Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Sexual system

A sexual system refers to the distribution of male and female reproductive functions among individuals within a species, encompassing how sexes are organized for reproduction. Unlike the reproductive system, which describes the anatomical organs involved in gamete production and fertilization, or the mating system, which focuses on behavioral strategies for partner selection and parental care, the sexual system addresses the structural allocation of sexual roles—such as whether individuals are exclusively male, female, or both. This framework is crucial for understanding genetic diversity, population structure, and evolutionary dynamics across organisms.^[1] Sexual systems are broadly classified into gonochorism (separate sexes, where individuals are either male or female), hermaphroditism (individuals with both male and female reproductive organs, either simultaneously or sequentially), and polymorphic or mixed systems (e.g., populations with males, females, and hermaphrodites). Gonochorism predominates in vertebrates like mammals and most fish, while hermaphroditism is common in invertebrates such as earthworms and many plants. Transitions between these systems have occurred repeatedly in evolutionary history, driven by factors like mating opportunities, inbreeding avoidance, and ecological pressures.^[2]^[3] These systems vary widely across taxa, with implications for biodiversity and adaptation. For instance, hermaphroditism facilitates self-fertilization in isolated populations, enhancing colonization potential, whereas gonochorism promotes outcrossing and genetic recombination. Ongoing research, including phylogenetic analyses, continues to elucidate the origins and stability of these systems, revealing gonochorism as the likely ancestral state in many lineages as of 2022.^[4]

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition of Sexual Systems

A sexual system refers to the pattern of distribution of male and female reproductive functions among individuals within a species, determining how gametes such as sperm and eggs are produced and combined during reproduction.^[5] This encompasses variations in whether these functions are separated across distinct individuals or combined within the same individual, influencing the mechanisms of mating and fertilization across diverse taxa.^[6] Key terminology distinguishes these patterns: in animals, gonochorism describes a system where individuals are either male or female throughout their lives, producing only one type of gamete, while hermaphroditism involves individuals possessing both male and female reproductive organs, enabling simultaneous or sequential expression of both functions.^[6] In plants, analogous terms include monoecy, where separate male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers occur on the same individual, and dioecy, where male and female flowers are borne on different individuals.^[7] These terms highlight the structural and functional allocation of reproductive roles, which underpin sexual reproduction's core processes. Sexual systems play a fundamental role in promoting genetic diversity through meiosis, which generates haploid gametes with recombined genetic material, and fertilization, which merges these gametes to form diploid zygotes with novel allele combinations.^[8] In contrast to asexual reproduction, which typically produces genetically identical offspring via mechanisms like mitosis or parthenogenesis, sexual systems introduce variability by shuffling existing alleles and occasionally incorporating mutations, enhancing adaptability to environmental changes.^[9] The study of sexual systems gained early scientific attention through Charles Darwin's detailed observations of barnacles, published in his monographs from 1851 to 1854, where he documented hermaphroditic forms alongside rare dimorphic and complemental male structures, sparking interest in the evolutionary origins of diverse reproductive strategies.^[10] The sexual system in biology pertains to the distribution and allocation of male and female reproductive functions across individuals or populations, such as in cosexual (hermaphroditic or monoecious) versus dioecious configurations, rather than the anatomical structures involved in reproduction.^[11] In contrast, the reproductive system refers to the internal and external organs within an individual that facilitate gamete production, fertilization, and development, such as gonads, ducts, and associated genitalia in animals or floral structures in plants.^[11] This distinction is evident in dioecious species, where separate male and female individuals possess specialized reproductive organs, but the sexual system emphasizes the population-level separation of sex functions over individual morphology.^[11] Sexual systems differ from mating systems, which describe the patterns of mate choice, pairing, and fertilization events, including selfing versus outcrossing or monogamy versus polygamy.^[12] For instance, a dioecious sexual system mandates outcrossing at the population level due to the absence of self-fertilization capability, but the mating system encompasses additional behavioral or ecological factors influencing how mates are selected and pollen or gametes are transferred.^[12] In plants, sexual systems are categorized as hermaphroditic (combined sex functions) or separate-sex (gynodioecy, androdioecy, or dioecy), while mating systems focus on the realized rates of self- versus cross-fertilization, which can vary independently based on pollinator behavior or environmental cues.^[12] Unlike sex-determination systems, which involve the genetic or environmental mechanisms that establish an individual's sex (e.g., XY chromosomal systems in animals or dominant suppressors of femaleness in plants like Silene latifolia), sexual systems describe the resulting phenotypic outcomes, such as whether sexes are combined in one individual or separated across a population.^[11] For example, in XY systems, genetic factors dictate maleness through heterozygosity, leading to a 3:1 male-to-female ratio upon selfing, but the sexual system classifies the overall polymorphism (e.g., dioecy) without delving into the underlying loci or pathways.^[11] This separation allows sexual systems to evolve through shifts in gene expression or organ abortion, independent of the core determination machinery.^[11] The unique scope of sexual systems lies in their emphasis on population-level patterns of sex allocation, which directly influence outcrossing rates and mechanisms for inbreeding avoidance by promoting genetic diversity through obligatory cross-fertilization in separate-sex configurations.^[12] In dioecious populations, for instance, the equal investment in male and female functions across individuals enhances outcrossing, reducing the risk of inbreeding depression compared to self-compatible hermaphroditic systems where selfing can predominate.^[11] These patterns underscore how sexual systems shape evolutionary dynamics at the community scale, distinct from individual-level processes in related concepts.^[12]

Classification of Sexual Systems

Separate-Sex Systems

Separate-sex systems, known as gonochorism in animals and dioecy in plants, represent reproductive strategies where male and female functions are confined to distinct individuals, preventing any overlap of gamete production within a single organism.^[13]^[14] In animals, gonochorism designates species composed exclusively of males, which produce sperm, and females, which produce ova, with sex fixed at maturity and no capacity for both roles in one individual.^[13] This binary separation promotes obligatory outcrossing and sexual dimorphism in traits related to reproduction.^[5] In plants, dioecy similarly features populations of male plants bearing only staminate flowers for pollen production and female plants bearing only pistillate flowers for ovule and seed development, ensuring cross-pollination between sexes.^[15] Unlike hermaphroditic systems where individuals combine both functions, dioecy enforces separation to avoid self-fertilization.^[15] These systems generally operate through genetic sex determination, where specific chromosomal configurations direct the development of dimorphic individuals from zygote formation onward.^[5] In many gonochoristic animals, mechanisms like XY heterogamety (males XY, females XX) or ZW heterogamety (females ZW, males ZZ) establish sex early in embryogenesis, leading to specialized gonadal differentiation without functional reversal.^[5] Plant dioecy often involves analogous chromosomal systems, such as XY-like arrangements suppressing one sex's reproductive organs, though environmental influences can modulate expression in some taxa.^[15] Gonochorism predominates among animals, characterizing roughly 95% of species, while hermaphroditism occurs in only about 5%.^[16] In contrast, dioecy is rarer among angiosperms, affecting approximately 6% of the roughly 300,000 species.^[17]

Hermaphroditic Systems

Hermaphroditic systems are sexual strategies in which individual organisms possess both male and female reproductive functions, enabling them to produce both types of gametes—sperm and eggs—within the same body.^[18] In animals, hermaphroditism is divided into two main subtypes: simultaneous hermaphroditism, where both male and female organs are functional concurrently during the reproductive period, and sequential hermaphroditism, where individuals transition from one sex to the other over their lifetime.^[19] Simultaneous hermaphroditism allows for potential reciprocal fertilization between partners, while sequential forms adapt to changing environmental or social conditions by optimizing reproductive success at different life stages.^[20] In plants, the analogous condition is monoecy, characterized by the presence of separate unisexual male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers on the same individual, contrasting with cosexual flowers that bear both organs together.^[21] The mechanisms underlying hermaphroditic systems involve the development and maintenance of dual reproductive structures within a single organism, often regulated by genetic, hormonal, or environmental cues. In simultaneous hermaphrodites, both gamete types are produced concurrently, typically with mechanisms to prevent or limit self-fertilization, such as spatial separation of organs or temporal differences in gamete release.^[22] Sequential hermaphroditism, in contrast, features sex change through processes like protandry, where individuals mature first as males and later become females, or protogyny, the reverse pattern, driven by shifts in gonadal tissue that reallocate resources from one sex to the other.^[20] These transitions are often size- or age-dependent, reflecting adaptive responses to mating opportunities or fecundity differences between sexes.^[23] In monoecious plants, male and female flowers develop on the same plant but may bloom at different times or positions to facilitate cross-pollination while retaining selfing potential.^[24] Hermaphroditic systems occur across diverse taxa, with notable prevalence in certain groups. Monoecy is estimated to affect approximately 5-7% of angiosperm species, representing a significant minority that balances unisexual flower production on individual plants.^[21] Simultaneous hermaphroditism is particularly common among invertebrates, such as in annelids like earthworms, where it predominates as the primary reproductive mode, comprising a substantial portion of species in phyla like Mollusca (around 40% of genera) and facilitating reproduction in low-density populations.^[25] Sequential hermaphroditism appears more frequently in specific animal lineages, such as certain fish and crustaceans, but remains less widespread overall compared to simultaneous forms in invertebrates.^[26] Functionally, hermaphroditic systems offer flexibility in mating strategies, including the potential for self-fertilization, which ensures reproduction in mate-scarce environments but risks inbreeding depression and reduced genetic diversity, versus outcrossing, which enhances hybrid vigor through gene flow.^[22] A key aspect is the trade-off in resource allocation between male and female functions, where limited energy or nutrients invested in one (e.g., sperm production) may reduce investment in the other (e.g., egg maturation), often modeled as a negative correlation in hermaphroditic fitness components.^[27] This allocation is dynamically adjusted based on ecological factors like population density or partner availability, promoting evolutionary stability in variable habitats.^[28] Unlike separate-sex systems, which enforce strict division of reproductive roles across individuals, hermaphroditism allows a single organism to contribute to both parental generations, potentially increasing overall reproductive assurance.^[23]

Polymorphic Systems

Polymorphic sexual systems are characterized by the coexistence of multiple distinct sexual morphs within a single population, contrasting with uniform hermaphroditism or complete sex separation. Key subtypes include gynodioecy, where females (male-sterile individuals) and hermaphrodites coexist; androdioecy, featuring males and hermaphrodites; and trioecy, involving males, females, and hermaphrodites simultaneously.^[29]^[30]^[31] These systems occur in various taxa, predominantly plants but also select animals such as certain fish species exhibiting androdioecy, like the mangrove rivulus (Kryptolebias marmoratus).^[32] Gynodioecy is the most prevalent polymorphic system among angiosperms, occurring in less than 1% of species (about 1,300 species), while trioecy is rarer at about 0.03% of species (or 7.9% of families but only 0.3% of genera), and androdioecy remains exceptionally uncommon, documented in fewer than 50 plant species and a handful of animals.^[33]^[34]^[35] In animals, such systems are scarce, with examples limited to species like the self-fertilizing fish Kryptolebias marmoratus, where rare males coexist with hermaphrodites, and the mussel Semimytilus algosus, which shows trioecy with hermaphrodites dominating at ~95%.^[32]^[36] These polymorphic configurations are primarily maintained through frequency-dependent selection, where the fitness of each morph varies inversely with its relative abundance in the population, often mediated by nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions such as cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) genes in plants that render some individuals female while nuclear restorers counteract sterility in others.^[37] Without such interactions, these systems tend to be unstable and prone to collapse into monoecy, dioecy, or pure hermaphroditism.^[38] Stability in polymorphic systems, particularly gynodioecy, is further supported by self-incompatibility mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization in hermaphrodites, thereby reducing their seed production advantage and allowing female morphs to persist by promoting outcrossing and avoiding inbreeding depression.^[39] In cases like European chestnut (Castanea sativa), late-acting self-incompatibility enhances female competitiveness by disabling self-pollen ovules, countering potential hermaphrodite dominance.^[40]

Evolutionary Perspectives

Origins of Sexual Systems

The evolutionary origins of sexual systems in eukaryotes are hypothesized to stem from an ancestral state of hermaphroditism or cosexuality, where individuals could perform both male and female reproductive functions, as inferred from comparative analyses of unicellular and multicellular lineages. This condition likely prevailed in the last eukaryotic common ancestor, facilitating flexible mating in early sexual reproduction before the divergence into specialized systems. Transitions to gonochorism, or separate sexes, are thought to have arisen through the evolution of sex chromosomes, which suppressed recombination in sex-determining regions and promoted dimorphism by linking reproductive traits to genetic sex.^[41] Fossil evidence supports monoecy as a common feature in ancient seed plants, with many Carboniferous gymnosperms exhibiting separate male (pollen-producing) and female (ovule-bearing) reproductive structures on the same plant. In contrast, gonochorism appears to have emerged in vertebrates around 400 million years ago during the Devonian period, as evidenced by placoderm fossils showing internal fertilization and embryonic development consistent with separate male and female roles in early jawed fishes.^[42] Comparative biology highlights the transition from isogamy—equal-sized gametes—to anisogamy as a pivotal driver of sex separation, where disruptive selection favored smaller, mobile gametes (sperm) and larger, nutrient-rich ones (eggs), establishing male and female distinctions.^[43] Multicellularity played a crucial role in enabling this specialization, as it allowed for the division of labor among cells, permitting dedicated reproductive tissues and organs that enhanced gamete production efficiency and sexual dimorphism.^[44] At the molecular level, conserved genes such as DMRT1 and FOXL2 underpin sex differentiation across diverse taxa, with DMRT1 acting as a key regulator of male gonad development and FOXL2 promoting ovarian formation through antagonistic interactions that maintain sexual identity post-embryogenesis.^[45] These genes' presence in both invertebrates and vertebrates underscores their ancient origins in the genetic toolkit for sexual system evolution.^[46]

Transitions and Selective Pressures

Transitions between sexual systems, such as from hermaphroditism to dioecy, often proceed through intermediate states like gynodioecy, where populations contain both hermaphroditic and female individuals. In the genus Silene, multiple independent evolutionary shifts to dioecy have occurred from ancestral hermaphroditism via gynodioecy, driven by the spread of nuclear and cytoplasmic male-sterility mutations that favor female function in some lineages.^[47] This pathway is supported by phylogenetic analyses showing gynodioecy as a stable intermediate, with subsequent loss of male function in hermaphrodites leading to full dioecy.^[48] Reversals from dioecy back to hermaphroditism are rarer but documented, particularly in fish lineages where sexual systems exhibit high evolutionary lability. For instance, genomic studies in teleost fish reveal instances of sex chromosome turnover, including reversals to ancestral hermaphroditic or gonochoristic states, often involving the degradation and repurposing of sex-determining loci.^[2] These reversals highlight the plasticity of sexual systems in response to varying ecological conditions, though they occur less frequently than forward transitions due to genetic and developmental constraints. Selective pressures play a central role in driving these transitions. Inbreeding avoidance strongly favors the evolution of separate-sex systems like dioecy, as it reduces homozygosity of deleterious recessive alleles and enhances outcrossing, thereby increasing offspring fitness in small or fragmented populations.^[49] Conversely, resource limitation in sparse or unpredictable environments promotes hermaphroditism, allowing individuals to self-fertilize or mate with limited partners, maximizing reproductive assurance without reliance on finding separate mates.^[50] Sexual conflict, arising from opposing male and female reproductive interests—such as over mating frequency or resource allocation—further drives the emergence of polymorphic systems, where intermediate forms like trioecy balance intralocus contest evolution.^[51] Labile sexual systems, such as sequential hermaphroditism, demonstrate rapid responses to ontogenetic changes like size or age, adapting to shifting reproductive value across life stages. In many reef fish species, individuals change sex at approximately 80% of their maximum body size or 2.5 times their age at maturity, optimizing fitness when larger size confers mating advantages to one sex.^[52] Similarly, in scleractinian corals, protogynous or protandrous shifts occur in response to colony size and environmental cues, ensuring reproduction in dense but competitive habitats where early female function maximizes egg production before transitioning to male roles.^[20] Recent macroevolutionary analyses of plant sexual systems have revealed high lability, with phylogenetic comparative models indicating that transitions to dioecy occur at higher rates than reversals in angiosperm genera, despite varying selective pressures across clades. This dynamic underscores the influence of both genetic constraints and ecological opportunities on sexual system evolution.^[53]

Occurrence Across Taxa

In Plants

In plants, sexual systems vary widely across major lineages, with angiosperms and gymnosperms exhibiting distinct patterns of separate-sex and combined-sex reproduction. Although the majority of angiosperms are hermaphroditic, they also display dioecy, monoecy, and polymorphic systems like gynodioecy less frequently, while gymnosperms tend toward dioecy or monoecy with hermaphroditic forms being extremely rare. These systems are adapted to reproductive structures such as flowers or cones, influencing outcrossing and genetic diversity.^[54] Among angiosperms, dioecy is exemplified by willows in the genus Salix, where individual plants bear either male or female catkins, ensuring cross-pollination through wind or insects.^[55] Monoecy occurs in oaks of the genus Quercus, such as Quercus suber, where separate male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers develop on the same tree, often with protandry to promote outcrossing.^[56] Gynodioecy, a polymorphic system, is common in thymes of the genus Thymus, like Thymus vulgaris, where populations consist of hermaphroditic plants and female-only individuals, with females often showing higher seed production but relying on hermaphrodites for pollen.^[57] In gymnosperms, dioecy predominates in species like junipers of the genus Juniperus, where male and female cones occur on separate trees, facilitating wind dispersal of pollen over long distances.^[58] Structural adaptations in these systems enhance reproductive efficiency. In dioecious species, unisexual flowers or cones lack the opposite sex's organs entirely, reducing energy allocation to non-functional parts and minimizing self-fertilization risks; for instance, male flowers in dioecious plants often feature numerous stamens without pistils.^[59] Hermaphroditic plants, conversely, employ self-incompatibility mechanisms, such as gametophytic systems where pollen tubes are arrested if matching the pistil's S-locus genotype, preventing inbreeding while allowing cross-pollination.^[60] Pollination mode significantly influences sexual system prevalence in plants. Wind-pollinated species, common in both angiosperms and gymnosperms, often favor dioecy or monoecy to optimize pollen dispersal without reliance on animal vectors, as seen in Salix and Juniperus.^[61] In contrast, animal-pollinated plants more frequently exhibit hermaphroditism or gynodioecy, where floral rewards like nectar promote visits that transfer pollen between compatible mates, as in many Thymus species.^[62]

In Animals

Animals display a variety of sexual systems, ranging from gonochorism to hermaphroditism, often influenced by behavioral and physiological adaptations that facilitate reproduction in mobile environments. Unlike the structurally fixed systems in plants, animal sexual strategies frequently involve dynamic social interactions and environmental cues.^[63] In vertebrates, gonochorism is prevalent, particularly among mammals where individuals maintain a single sex throughout life, determined by genetic factors such as the presence of the Y chromosome in males. For example, humans exemplify this system, with distinct male and female reproductive anatomies and roles in gamete production, ensuring separate-sex mating without sex change.^[64]^[63] This fixed dimorphism supports specialized physiological traits, such as testosterone-driven behaviors in males for mate competition.^[63] Sequential hermaphroditism occurs in some fish, allowing individuals to switch sexes in response to social hierarchies. Clownfish demonstrate protandry, where all individuals hatch as males and the dominant individual transitions to female upon the loss of the breeding female, enhancing reproductive success in anemone habitats through physiological gonad remodeling.^[65]^[66] This sex reversal is triggered by behavioral dominance and involves hormonal shifts, illustrating how social cues integrate with physiology.^[65] Among invertebrates, simultaneous hermaphroditism enables mutual fertilization during copulation. Earthworms possess both ovarian and testicular tissues, allowing paired individuals to exchange sperm reciprocally, which promotes genetic diversity while adapting to soil-dwelling lifestyles with limited mobility.^[67] This system features physiological reciprocity, where each partner acts as both male and female, reducing the need for mate searching.^[67] Parthenogenesis represents an edge case derived from sexual origins in some reptiles. Whiptail lizards, such as Aspidoscelis uniparens, are all-female and reproduce asexually via parthenogenesis, where eggs develop without fertilization, yet their lineage traces to hybridization of sexual ancestors, retaining vestigial behavioral traits like pseudocopulation to stimulate ovulation.^[68] This highlights physiological autonomy but links to ancestral sexual systems through hybrid genomic stability.^[68] Physiological sex reversal in response to social cues is evident in certain fish. In wrasse species like Thalassoma bifasciatum, removal of the dominant male prompts the largest female to undergo rapid gonad transformation to male, driven by visual and behavioral signals that alter monoamine levels and gene expression.^[69] This process, completing in days, underscores the integration of social environment with endocrine physiology for adaptive mating.^[70] Behavioral traits complement these systems in gonochoristic animals. In birds, males often engage in mate guarding, staying in close proximity to females during fertile periods to prevent extra-pair copulations and secure paternity, as seen in species like the Seychelles warbler where guarding intensity correlates with reduced cuckoldry.^[71]^[72] This vigilance involves territorial displays and following, balancing energy costs with reproductive assurance.^[71]

In Other Organisms

In fungi, sexual reproduction often involves mating types rather than distinct sexes, with haploid cells fusing to form diploid zygotes that undergo meiosis. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, two mating types, designated MATa and MATα, are controlled by alleles at the MAT locus, enabling cells of opposite types to recognize and fuse via pheromone signaling, resulting in a diploid cell capable of both mating type expression under certain conditions.^[73] Basidiomycete fungi similarly exhibit isogamy, where compatible hyphae of different mating types fuse without gamete size differentiation, leading to dikaryotic states that persist until basidial meiosis.^[74] Among protists and algae, sexual systems display a range of strategies from isogamy to oogamy, frequently employing mating types to regulate compatibility in unicellular or colonial forms. The green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a model unicellular protist, features two isogamous mating types (mt+ and mt-) controlled by a single locus, where gametes of opposite types fuse to form zygotes resistant to environmental stress.^[75] In colonial green algae like Volvox, oogamy predominates, with larger immotile eggs and smaller motile sperm produced in separate male and female colonies in heterothallic species, mimicking dioecy through genetic sex determination and internal fertilization precursors.^[76] Red algae (Rhodophyta) show rarer instances of dioecy, where male and female gametophytes develop separately, producing spermatia and carpogonia that unite to form carposporophytes. For example, species in the genus Pyropia exhibit dioecious reproduction, with sex determination linked to UV chromosome systems that promote genetic diversity in marine environments.^[77] Across these groups, mating types serve as the microbial analog to sexes, enforcing outcrossing without anisogamy in many cases, though transitions to dimorphic gametes occur in oogamous lineages.^[78] In planktonic protists and algae, sexual reproduction facilitates adaptation to fluctuating oceanic conditions, with mating types ensuring mate encounter amid dilution, often triggered by nutrient scarcity to produce dormant zygotes or cysts. This strategy enhances survival in dispersed populations, contrasting with clonal asexual phases dominant in stable environments.^[79]

Prevalence and Ecological Implications

Frequencies in Major Taxa

In angiosperms, hermaphroditic (cosexual) systems predominate, occurring in approximately 90% of species, while dioecy affects 5-6% and mixed systems such as gynodioecy or monoecy account for about 10%.^[17]^[37] Among animals, gonochorism is the most common sexual system, comprising about 95% of species, with hermaphroditism limited to roughly 5%, predominantly in invertebrates such as annelids and mollusks; polymorphic systems like sequential hermaphroditism remain rare overall.^[80] In other taxa, hermaphroditism is prevalent in fungi, where homothallic (self-fertile) systems occur across major phyla like Ascomycota, enabling frequent selfing. Sexual systems in protists exhibit high variability, ranging from isogamous mating types to anisogamy and hermaphroditism, with no dominant pattern due to their diverse evolutionary histories.^[79] Across taxa, sexual system frequencies show latitudinal gradients, particularly in plants, where dioecy is more prevalent at higher latitudes than in the tropics, potentially linked to climatic and biotic factors.^[17]^[81]

Advantages and Disadvantages

Separate-sex systems, such as dioecy in plants and gonochorism in animals, promote high levels of outcrossing, which effectively reduces inbreeding depression and enhances genetic diversity within populations.^[82] This outcrossing advantage is particularly evident in models where the evolution of separate sexes from hermaphroditism requires overcoming selfing-related costs, with dioecy eliminating self-fertilization entirely.^[83] However, these systems incur significant disadvantages, including the energetic and temporal costs of mate finding, which can limit reproductive success in low-density or fragmented populations.^[84] Additionally, the 1:1 sex ratio typical of separate-sex systems results in approximately 50% of individuals (males) not producing offspring directly, imposing a two-fold cost relative to systems where all individuals contribute to seed or egg production. Hermaphroditic systems, where individuals possess both male and female reproductive functions, offer advantages by eliminating the need for mate searching, thereby increasing pairing opportunities and reproductive assurance, especially in sparse populations.^[84] This can double the potential mating interactions per individual compared to separate-sex systems, providing a fitness benefit in environments with unreliable partner availability.^[85] On the downside, hermaphroditism risks self-fertilization, leading to inbreeding depression that reduces offspring viability unless outcrossing rates are high; for instance, gynodioecious systems (mixed hermaphrodites and females) evolve only if the product of selfing rate and inbreeding depression exceeds 0.5.^[82] Sex allocation conflicts further disadvantage hermaphrodites, as resources traded off between male (pollen/sperm) and female (ovules/eggs) functions can lower overall efficiency compared to specialized sexes.^[83] Polymorphic sexual systems, combining elements like hermaphrodites, males, and females within populations (e.g., gynodioecy or androdioecy), provide bet-hedging benefits by diversifying reproductive strategies in unpredictable environments, reducing variance in fitness across generations at the cost of a lower mean.^[86] This polymorphism allows populations to exploit variable conditions, such as fluctuating mate availability, through frequency-dependent selection that maintains multiple morphs.^[82] However, sustaining polymorphism demands ongoing selection balance, incurring maintenance costs from genetic conflicts and potential reductions in specialization efficiency.^[83] Ecologically, sexual systems shape population dynamics; for example, dioecy supports higher genetic diversity and adaptive potential, facilitating invasion success in fragmented habitats where outcrossing maintains variation for local adaptation.^[87] In contrast, hermaphroditism may stabilize small populations via selfing but risks depression in stable, high-density settings.^[84]

References

[1]
There shall be order. The legacy of Linnaeus in the age of molecular ...
His so-called sexual system organized plants based on the number, size and method of insertion of their stamens, and also on the female parts, the pistils.
[2]
Linnaeus and the Love Lives of Plants (Chapter 21) - Reproduction
His sexual system played a key role in the popularization of botany during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
[3]
Linnaeus' sexual system and flowering plant phylogeny - 2007
Apr 28, 2008 · He proposed a system of plants, the sexual system, based on the number and arrangement of male and female organs.
[4]
Switches, stability and reversals in the evolutionary history of sexual ...
Sexual systems (also known as “sexual patterns”), defined as the pattern of distribution of the male and female function among the individuals of a given ...
[5]
Evolution of sexual systems, sex chromosomes and sex-linked gene ...
Jun 10, 2022 · Dioecious plants or gonochoristic animals are characterised by individuals of the same species but with distinct male or female reproductive ...Introduction · Results · Methods<|control11|><|separator|>
[6]
Monoecy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Monoecious refers to plants that have both male and female reproductive structures on the same individual, allowing for the production of both types of flowers ...
[7]
The concept of the sexual reproduction cycle and its evolutionary ...
Jan 6, 2015 · It is currently agreed that the most important benefit of meiosis is increasing genetic variation through recombination. However, by definition ...
[8]
2.36: Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction - Biology LibreTexts
Mar 5, 2021 · Sexual reproduction just means combining genetic material from two parents. Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically identical to the one parent.
[9]
Darwin's “Mr. Arthrobalanus”: Sexual Differentiation, Evolutionary ...
Apr 20, 2016 · The surprising and revealing sexual differentiation he would uncover amongst barnacles represented an important step in his understanding of the ...
[10]
Plant sex determination and sex chromosomes | Heredity - Nature
Feb 20, 2002 · Sex determination systems in plants have evolved many times from hermaphroditic ancestors (including monoecious plants with separate male and female flowers on ...Introduction: Why Are Plant... · Why Are Sex Determining Loci... · Molecular Genetics Of Plant...
[11]
Review Evolution of Plant Breeding Systems - ScienceDirect.com
Sep 5, 2006 · Among the different plant mating systems, it is useful to distinguish two types of systems: 'sex systems', hermaphroditic versus male/female ...Missing: distinction | Show results with:distinction
[12]
Gonochorism - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Gonochorism is defined as a reproductive strategy in which individuals of a species possess one of at least two distinct sexes.
[13]
Dioecy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
An extensive survey[21], involving all flowering plant genera and families, found that dioecy occurred in about 6% of angiosperm species, and was most ...6.3 Dioecy In Plants: Colony... · Gender In Plants: Sex... · From Sex Chromosomes To Sex...
[14]
The Diversity and Dynamics of Sex Determination in Dioecious Plants
Jan 14, 2021 · Dioecy was artificially engineered in the monoecious species maize (Zea mays) and melon (Cucumis melo). Nearly a century ago, two genetically ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[15]
A reconstruction of sexual modes throughout animal evolution
Dec 6, 2017 · While the majority of animals are gonochoristic, hermaphroditism is estimated to occur in 5–6% of animal species (and almost one-third of non- ...
[16]
The relative and absolute frequencies of angiosperm sexual systems
Oct 1, 2014 · 5–6% of all angiosperm species are dioecious, resulting from 871 to 5000 independent origins of dioecy ; 210 (1.4% of 14559) genera have ...Abstract · MATERIALS AND METHODS · RESULTS<|control11|><|separator|>
[17]
Consequences of sex change for effective population size - PMC - NIH
Sequential hermaphroditism, a reproductive strategy in which individuals operate first as males and later as females (protandry) or the reverse (protogyny), is ...
[18]
[PDF] Protandrous Hermaphroditism - Henshaw Lab
However, a substantial minority of species are hermaphrodites, meaning that a single indivi- dual can produce both eggs and sperm, either simultaneously or at ...
[19]
A phylogenetic comparative analysis on the evolution of sequential ...
Feb 27, 2020 · Among vertebrates, fishes exhibit the broadest diversity in sexual systems, ranging from gonochorism (separate sexes) to hermaphroditism ( ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[20]
The distribution of sexual function in the flowering plant - NIH
Mar 21, 2022 · Considering how common monoecy is, at a frequency 'slightly higher' than the frequency of dioecy, and perhaps as high as 7% of angiosperm ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[21]
The role of hermaphrodites in the experimental evolution of ...
Jun 2, 2014 · ... hermaphrodite outcross-fitness and hermaphrodite self ... Mutation load and rapid adaptation favour outcrossing over self-fertilization.
[22]
The Adaptive Significance of Sequential Hermaphroditism in Animals
Sequential hermaphroditism can convey a selective advantage to an individual by increasing its reproductive potential relative to nontransforming members of ...
[23]
The distribution of sexual function in the flowering plant - Journals
Mar 21, 2022 · Monoecy is thought to be a major route to dioecy (separation of sexual function of different individuals). The developmental and functional ...
[24]
Hermaphroditism in fish: incidence, distribution and associations ...
Oct 5, 2021 · Most invertebrate hermaphrodites are simultaneous and a rough estimate puts the number of hermaphrodite species ~ 65,000, or about 5–6% of ...
[25]
Hermaphroditism in fishes: an annotated list of species, phylogeny ...
May 7, 2020 · Four types of hermaphroditism in fish are: simultaneous (SH), protandry (PA), protogyny (PG), and bidirectional sex change (BS). PG is the most ...Introduction · Materials And Methods · Results And Discussion<|separator|>
[26]
Trade-off between male and female allocation in the simultaneously ...
Sex allocation theory for simultaneous hermaphrodites assumes a direct trade-off between the allocation of resources to the male and female reproductive ...
[27]
Sex-allocation trade-offs and their genetic architecture revealed by ...
Dec 13, 2024 · Taken together, our results demonstrate a phenotypic trade-off in sex allocation in hermaphrodites and provide compelling evidence for sex- ...
[28]
Gynodioecy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Self-incompatibility: the inability of a fertile cosexual plant to set abundant seed following self-pollination. Involves diverse physiological mechanisms that ...
[29]
Androdioecy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Androdioecy is a reproductive system found in species composed of a male population and distinct self-compatible hermaphrodites in the natural population. In ...
[30]
Experimental Evaluation of the Evolutionary Maintenance of Trioecy ...
Trioecy is an uncommon sexual system in which males, females, and hermaphrodites co-occur as three clearly different gender classes. The evolutionary ...
[31]
Extensive outcrossing and androdioecy in a vertebrate species that ...
Androdioecy is a rare reproductive system in which a natural population consists of functional males and hermaphrodites but no true female gonochorists.
[32]
(PDF) An Angiosperm-Wide Analysis of the Correlates of Gynodioecy
Aug 7, 2025 · Pivotal results. An herbaceous growth form and a temperate geographic distribution were significantly overrepresented in gynodioecious species ...
[33]
(PDF) Trioecy in Flowering Plants - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · A rarer system, trioecy, involves the coexistence of males, females, and hermaphrodites within the same population (Godin, 2022) . Despite its ...
[34]
When males and hermaphrodites coexist: a review of androdioecy in ...
Androdioecy (populations consisting of males and hermaphrodites) is a rare mating system in plants and animals: up to 50 plants and only 36 animals have been ...
[35]
Trioecy in the Marine Mussel Semimytilus algosus (Mollusca, Bivalvia)
May 24, 2020 · Hermaphrodites (∼95.3%), females (∼3.6%), and males (∼1.1%) were found in all seven populations across the species' range in Chile. The ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[36]
An angiosperm-wide analysis of the gynodioecy–dioecy pathway - NIH
Aug 4, 2014 · About 6 % of an estimated total of 240 000 species of angiosperms are dioecious. The main precursors of this sexual system are thought to be ...
[37]
The evolution and maintenance of trioecy with cytoplasmic male ...
Oct 14, 2024 · Trioecy, the co-existence of females, males and hermaphrodites, is a rare sexual system in plants that may be an intermediate state in ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[38]
When gametophytic self-incompatibility meets gynodioecy - PubMed
The occurrence of gynodioecy among angiosperms appears to be associated with self-compatibility. We use individual-based simulations to investigate the ...
[39]
Harmful self‐pollination drives gynodioecy in European chestnut, a ...
May 6, 2024 · In particular, in plant species with late-acting (ovarian) self-incompatibility (Seavey and Bawa, 1986), ovules are disabled by self-pollen ...
[40]
Sex chromosomes: How to make a hermaphrodite - ScienceDirect.com
Nov 6, 2023 · In eukaryotes with separate sexual roles, male and female functions can co-occur in each individual in a population ('cosexuality') or be ...
[41]
Evolution of Sexes from an Ancestral Mating-Type Specification ...
Jul 8, 2014 · Male and female sexes have evolved repeatedly in eukaryotes but the origins of dimorphic sexes and their relationship to mating types in ...
[42]
The Evolution of Sexual Fluids in Gymnosperms From Pollination ...
Dec 18, 2018 · A current synthesis of data from modern and fossil plants paints a new picture of sexual fluids, including nectar, as a foundational component of gymnosperm ...Missing: hermaphroditism | Show results with:hermaphroditism
[43]
Origins of Sexual Organs: A Fishy, Primitive Tale
Jul 18, 2018 · Fossil discoveries from the Devonian rocks of Scotland and Australia first revealed that the earliest jawed fishes, the placoderms, reproduced ...
[44]
What do isogamous organisms teach us about sex and the two sexes?
Oct 19, 2016 · The transition to anisogamy implies the origin of male and female sexes, kickstarts the subsequent evolution of sex roles, and has a major ...Introduction · Evolutionary forces impacting... · The anisogamy gateway: can...
[45]
Multicellularity Drives the Evolution of Sexual Traits - PMC - NIH
H, Isogamy (equal-sized gametes), anisogamy (unequal sized gametes, with smaller sperm produced by males and larger, flagellated eggs produced by females), and ...
[46]
Sex determination and maintenance: the role of DMRT1 and FOXL2
These studies have shown that two key genes, doublesex and mad-3 related transcription factor 1 (Dmrt1) and forkhead box L2 (Foxl2), function in a Yin and Yang ...
[47]
Decoding Dmrt1: insights into vertebrate sex determination and ...
Dmrt1 is crucially involved in gonadal sex differentiation across a wide range of taxa ... Antagonistic roles of Dmrt1 and Foxl2 in sex differentiation via ...
[48]
Multiple Nuclear Gene Phylogenetic Analysis of the Evolution of ...
Dioecy in Silene therefore probably evolved from hermaphroditism via gynodioecy (rather than from monoecy, a common ancestral state for dioecious plants, in ...
[49]
Evolution of Sex-Biased Gene Expression During Transitions to ...
Transitions from hermaphroditism to dioecy are thought to require an intermediate step, often through monoecy (female and male flowers on the same plant) or ...
[50]
Switches, stability and reversals in the evolutionary history of sexual ...
May 30, 2022 · In conclusion, our study reveals that gonochorism is the most likely ancestral state and the most evolutionary stable sexual system in teleosts.
[51]
Intrinsic differences between males and females determine sex ...
Feb 9, 2016 · Inbreeding increases homozygosity and exposes deleterious recessive alleles, generally decreasing the fitness of inbred individuals.Inbreeding Design · Mating Assays · Discussion
[52]
Reproductive transitions in plants and animals: selfing syndrome ...
Jul 23, 2019 · By contrast with sexual selection due to competition within a sex, sexual conflict arises from opposing selection pressures on male and female ...
[53]
Sexual conflict over mating and fertilization: an overview - PMC - NIH
Sexual conflict is a conflict between the evolutionary interests of individuals of the two sexes. The sexes can have different trait optima.
[54]
Constant relative age and size at sex change for sequentially ...
Aug 13, 2003 · Fish change sex when they are 80% of their maximum body size, and 2.5 times their age at maturity. This invariant result holds despite a 60 and ...Missing: responding | Show results with:responding
[55]
Understanding the reproductive biology of Salix nigra Marsh.
Like other members of the Salicaceae, it is dioecious with separate male and female individuals. While Salix has been thought to be strictly insect pollinated ...
[56]
Sexual reproduction in the cork oak (Quercus suber L.). I. The ...
Cork oak (Quercus suber L.) is a monoecious wind-pollinated species with a protandrous system to ensure cross-pollination. To the best of our knowle.
[57]
The consequences of gynodioecy in natural populations of Thymus ...
Gene flow between the two sexual forms is asymmetrical in gynodioecious species: genes are transferred from male-fertile individuals (mF, hermaphrodites) to ...Missing: plants | Show results with:plants
[58]
Breeding Systems in Gymnosperms
Aug 6, 2024 · In some taxa of Juniperus, one infraspecific taxon is monoecious and another dioecious. Animal-dispersed gymnosperms are usually dioecious ...
[59]
Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review - ScienceDirect.com
Hermaphroditic species dominate among angiosperms and dioecious species account for around 6% of plants (Renner and Ricklefs, 1995, Weiblen et al., 2000; Renner ...
[60]
Development and Evolution of Unisexual Flowers: A Review - PMC
Jan 7, 2022 · Flowers can be structurally unisexual, when organs of the opposite (non-functional) sex are not initiated (e.g., Stephania Lour.
[61]
New insight into the self-incompatibility system shared by flowering ...
However, most flowering plants and hermaphroditic animals potentially allow self-fertilization. Approximately 60% of angiosperms possess a self-incompatibility ...
[62]
Wind of change: new insights on the ecology and evolution of ... - NIH
The studies of pollen capture in wind-pollinated herbs demonstrate that pollen transfer efficiency is not substantially lower than in animal-pollinated plants ...
[63]
Gone with the wind: understanding evolutionary transitions between ...
Aug 11, 2011 · The evolution of wind pollination from animal pollinated ancestors in the angiosperms is fairly common, occurring at least 65 times (Linder, ...
[64]
Sex determination, gonadal sex differentiation, and plasticity in ...
Jul 1, 2021 · This review outlines our current understanding of vertebrate SD and gonadal sex differentiation, with a focus on the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved.
[65]
Environmental versus genetic sex determination: a possible factor in ...
Mammals, birds, all snakes and most lizards, amphibians, and some gonochoristic fish use specific sex-determining chromosomes or genes (genetic sex ...
[66]
Sex Change in Clownfish: Molecular Insights from Transcriptome ...
Oct 17, 2016 · In sequential hermaphrodites, its expression has been shown to parallel the development and regression of the testis, both in protandrous and ...
[67]
Transcriptome Profiling and Expression Localization of Key Sex ...
Aug 13, 2022 · Clownfish can be an excellent research model for investigating the socially-controlled sexual development of sequential hermaphrodite teleosts.
[68]
The existence of fertile hybrids of closely related model earthworm ...
Jan 25, 2018 · Lumbricid earthworms Eisenia andrei (Ea) and E. fetida (Ef) are simultaneous hermaphrodites with reciprocal insemination capable of self-fertilization.
[69]
Widespread failure to complete meiosis does not impair fecundity in ...
Dec 1, 2016 · Parthenogenetic species of whiptail lizards in the genus Aspidoscelis constitute a striking example of speciation by hybridization, in which ...
[70]
Monoaminergic changes associated with socially induced sex ...
This study suggests that monoamines play a very important role in both behavioral and gonadal sex reversal in the saddleback wrasse.<|separator|>
[71]
Monoamines stimulate sex reversal in the saddleback wrasse
The cues are social, processed via the visual system and depend on the ratio of females to males in the population. The mechanisms by which these external ...
[72]
A meta-analysis of their relationship to paternity and male phenotype
In many birds, males are presumed to protect their paternity by closely guarding their mate or copulating frequently with her. Both these costly behaviors ...
[73]
Explicit experimental evidence for the effectiveness of proximity as ...
We show that males that guarded their mates more closely were less likely to have extra-pair young in their nest. This study on the Seychelles warbler is the ...
[74]
Mating-Type Genes and MAT Switching in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Mating type in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is determined by two nonhomologous alleles, MATa and MATα. These sequences encode regulators of the two different ...
[75]
Fungal Sex: The Basidiomycota - PMC - NIH
The basidiomycete fungi have been found to undertake nearly every ... Isogamy: Situation in a species in which all gametes have similar sizes.
[76]
Sexual reproduction and sex determination in green algae - PubMed
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a unicellular volvocine alga having two mating types: mating type plus (mt+) and mating type minus (mt-), which are controlled by ...
[77]
Three genomes in the algal genus Volvox reveal the fate of ... - PNAS
May 19, 2021 · The genus Volvox is an oogamous (with large, immotile female gametes and small, motile male gametes) and includes both heterothallic species ( ...
[78]
The role of plant hormones on the reproductive success of red ... - NIH
Oct 19, 2022 · The second group of multicellular red algae, Bangiophyceae, contains Neopyropia, Porphyra, and Pyropia. ... dioecious red alga pyropia ...
[79]
WHAT USES ARE MATING TYPES? THE “DEVELOPMENTAL ...
Dec 29, 2011 · “Mating types” refer to incompatibilities between otherwise phenotypically similar partners (isogamy), whereas “sexes” imply some anisogamy, ...
[80]
Sex in protists: A new perspective on the reproduction mechanisms ...
In this review we will discuss about origin of sex and different strategies of evolve sexual reproduction in some protists such that cause human diseases.<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
A Transient Hermaphroditic Stage in Early Male Gonadal ... - Frontiers
Jan 26, 2021 · Hermaphroditism accounts for 5% in animals, and sequential hermaphroditism ... Keywords: hermaphrodite, sex differentiation, hermaphroditism, ...
[82]
[PDF] homothallism and heterothallism in fungi
Since, majority of fungi display homothallism, this seems to be a primitive condition from which heterothallism has evolved later on.
[83]
A Model for the Evolution of Dioecy and Gynodioecy
A MODEL FOR THE EVOLUTION OF DIOECY AND GYNODIOECY. BRIAN CHARLESWORTH AND DEBORAH CHARLESWORTH. School of Biological Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton ...
[84]
Gynodioecy to dioecy: are we there yet? - PMC - NIH
Aug 1, 2011 · The 'gynodioecy–dioecy pathway' is considered to be one of the most important evolutionary routes from hermaphroditism to separate sexes (dioecy).
[85]
Gonochorism vs. hermaphroditism: relationship between life history ...
Jan 17, 2006 · The gonochoristic species therefore has growth rates that are markedly higher, compared to the two hermaphroditic species which have very ...
[86]
Hermaphroditism and gonochorism. a new hypothesis on the ...
Though studies have been carried out in plants and animals on the advantages of these two types of sexuality, it is not known how hermaphroditism can change ...
[87]
Evolutionary bet-hedging in the real world: empirical evidence and ...
Variation at the intergenerational scale can allow the evolution of bet-hedging strategies: a novel genotype may be favoured over an alternative with higher ...
[88]
Dioecy Is Associated with High Genetic Diversity and Adaptation ...
Out of 261,750 angiosperm species, ∼15,600 (∼6%) are dioecious (Renner 2014). Dioecy is thus rare compared with the dominant sexual system in angiosperms, ...