of self constructed through identification with the transient contents of one's psychological experiences, including thoughts, emotions, sensations, memories, and social roles, often resulting in a rigid, fused perspective that limits psychological flexibility.^[13] In Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), this form of self arises from over-attachment to a conceptualized identity, where individuals treat these elements as literal and defining truths about who they are, leading to behavioral inflexibility when experiences conflict with this narrative.^[14] The conceptual self forms a core element of self-as-content, comprising the narratives and evaluations individuals build about their identity based on social, cultural, and personal stories. For instance, labels such as "I am a failure" or "I am successful" create a static storyline that dominates self-perception and decision-making.^[13] This dimension draws from relational framing in ACT theory, where past evaluations and roles solidify into a fixed self-concept, potentially hindering adaptation to new contexts. Identification with the thinking self represents another key component, where ongoing mental chatter—such as worries, plans, or self-criticisms—is taken as objective reality rather than transient cognition. In this mode, individuals fuse with their thoughts, viewing the "thinking self" as the authoritative voice defining their essence, which can amplify rumination and reduce present-moment awareness.^[13] This fusion contributes to the rigidity of self-as-content by treating cognitive content as an unchangeable core identity. The somatic self emerges through embodiment of physical sensations and bodily states as integral to one's identity, such as interpreting chronic tension or pain as "who I am" rather than temporary experiences. This aspect of self-as-content involves nonverbal, physiological responses like instincts or discomfort, which, when over-identified with, reinforce a bodily-defined self that resists change.^[13] In ACT, such identification can limit flexibility by equating the body's signals with a permanent self-narrative. Fusion with the emotional self constitutes the final major component, wherein feelings are experienced as synonymous with one's core identity, exemplified by statements like "I am depressed" or "I am angry." This leads to emotional content dominating self-view, where transient moods become enduring truths, exacerbating avoidance or reactivity.^[13] Unlike the transcendent perspective of self-as-context, these elements of self-as-content create a story-based self prone to entanglement.^[14]

Key Differences from Self-as-Context

Self-as-content and self-as-context represent two distinct aspects of self-experience within Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and Relational Frame Theory (RFT), with profound functional differences that influence psychological flexibility. Self-as-content refers to the ongoing narrative of thoughts, evaluations, and roles that individuals attribute to themselves, such as "I am a failure," which can lead to cognitive fusion—treating these internal events as literal truths—and experiential avoidance, thereby perpetuating emotional suffering and rigid behavior patterns.^[15] In contrast, self-as-context involves experiencing the self as the stable, observing perspective or "container" for these transient contents, fostering defusion from unhelpful thoughts and acceptance of difficult emotions, which enables values-based actions and reduces the dominance of suffering-driven responses.^[2] This functional shift is central to ACT's hexaflex model, where self-as-context supports psychological flexibility by allowing individuals to contact the present moment without being overwhelmed by self-related content.^[16] Theoretically, these differences are grounded in RFT, which posits that human language and cognition arise from derived relational responding—arbitrarily applicable networks of relations. Self-as-content emerges from relational frames of coordination and comparison, such as deriving "I am bad" from past experiences or social cues, creating a fused, content-bound sense of identity that is highly sensitive to contextual changes and prone to transformation into unworkable rules for living. Self-as-context, however, derives from deictic relational frames (e.g., I-YOU, HERE-THERE, NOW-THEN) and hierarchical framing, where the self is positioned as the transcendent context containing all experiences, rather than being equated with any specific content; this allows for meta-awareness and perspective-taking, decoupling the self from variable relational derivations.^[15] For instance, in RFT terms, self-as-content might involve a flat relational network equating the self directly with evaluative terms, while self-as-context introduces a hierarchical structure: "I am having the thought that I am bad," placing the content within an observing frame. Experientially, these constructs manifest differently in daily mental processes. Rumination exemplifies self-as-content, where an individual becomes entangled in repetitive, content-driven loops of self-criticism (e.g., endlessly replaying "I failed because I'm incompetent"), amplifying distress through fusion and avoidance of associated emotions.^[2] Conversely, self-as-context promotes meta-awareness, as in mindfulness practices where one notices rumination as a passing event within the broader field of awareness (e.g., "I'm noticing my mind ruminating on failure"), interrupting the cycle and restoring perspective without altering the content itself.^[4] This contrast highlights how self-as-context facilitates a "transcendent" vantage point, enabling clearer engagement with the world. In terms of implications for identity, self-as-content yields a variable and conditional sense of self, fluctuating with situational feedback or internal states—such as shifting from "successful professional" to "inadequate parent"—which can undermine stability and coherence in one's life narrative. Self-as-context, by comparison, provides a constant, perspective-granting foundation, often described as the "observing self" or "I-here-now," that persists across changes in content, offering continuity and reducing identity disturbances even amid adversity.^[16] This enduring quality supports long-term well-being by allowing individuals to hold multiple, sometimes conflicting, self-aspects without total fusion, aligning actions with enduring values rather than transient self-stories.^[15]

Applications in Therapy and Practice

Role in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

In Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), self-as-context represents one of the six core processes within the psychological flexibility model, often referred to as the "hexaflex." This process involves cultivating a transcendent sense of self that serves as a stable vantage point for observing thoughts, emotions, and sensations without becoming fused with them, thereby supporting the interrelated processes of cognitive defusion, acceptance, and contact with the present moment.^[2] By fostering this observer perspective, self-as-context enables clients to experience inner events as transient content within a broader context, reducing the dominance of self-as-content narratives that contribute to psychological inflexibility.^[17] Therapeutic techniques in ACT operationalize self-as-context through experiential exercises and metaphors designed to evoke flexible perspective-taking. The Observer Exercise, for instance, guides clients to notice the continuity of awareness across changing experiences—such as shifting attention from physical sensations to memories to future imaginings—highlighting the unchanging "I" that observes these shifts.^[18] Similarly, the Chessboard Metaphor illustrates self-as-context by likening the self to a chessboard on which thoughts and feelings play out as pieces in a game; the board remains neutral and unaffected, allowing clients to step back from identifying with the "white" or "black" sides representing positive or negative self-stories.^[19] These interventions are introduced experientially, often after establishing basic mindfulness, to build a sense of psychological safety and continuity.^[4] Clinically, self-as-context is applied to address conditions like anxiety, depression, and chronic pain by diminishing fusion with self-as-content, where individuals rigidly define themselves through distressing narratives (e.g., "I am a failure" or "I am my pain"). In treating anxiety disorders, for example, a client with panic disorder and agoraphobia might use the Chessboard Metaphor to view anxiety as a transient piece on the board rather than an defining aspect of the self; in one case, this led to clinically significant reductions in panic severity (from 21 to 1 on the Panic Disorder Severity Scale) and avoidance behaviors in 9 sessions, with gains maintained at 17 months.^[20] For depression related to trauma, self-as-context helps clients observe depressive thoughts from a detached viewpoint, promoting values-aligned actions and reducing symptom severity, as seen in a veteran case where it facilitated tolerance of uncertainty and substantial mood improvements.^[21] In chronic pain management, it supports perspective-taking to separate the self from pain sensations, correlating with enhanced functioning and reduced disability in group-based ACT interventions.^[22] Therapist training emphasizes evoking self-as-context through deliberate, purpose-driven guidance to avoid abstraction. Clinicians are advised to clarify the intent (e.g., enhancing defusion or stability) before exercises, link concepts to clients' daily experiences like attention wandering during reading, and incorporate layered mindfulness instructions such as "notice that you are noticing" to experientially access the observer self.^[4] Sessions involve modeling flexible viewpoints—such as shifting from first-person immersion to a "balcony" overview—and reinforcing continuity of awareness across domains, ensuring interventions remain client-centered and tied to valued life directions.^[23]

Extensions to Mindfulness and Well-Being Practices

Self-as-context, often conceptualized as the "observing self," has been integrated into secular mindfulness programs such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn in the late 1970s. In MBSR, participants cultivate non-judgmental awareness by observing thoughts, emotions, and sensations as transient phenomena without over-identification, fostering a stable perspective that aligns with self-as-context principles.^[24] This approach emphasizes experiential selfhood, where individuals maintain a sense of continuity amid changing inner experiences, drawing from mindfulness meditation practices that encourage detached observation.^[25] In daily applications, self-as-context can be fostered through simple journaling prompts that promote noticing thoughts without attachment, such as reflecting on "What am I noticing right now, and who is doing the noticing?" during moments of routine stress.^[4] These practices extend to mindfulness exercises like "leaves on a stream," where one visualizes thoughts floating by while maintaining awareness of the observer, adaptable for use in everyday activities such as commuting or meal preparation to manage transient stressors.^[4] Although no apps are exclusively dedicated to self-as-context, general mindfulness applications like Headspace incorporate guided sessions that build an observing perspective through breath-focused meditations and awareness practices.^[26] Cultural adaptations of self-as-context appear in corporate wellness initiatives and educational settings, where it supports resilience by reducing self-criticism in high-pressure environments. In workplace programs, ACT-informed mindfulness training uses self-as-context to help employees observe work-related anxieties as separate from their core identity, enhancing focus and adaptability during deadlines or team conflicts.^[27] Similarly, in educational contexts, it is applied to build emotional resilience among students, promoting an observing stance toward academic self-doubt to foster sustained motivation and interpersonal harmony.^[28] Recent developments (as of 2025) have extended self-as-context applications to digital and diverse populations. Online self-guided ACT interventions have shown mediators like improved self-as-context contributing to reduced distress in subclinical anxiety.^[29] Mobile apps supporting ACT, such as therapy companion tools, incorporate self-as-context exercises to enhance accessibility in daily practice.^[30] Additionally, tailored interventions for gender minority clients use self-as-context to address identity-related stress, promoting a broader self-perspective.^[31] In adolescents, group-based ACT fosters self-as-context to manage anxiety and depression symptoms experientially.^[32] Sustained practice of self-as-context yields long-term benefits, including improved emotional regulation and greater life satisfaction, by enabling individuals to respond adaptively to challenges rather than reactively. Through consistent mindfulness cultivation, this perspective reduces rumination on negative self-content, leading to enhanced psychological flexibility and well-being over time.^[33] For instance, regular engagement strengthens the ability to maintain equanimity during emotional fluctuations, contributing to higher overall satisfaction with life domains like relationships and personal growth.^[24]

Empirical Evidence and Critiques

Research on Effectiveness

Empirical research on self-as-context, a core process in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), has demonstrated its role in enhancing psychological flexibility and reducing experiential avoidance through targeted interventions. A systematic review of 20 studies examining self-as-context as a stand-alone component found provisional evidence that it can be effectively taught in single-session formats, with some trials showing improvements in emotional well-being, though methodological limitations such as small sample sizes temper the conclusions.^[34] Meta-analyses of ACT indicate moderate effect sizes (g ≈ 0.4–0.6) for overall efficacy, with reductions in experiential avoidance often observed.^[35]^[36] Experimental evidence from neuroimaging supports the neural mechanisms underlying self-as-context interventions. In an fMRI study of 19 participants, cognitive defusion tasks—closely aligned with self-as-context principles—significantly decreased amygdala activation during exposure to negative emotional stimuli, suggesting reduced emotional reactivity through detached observation of thoughts.^[37] This decentering effect, a hallmark of self-as-context, was associated with lower identification with transient self-content, distinguishing it from other regulation strategies.^[37] Longitudinal trials incorporating self-as-context components have shown sustained improvements in psychological flexibility. In a transdiagnostic ACT program for 90 patients, scores on the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II) improved significantly from pre-treatment to post-treatment (d = 0.43) and to 3-month follow-up (d = 0.54), with changes correlating to reduced symptoms and better functioning.^[38] Recent meta-analyses as of 2025 further support ACT's role in treating depression, with moderate effects on psychological flexibility (d ≈ 0.5).^[39] Population-specific studies highlight the applicability of self-as-context in diverse groups. Among veterans with PTSD, a randomized pilot trial of ACT (n=21) including self-as-context exercises like the "sky/weather" metaphor reduced PTSD symptoms (η²p = 0.324 at 3-month follow-up) and experiential avoidance (η²p = 0.191), with 27% of participants rating the component as particularly helpful for viewing thoughts as transient.^[40] In adolescents and young adults facing self-esteem issues, a randomized controlled trial of a 6-hour ACT workshop (n=73) targeting self-as-context increased self-compassion (d = 1.06 at 2-month follow-up), offering a stable alternative to contingent self-esteem by promoting defusion from negative self-judgments.^[41] These findings underscore self-as-context's efficacy in vulnerable populations, with effects mediated by psychological flexibility.^[41]

Limitations and Ongoing Debates

Research on self-as-context (SAC) within Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) has been criticized for methodological shortcomings, including heavy reliance on self-report measures such as the Self-Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) and small, non-representative samples predominantly drawn from undergraduate populations.^[42] These issues contribute to variable study quality and mixed findings on SAC's impact on emotional well-being, with only provisional evidence from a limited number of trials supporting its standalone efficacy.^[42] Additionally, broader ACT studies often suffer from small sample sizes, lack of allocation concealment, and overdependence on self-reports, which may inflate perceived effects while limiting generalizability. Cultural biases represent another key limitation, as SAC and ACT originated in Western, individualistic contexts that emphasize personal autonomy and a transcendent self, potentially clashing with collectivistic societies prioritizing harmony and interdependence.^[43] For instance, metaphors for SAC may require adaptation in non-Western settings, such as using culturally resonant imagery like the Taro Plant for Native Hawaiian clients, to address how standard applications overlook diverse learning histories and relational norms.^[43] Empirical data from non-individualistic cultures remains sparse, highlighting a Western-centric skew in validation studies.^[44] Theoretical debates center on SAC's compatibility with essentialist self-views in therapies like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), where cognitive restructuring directly challenges dysfunctional self-beliefs, contrasting with ACT's defusion techniques that encourage observing thoughts without altering their content.^[16] Critics argue this functional contextualist approach in ACT undermines the syndromal specificity of traditional CBT, potentially leading to overlaps or redundancies in mechanisms like reduced believability of thoughts, while proponents emphasize distinct processes such as perspective-taking in SAC over belief modification. These tensions fuel ongoing discussions about whether SAC represents a true innovation or a rephrasing of existing cognitive strategies.^[16] Empirical gaps persist in applying SAC to neurodiverse populations, where systematic reviews identify only eight relevant ACT studies for adults with autism spectrum conditions or intellectual disabilities, marred by poor methodological rigor, small samples, and insufficient adaptation of processes like perspective-taking. Similarly, long-term maintenance of SAC gains post-intervention remains understudied, with most research limited to cross-sectional or short-term designs that fail to assess sustained psychological flexibility beyond immediate outcomes.^[42] In trauma-related contexts, this approach risks oversimplifying multifaceted identity disruptions by prioritizing containment over integrated processing of embodied experiences.^[16]

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Jun 17, 2022 · Further research is needed in order to determine the efficacy of ACT-SS for veterans with PTSD in larger randomized controlled trials.
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Using Acceptance and Commitment Therapy to Increase Self ...
The study showed that the ACT intervention led to large increases in self-compassion as compared to the waitlist control at post-treatment and two months after ...
[38]
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1403718/full
[39]
https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-025-07067-w
[40]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9224981/
[41]
Criticisms of ACT | Association for Contextual Behavioral Science
Criticisms include ACT being similar to CBT/Morita therapy, having methodological weaknesses, and not being evidence-based, with some arguing it's similar to ...