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Signal recognition particle

The signal recognition particle (SRP) is a universally conserved ribonucleoprotein complex essential for the co-translational targeting of secretory and membrane proteins to cellular membranes across all domains of life.^[1] In eukaryotes, SRP directs nascent polypeptides bearing N-terminal signal sequences to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), while in prokaryotes, it targets them to the plasma membrane.^[2] Composed of a single RNA molecule and multiple protein subunits, SRP recognizes hydrophobic signal peptides as they emerge from the ribosome, temporarily halts translation elongation, and facilitates docking to the SRP receptor for handover to the protein translocation machinery, such as the Sec61 translocon in eukaryotes.^[3] SRP's structure varies by organism but centers on a core RNA scaffold and the SRP54 protein (known as Ffh in prokaryotes), which contains GTPase and methionine-rich domains for signal recognition and receptor interaction.^[1] In mammalian cells, the complex includes 7SL RNA (~300 nucleotides forming seven helices) and six proteins: SRP9 and SRP14 (forming the Alu domain for elongation arrest), and SRP19, SRP54, SRP68, and SRP72 (forming the S domain for signal binding).^[4] Prokaryotic SRP is simpler, typically comprising 4.5S RNA and Ffh, lacking the Alu domain and additional eukaryotic proteins.^[1] Biogenesis begins with RNA polymerase III transcription of the RNA in the nucleus, followed by sequential assembly of proteins in the nucleolus and cytoplasm, with export via Exportin-5 ensuring mature complex formation.^[4] The targeting mechanism involves GTP-dependent cycles: SRP binds the ribosome-nascent chain complex via SRP54's M domain to the signal sequence's hydrophobic core, the Alu domain (in eukaryotes) interacts with the ribosome to pause elongation, and the complex then docks with the heteromeric SRP receptor (SRα/SRβ in eukaryotes; FtsY in prokaryotes) on the target membrane.^[3] Upon GTP hydrolysis, SRP releases the cargo to the translocon, recycling for further rounds.^[2] This process targets approximately 30% of the eukaryotic proteome, preventing protein misfolding and mRNA degradation through quality control pathways like the regulation of aberrant protein production (RAPP).^[4] Evolutionarily, SRP exemplifies increasing complexity from minimalist bacterial forms to elaborate eukaryotic versions, with core components like SRP54/Ffh and RNA secondary structures preserved across bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, reflecting its ancient origin in the last universal common ancestor.^[1] Dysfunctions, such as mutations in SRP54 or autoantibodies against SRP components, are implicated in human diseases including congenital neutropenia, autoimmune myopathies, and cancers, underscoring its physiological importance.^[2]

Discovery and History

Initial Identification

The signal hypothesis, proposing that secretory and membrane proteins contain an N-terminal signal sequence that directs their co-translational translocation across the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, was first formulated in 1971 by Günter Blobel and David D. Sabatini. This idea was inspired by observations from Cesar Milstein and colleagues on the synthesis of immunoglobulin light chains, including the identification in 1972 of a larger precursor form produced in cell-free translation systems lacking membranes, suggesting a transient signal extension that is cleaved upon ER association.^[5] In 1975, Blobel and Bernhard Dobberstein provided the first experimental validation of the signal hypothesis through reconstitution experiments using canine pancreas rough microsomes. They demonstrated that cell-free translation of mRNA encoding preprolactin—a model secretory protein precursor—yielded unprocessed preprolactin when synthesized on free ribosomes, but produced the processed prolactin form when microsomal membranes were present, indicating co-translational translocation and signal peptide cleavage within the ER lumen. These studies established the requirement for ER membranes in processing and highlighted the role of a soluble cytoplasmic factor in mediating the interaction between nascent secretory proteins and the ER.^[6]^[7]^[5] Further characterization revealed this soluble factor to be essential for recognizing the signal sequence on nascent secretory proteins and facilitating their binding to the rough ER. Isolated from canine pancreas extracts, the factor was shown to specifically interact with ribosomes bearing secretory protein nascent chains, enabling targeted docking to the ER membrane for translocation. This identification marked a foundational step in understanding protein sorting mechanisms.^[5]

Key Milestones in Elucidation

In 1980, Peter Walter and Günter Blobel purified a membrane-associated protein complex from canine pancreatic rough microsomes that was essential for the translocation of secretory proteins across the endoplasmic reticulum in an in vitro system, marking the initial isolation of what would become known as the signal recognition particle (SRP). This breakthrough laid the foundation for reconstituting the translocation pathway. By 1981, through a series of in vitro assays using wheat germ extracts and dog pancreas microsomes, Walter and Blobel demonstrated that the purified 11S complex—SRP—binds specifically to ribosomes synthesizing secretory proteins, arrests translation upon signal sequence emergence, and mediates docking to the ER membrane, thereby confirming SRP's necessity for co-translational protein translocation. Further elucidation in 1982 revealed that SRP is a ribonucleoprotein, as Walter and Blobel identified a 7S RNA component essential for its translocation-promoting activity, with the particle purified from canine pancreas containing this RNA alongside six polypeptides. The RNA's role was solidified in 1983 when disassembly and reconstitution experiments showed that the 7SL RNA and proteins could be separated and reassembled to restore SRP function, providing direct evidence of its RNP nature.^[8] In the late 1980s, molecular cloning advanced SRP understanding; in 1989, Bernstein et al. sequenced a cDNA clone of the SRP54 subunit, revealing a GTP-binding domain and a methionine-rich region predicted to recognize signal sequences, offering the first genetic insights into SRP's core component.^[9] The 1990s brought key discoveries on the SRP receptor (SR); in 1995, Miller et al. identified SRβ as the integral membrane subunit of the eukaryotic heterodimeric SR (comprising SRα and SRβ), demonstrating its GTPase activity and role in anchoring SRα while facilitating SRP release from the ribosome upon GTP hydrolysis. Concurrently, studies confirmed SRα's GTPase function and its homology to bacterial FtsY, establishing the GTP-dependent interaction cycle between SRP and SR as critical for targeting specificity. Structural biology milestones emerged in the late 1990s; in 1998, Keenan et al. determined the crystal structure of the methionine-rich M domain of bacterial Ffh (the SRP54 homolog), revealing a hydrophobic groove for signal sequence binding and providing the first atomic-level insight into how SRP recognizes nascent polypeptides.^[10] In recognition of these foundational discoveries, Günter Blobel was awarded the 1999 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for elucidating the signal hypothesis and the cellular machinery for protein sorting, including the role of SRP.^[11]

Molecular Composition

Protein Components

The signal recognition particle (SRP) contains several protein subunits that assemble with its RNA component to form a functional ribonucleoprotein complex. The core protein subunit, universally conserved across all domains of life, is SRP54 in eukaryotes and archaea or its homolog Ffh in prokaryotes. This approximately 54 kDa protein functions as a GTPase and consists of four main domains: an N-terminal N domain forming a four-helix bundle involved in GTP binding and dimerization with the SRP receptor; a central G domain responsible for GTP hydrolysis; a C-terminal M domain featuring a methionine-rich groove that binds hydrophobic signal sequences of nascent polypeptides; and an S domain that interacts with SRP RNA to stabilize the complex.^[1]^[12] In eukaryotes, additional proteins enhance SRP functionality and stability. The SRP9/SRP14 heterodimer, with SRP9 at about 9 kDa and SRP14 at 14 kDa, binds to the Alu domain of SRP RNA and mediates nascent chain elongation arrest upon signal sequence recognition. SRP19, approximately 19 kDa, binds to specific helices in the S domain of SRP RNA, positioning SRP54 for efficient RNA association and signal peptide recognition. The SRP68/SRP72 heterodimer, with molecular weights of 68 kDa and 72 kDa respectively, associates with the S domain to provide structural stability and facilitate interactions with the ribosome and SRP receptor.^[1]^[12] Prokaryotic SRPs are simpler, comprising only the Ffh protein alongside a shorter RNA, lacking the Alu domain-binding proteins like SRP9/14 and thus without an elongation arrest function.^[1] In archaea, the SRP includes SRP54 and SRP19 but lacks clear homologs of SRP9/14 or SRP68/72, exhibiting intermediate complexity between prokaryotic and eukaryotic forms.^[1] High-resolution structures have elucidated the atomic details of these proteins and their assemblies. For instance, crystal structures of SRP54 and SRP19 reveal how SRP19 stabilizes the RNA helices that SRP54 binds via its S domain, while the NG domains of SRP54 form a GTPase module critical for targeting. Recent cryo-EM studies, such as those in 2024 on the SRP68/72 heterodimer, have further revealed extended dimerization domains with RNA-binding activity, enhancing understanding of SRP stability.^[13]^[14]

RNA Component

The signal recognition particle (SRP) RNA serves as the core structural and functional element of the SRP ribonucleoprotein complex, universally conserved across all domains of life where it acts as a scaffold for protein subunit assembly.^[15] In eukaryotes, this RNA, known as 7SL, comprises approximately 300 nucleotides, whereas prokaryotic versions are shorter at around 114 nucleotides for 4.5S RNA in most Gram-negative bacteria or about 271 nucleotides for the longer SRP RNA (sometimes termed 6S SRP RNA) in Bacillus subtilis and other Gram-positive bacteria, and archaeal SRP RNA is typically around 300 nucleotides in size.^[16]^[17] The SRP RNA adopts a conserved secondary structure characterized by two primary domains separated by a flexible hinge region: the Alu domain and the S domain. The Alu domain, present in eukaryotes and archaea (and some Gram-positive bacteria), facilitates elongation arrest on the ribosome and structurally mimics tRNA to enable interaction with the ribosomal factor-binding site.^[18]^[19] The S domain, highly conserved, includes helical elements S1 through S8 that form a Y-shaped architecture essential for overall stability and protein interactions.^[20] SRP RNA was first identified as the 7S RNA component of the mammalian SRP in early studies around 1981, with subsequent work in 1983 confirming its role through disassembly and reconstitution experiments.^[1] The S domain binds SRP54 to support signal sequence recognition in nascent polypeptides.

Biogenesis and Assembly

Assembly Pathways

The assembly of the signal recognition particle (SRP) varies across domains of life, reflecting differences in complexity and cellular compartmentalization, but universally ensures the formation of a functional ribonucleoprotein complex capable of recognizing nascent polypeptides. In eukaryotes, SRP biogenesis initiates in the nucleus, where the 7SL RNA is transcribed by RNA polymerase III and undergoes initial processing before associating with proteins in a stepwise manner. The SRP9/SRP14 heterodimer binds first to the Alu domain at the 5' and 3' ends of the 7SL RNA, stabilizing this region and preventing premature interactions.^[21] Subsequently, SRP19 binds to the S domain, specifically clamping helices 6 and 8 to expose a binding platform for further components.^[1] This is followed by the SRP68/SRP72 heterodimer, which attaches near the three-way junction of the S domain, facilitating RNA compaction and overall structural integrity.^[22] The core SRP54 protein, containing the GTPase and signal sequence-binding domains, assembles last in the cytoplasm, often assisted by the survival motor neuron (SMN) complex, which acts as a chaperone to promote proper folding and integration.^[21] In prokaryotes, such as Escherichia coli, SRP assembly is markedly simpler, lacking nuclear steps and involving only two components: the 4.5S RNA and the Ffh protein (homologous to eukaryotic SRP54). Ffh binds directly to the conserved domain IV helix of the 4.5S RNA via its methionine-rich M domain, forming a stable complex without the need for additional chaperones or sequential intermediaries.^[1] This direct interaction suffices for functionality in the co-translational targeting pathway.^[22] Archaeal SRP assembly represents an intermediate between prokaryotic simplicity and eukaryotic elaboration, typically comprising 7S RNA, SRP19, and SRP54. In organisms like Archaeoglobus fulgidus, SRP19 binds first to the S domain of the 7S RNA, inducing conformational changes in helix 8 that enhance the affinity for SRP54.^[23] Although SRP54 can bind RNA to some extent independently, the presence of SRP19 significantly stabilizes the complex and promotes efficient assembly.^[24] Quality control mechanisms are prominent in eukaryotes to prevent misassembly and aggregation. The partially assembled pre-SRP, including 7SL RNA bound to SRP9/14, SRP19, and SRP68/72, undergoes nuclear export via Exportin-5 (in vertebrates), dependent on RanGTP hydrolysis for directionality.^[22] Chaperone-assisted folding, mediated by the SMN complex during cytoplasmic SRP54 integration, ensures conformational fidelity and averts off-pathway aggregation, as demonstrated in studies highlighting its role in RNP maturation.^[22] Initial RNA processing occurs with brief nucleolar localization prior to export.^[21] A key functional outcome of these assembly pathways is the regulated activation of the SRP54 GTPase domain, which remains autoinhibited in the free SRP to avoid unproductive hydrolysis; conformational changes induced only upon signal sequence binding trigger GTPase activation and downstream targeting.^[25]

Nucleolar Involvement

Recent research has revealed a novel nucleolar phase in the assembly of the signal recognition particle (SRP) in eukaryotic cells, expanding the understanding of its biogenesis beyond traditional nuclear and cytoplasmic locales. In 2024, studies demonstrated that five of the six SRP protein subunits—SRP9, SRP14, SRP19, SRP68, and SRP72—localize to the nucleolus, where they facilitate the maturation of the SRP RNA component prior to nuclear export.^[26] This localization occurs particularly at the periphery of the dense fibrillar component of the nucleolus, as evidenced by fluorescence microscopy using GFP-tagged SRP19 and SRP72, which showed colocalization with nucleolar markers such as fibrillarin.^[26] The process begins with the transcription of 7SL RNA, the RNA component of SRP, in the nucleoplasm, followed by its transport to the nucleolus and Cajal bodies for processing. Here, the RNA's 3' end is bound by the La protein, enabling adenylation and other maturation steps essential for stability and function, with involvement of nucleolar factors like fibrillarin (FBL), nucleophosmin (NPM1), and DDX21.^[26] Co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) experiments coupled with stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) proteomics further confirmed interactions between these SRP proteins and dozens of nucleolar proteins critical for ribosome biogenesis and nucleolar architecture.^[26] This nucleolar assembly ensures precise binding of the protein subunits to the maturing 7SL RNA, forming a stable ribonucleoprotein complex ready for export to the cytoplasm.^[26] The nucleolar involvement provides a layer of quality control, preventing premature or erroneous cytosolic assembly of SRP components and linking SRP biogenesis to broader nuclear RNA surveillance pathways, including potential ties to ribosome-associated quality control via interactions with proteins like listerin and ZNF598.^[26] This eukaryotic-specific mechanism contrasts sharply with prokaryotic SRP assembly, which occurs entirely in the cytoplasm without a nucleolar equivalent, highlighting an evolutionary adaptation for coordinated production of SRP alongside ribosomal components in higher organisms.^[26] Disruption of nucleolar integrity, such as through inhibition of RNA polymerase I, impairs SRP assembly efficiency, underscoring the nucleolus's structural and functional importance in this process.^[26]

Evolutionary Conservation

Core Ancestral Elements

The core ancestral elements of the signal recognition particle (SRP) are the SRP54 GTPase (known as Ffh in bacteria) and a 7SL-like RNA, which form the minimal functional unit present in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.^[27] These components originated in the last universal common ancestor (LUCA), a hypothetical progenitor of all life estimated to have existed approximately 4.2 billion years ago.^[28] Phylogenetic reconstructions indicate that this primordial SRP system facilitated co-translational targeting of proteins to cellular membranes, a process essential for early cellular organization.^[27] Functional aspects of this ancestral core are highly conserved across the domains of life, including signal sequence recognition by the methionine-rich M domain of SRP54 and GTP hydrolysis-dependent targeting to the membrane receptor.^[29] The GTPase activity, mediated by the NG domain of SRP54, coordinates with the receptor to ensure precise protein insertion, a mechanism that remains universal despite organismal divergences.^[30] This conservation underscores the SRP's role as an ancient machinery for managing membrane protein biogenesis in the LUCA proteome.^[31] Sequence homology in the M domain provides strong phylogenetic evidence for its ancient origin, with comparative analyses revealing extended regions of amino acid identity among SRP54 homologs from diverse taxa.^[32] A 2021 phylogenetic study further confirms that LUCA harbored a minimal SRP composed of SRP54/Ffh and SRP RNA, dedicated to co-translational membrane protein insertion via the SecY channel.^[27] Within the RNA component, helices 6 and 8 in the S domain are conserved structural motifs that position the GTPase domain for activation and interaction with the receptor.00746-6) These elements ensure the SRP's efficiency in early cellular environments, with minor variations appearing only in modern lineages.^[29]

Domain-Specific Variations

The signal recognition particle (SRP) exhibits significant variations across the three domains of life—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya—while preserving its fundamental role in co-translational protein targeting to membranes.^[33] In Bacteria, the SRP is minimalist, consisting of a single protein, Ffh (the homolog of eukaryotic SRP54), and a small 4.5S RNA molecule approximately 114 nucleotides long with a simple hairpin structure.^[33] This bacterial SRP lacks an elongation arrest function, instead facilitating rapid targeting of nascent polypeptides bearing signal peptides directly to the SecYEG translocon via interaction with the membrane-bound receptor FtsY.^[33] Recent single-molecule tracking studies in Escherichia coli have revealed the dynamic behavior of bacterial SRP components, showing that Ffh and FtsY exhibit distinct mobility fractions—static, low-mobility, and diffusive—consistent with their roles in transient ribosome interactions and membrane docking during targeting. Archaea possess an intermediate form of SRP, featuring two proteins—SRP54 (homologous to Ffh) and SRP19—and a longer 7S RNA that structurally resembles the eukaryotic version, including conserved helices 6 and 8 for protein binding.^[33] The addition of SRP19 in archaeal SRP enhances eukaryotic-like binding to the SRP RNA, stabilizing the complex and enabling more efficient signal peptide recognition compared to the bacterial counterpart.01954-0) Like bacteria, archaeal SRP targets proteins to a SecYEG-like translocon, but the expanded RNA-protein architecture suggests adaptations for greater specificity in diverse archaeal environments.01954-0) In Eukarya, SRP is the most complex, comprising six proteins—SRP9, SRP14, SRP19, SRP54, SRP68, and SRP72—bound to a 7SL RNA forming a Y-shaped structure divided into Alu and S domains.^[33] The Alu domain, formed by SRP9 and SRP14, uniquely enables a transient pause in translation elongation upon ribosome binding, preventing premature folding of nascent chains during transit to the endoplasmic reticulum.^[33] Eukaryotic SRP docks with the SRα/SRβ receptor heterodimer to deliver substrates to the Sec61 translocon, reflecting adaptations to the compartmentalized endomembrane system.^[33] These domain-specific variations arose from evolutionary divergence following the last universal common ancestor (LUCA), which possessed a core SRP system with ancestral Ffh/FtsY proteins and basic RNA elements derived from pre-LUCA gene duplications that specialized the GTPase and receptor functions.^[34] Post-LUCA gene duplications and acquisitions expanded the SRP repertoire, particularly in Eukarya and Archaea, increasing complexity through additional proteins like SRP19 and the Alu domain.^[34] A key eukaryotic adaptation for compartmentalization involves nuclear export signals, where the Alu domain of SRP RNA facilitates facilitated export from the nucleus to the cytoplasm after nucleolar assembly, ensuring proper localization in the eukaryotic cell.

Mechanism of Action

Signal Recognition

The signal recognition particle (SRP) detects hydrophobic signal sequences emerging from the ribosomal exit tunnel during co-translational protein synthesis. The M-domain of the SRP54 subunit contains a deep hydrophobic groove, approximately 25 Å long, 15 Å wide, and 12 Å deep, which accommodates the core of the N-terminal signal peptide—a stretch of 8–12 hydrophobic residues typically flanked by positively charged residues in the n-region and a polar c-region.^[35] This binding interaction is specific to signal peptides destined for secretory or membrane proteins, ensuring selective targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum.^[36] SRP engages the nascent chain when roughly 70 residues have been synthesized beyond the peptidyl-tRNA in the ribosomal P-site, allowing the signal peptide to fully emerge from the exit tunnel for scanning and recognition. Initial contact is weak and scanning-like, but upon signal sequence insertion, an induced-fit conformational change closes the M-domain groove, stabilizing the complex and enhancing affinity to approximately $10^{-9} M.^[37] This process maintains the ribosome tunnel in an open configuration, facilitating proper nascent chain exposure without premature folding.^[38]^[39]^[40] In eukaryotes, SRP binding triggers translation elongation arrest through the Alu domain, which competes with elongation factors for ribosomal binding sites, pausing synthesis to prevent misfolding or aggregation of the exposed hydrophobic signal sequence. A 2025 study demonstrated that nascent chain length and composition further modulate SRP conformation, with the nascent polypeptide-associated complex (NAC) influencing handover dynamics to ensure timely recognition of endoplasmic reticulum-targeted signals.^[41]^[42]

Targeting and Docking

Following signal recognition, the signal recognition particle (SRP)-bound ribosome-nascent chain complex is transported to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane in eukaryotes or the plasma membrane in bacteria for co-translational protein insertion. This targeting phase involves the GTP-dependent interaction between the SRP and its receptor, which docks the complex at the membrane. In eukaryotes, the SRP receptor (SR) is a heterodimer composed of SRα and SRβ subunits, while in bacteria, it is the homologous single protein FtsY.^[40] The docking process begins with the formation of the SRP-ribosome complex binding to the SR at the membrane. The N-domain of SRα interacts specifically with the N-domain of SRP54 (known as Ffh in bacteria), facilitating initial recognition and alignment of the GTPase domains. This interaction positions the ribosome-nascent chain-SRP-SR quaternary complex adjacent to the Sec61 translocon in eukaryotes or the SecYEG translocon in bacteria, typically within ~30 Å of the SRP M-domain to enable efficient handover of the nascent chain. GTP binding to both SRP54 and SRα (or FtsY) induces a conformational change in the SRP RNA and GTPase domains, transitioning from an open to a closed state that promotes tight docking and stabilizes the complex with a dissociation constant (K_d) of ~16–30 nM.^[43]^[25]^[40] In bacterial systems, single-molecule tracking studies have revealed that the Ffh-FtsY interaction is diffusion-limited, enabling rapid targeting of the SRP-ribosome complex to the membrane. Upon docking, the signal sequence of the nascent chain is transferred directly to the translocon channel, priming the polypeptide for membrane insertion. This process ensures precise and efficient delivery, with the ribosome positioned optimally near the SecYEG pore for translocation.^[44]^[43]

Release and Recycling

Following successful docking of the ribosome-nascent chain complex to the Sec61 translocon via the SRP receptor (SR), the signal sequence is transferred from SRP54 to the translocon channel, enabling its insertion into the lipid bilayer.^[43] Concurrently, signal peptidase I cleaves the signal sequence from the nascent polypeptide as translocation proceeds, ensuring maturation of the secretory or membrane protein.^[22] This handover is tightly coupled to GTP hydrolysis within the SRP-SR complex, which is stimulated by engagement with the translocon acting as a checkpoint to prevent premature dissociation and ensure faithful cargo transfer.^[45] GTP hydrolysis in the SRP-SR complex drives the dissociation of SRP from both the SR and the ribosome under physiological conditions.^[46] The reaction proceeds as follows:

\text{SRP} \cdot \text{GTP} + \text{SR} \cdot \text{GTP} \rightarrow \text{SRP} + \text{SR} + 2 \text{GDP} + \text{P}_\text{i}

This hydrolysis separates the GTPases SRP54 and SRα, returning SRP54 to the cytosol in its GDP-bound form, which exchanges GDP for GTP to reset the cycle.^[47] The released SRP is then available to scan and rebind free ribosomes translating signal-containing mRNAs, completing the recycling process.^[48] A recently identified accessory factor, TMEM208, interacts with the substrate-binding M domain of SRP54 to accelerate cargo release during handover, mitigating potential backlogs in targeting efficiency for multi-spanning membrane proteins.^[49] The overall cycle is highly efficient, with the low abundance of SRP (estimated at 10-100 times lower than ribosomes in mammalian cells, or roughly 10^4 molecules per cell) enabling a single SRP to facilitate the targeting of thousands of nascent proteins through rapid dissociation and rebinding.^[50] In bacteria, SRP lacks the Alu domain-mediated elongation arrest function present in eukaryotes, allowing faster release and a streamlined cycle without pausing translation.^[51]

Pathophysiological Significance

Autoantibodies and Autoimmunity

Anti-signal recognition particle (anti-SRP) autoantibodies are myositis-specific antibodies primarily associated with immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy (IMNM), a subtype of idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIMs), occurring in approximately 4-6% of patients with polymyositis or dermatomyositis.^[52] These autoantibodies predominantly target the SRP54 subunit, a GTPase component of the SRP complex essential for protein targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum.^[53] Within IMNM cases, anti-SRP antibodies are detected in 15-20% of patients, distinguishing this serotype from other myositis subsets.^[54] Clinically, anti-SRP-positive myopathy manifests with severe proximal muscle weakness, markedly elevated serum creatine kinase (CK) levels often exceeding 10 times the upper limit of normal, and muscle atrophy that can progress rapidly.^[55] Patients typically exhibit poor response to initial corticosteroid therapy, with many requiring escalation to immunosuppressive agents such as methotrexate or rituximab for disease control.^[56] A seminal 2004 study by Kao et al. highlighted the link to necrotizing myopathy, describing histopathological features of prominent muscle fiber necrosis and regeneration with minimal inflammatory infiltrates in anti-SRP-positive cases, underscoring its distinct pathology from classic polymyositis.^[55] The pathogenesis involves autoantibodies that likely disrupt SRP function by binding to SRP54, thereby inhibiting the SRP cycle and leading to mislocalization of secretory and membrane proteins, which contributes to myofiber damage and necrosis.^[57] In vitro evidence suggests these antibodies promote myofiber atrophy, impair regeneration, and induce inflammatory cytokine production, exacerbating muscle pathology.^[58] Onset is often acute and can follow viral infections, with seasonal patterns noted in some cohorts suggesting environmental triggers.^[59] Detection of anti-SRP antibodies relies on immunoprecipitation assays using radiolabeled cell extracts to identify the characteristic 7S RNA-protein complex, which remains the gold standard due to its high specificity for conformational epitopes.^[60] These antibodies are predominantly of the IgG isotype, facilitating their role in humoral autoimmunity.^[61] Genetic associations include HLA-DRw52 and specific DRB1 alleles such as *08:03, which confer susceptibility in diverse populations.^[62]^[63]

Links to Broader Diseases

Dysfunction or dysregulation of the signal recognition particle (SRP) has been implicated in various non-autoimmune diseases, extending beyond its canonical role in protein targeting. In oncology, SRP components are often overexpressed in tumors, facilitating enhanced secretory protein export that supports cell invasion and metastasis. For instance, in triple-negative breast cancer, the absence of SRP9 and SRP14 paradoxically promotes metastasis by activating the RIG-I pathway and interferon response, while their presence serves as a prognostic marker in colorectal and hepatocellular carcinomas. A comprehensive review highlights how SRP54 and other subunits contribute to p53 attenuation in cervical cancer, reducing apoptosis and aiding tumor progression.^[2]30645-0) In neurodegeneration, SRP mutations and dysregulation contribute to protein mislocalization, exacerbating neuronal damage. Mutations in the granulin signal sequence lead to regulated intramembrane proteolysis-associated protein (RAPP) degradation of mRNA, implicated in frontotemporal lobar degeneration. SRP involvement in alpha-synuclein biogenesis has been noted in Parkinson's disease, where altered targeting disrupts proteostasis. Upregulation of SRP9 correlates with amyloid plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease and mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Recent extensions in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) studies link SRP deficiencies to motor neuron vulnerability through impaired axon development and branching, as demonstrated in SRP54-deficient models that mimic spinal muscular atrophy phenotypes.^[2]^[64] SRP also presents therapeutic opportunities in infectious diseases, particularly through targeting bacterial homologs. In pathogens, bacterial SRP pathways are essential for virulence factor secretion, making them potential drug targets. A 2025 study engineered a bacterial type zero secretion system (T0SS) using SRP-signal peptides in Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 to load outer membrane vesicles with therapeutic proteins, enabling oral delivery for metabolite detoxification and demonstrating efficacy against hyperuricemia as a model for pathogen counterstrategies. Additionally, human SRP components like 7SL RNA are hijacked by HIV for virion assembly and serve as diagnostic markers in trypanosomiasis.^[2]^[65] Beyond these, SRP biogenesis defects underlie ribosomopathies, where impaired assembly disrupts ribosomal function and protein targeting. Mutations in SRP54 cause congenital neutropenia by hindering granulocyte differentiation, while SRP72 variants lead to aplastic anemia and sensorineural deafness due to defective targeting. SRP68 mutations similarly impair 7SL RNA binding, contributing to neutropenia phenotypes. A 2021 suppressor screening study further revealed SRP's role in mitigating translation delays during cellular stress, where reduced translation rates suppress targeting defects and maintain proteostasis in SRP-deficient states. These connections underscore SRP's broader impact in metabolic and stress-related disorders as detailed in recent overviews.^[2]^[66]

References

[1]
Structure, function and evolution of the signal recognition particle | The EMBO Journal
### Summary of Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)
[2]
Signal Recognition Particle in Human Diseases - Frontiers
The signal recognition particle (SRP) is a ribonucleoprotein complex with dual functions. It co-translationally targets proteins with a signal sequence to ...
[3]
https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.biochem.70.1.755
[4]
None
Below is a merged summary of the Signal Recognition Particle (SRP) reviews, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized key information into tables where appropriate (e.g., for composition, structure, and recent advances) and provided a narrative summary for sections like introduction, definition, function, biogenesis, mechanism, and conservation. The response retains all details mentioned across the summaries while avoiding redundancy where possible.
[5]
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1999
### Summary of Key Content from Günter Blobel’s Nobel Lecture
[6]
Transfer of proteins across membranes. I. Presence of ... - PubMed
1975 Dec;67(3):835-51. doi: 10.1083/jcb.67.3.835. Authors. G Blobel, B Dobberstein ... isolation of detached polysomes. Furthermore, these results established ...Missing: SRP | Show results with:SRP
[7]
Transfer of proteins across membranes. II. Reconstitution ... - PubMed
Stripped microsomes derived from dog pancreas rough microsomes in a protein-synthesizing system in vitro in response to added IgG light chain mRNA.Missing: soluble | Show results with:soluble
[8]
Model for signal sequence recognition from amino-acid ... - Nature
Aug 10, 1989 · Here we present the sequence of a complementary DNA clone of SRP54 which predicts a protein that contains a putative GTP-binding domain and an unusually ...
[9]
None
### Summary of SRP Protein Components, Functions, and Structures
[10]
Structures of SRP54 and SRP19, the Two Proteins that Organize the ...
We present here high-resolution X-ray structures of SRP54 and SRP19, the two RNA binding components forming the core of the signal recognition particle.
[11]
Noncanonical Functions and Cellular Dynamics of the Mammalian ...
The signal recognition particle (SRP) is a ribonucleoprotein complex fundamental for co-translational delivery of proteins to their proper membrane ...
[12]
Structure of the complete bacterial SRP Alu domain - PubMed Central
Sep 30, 2014 · 'Long SRP RNA' refers to the presence of a 6S RNA in many gram-positive bacteria, in contrast to the short 4.5S RNA in most gram-negative ...
[13]
Structural analysis of the SRP Alu domain from Plasmodium ... - Nature
May 20, 2021 · The eukaryotic signal recognition particle (SRP) contains an Alu domain, which docks into the factor binding site of translating ribosomes ...
[14]
The Trypanosoma brucei signal recognition particle lacks the Alu ...
The Alu domain is positioned in the subunit interface; SRP9/14 seems to bind the rRNA small subunit, whereas the Alu RNA is proposed to interact with both ...Results · The T. Brucei Srp Assembles... · Does The Trna-Like Molecule...
[15]
Molecular model of SRP.a, Secondary structure of SRP RNA with...
In the described position, SRP68/72 can function as a brace between the core of the S domain and the dynamic hinge 1, thereby functionally connecting the Alu ...Missing: NMR flexible
[16]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4231752/
[17]
The Role of the Signal Recognition Particle in Protein Targeting and ...
Signal recognition particle (SRP) is an RNA and protein complex that exists in all domains of life. It consists of one protein and one noncoding RNA in some ...2. Protein Targeting Signals · 3. Evolution Of Srp · 4. Srp Biogenesis In...
[18]
Getting on target: The archaeal signal recognition particle - PMC
Archaea contain components of the signal recognition particle (SRP), a ribonucleoprotein complex involved in protein targeting in Eukarya and Bacteria.
[19]
Assembly of archaeal signal recognition particle from recombinant ...
Abstract. Signal recognition particle (SRP) takes part in protein targeting and secretion in all organisms. Searches for components of archaeal SRP in prim.Missing: prokaryotes | Show results with:prokaryotes
[20]
Sequential activation of human signal recognition particle by ... - PNAS
May 30, 2018 · SRα contains an NG domain homologous to that in bacterial FtsY and an additional X-domain that binds the cytosolic domain of SRβ. SRβ contains ...<|separator|>
[21]
The nucleolar phase of signal recognition particle assembly - PMC
Jun 10, 2024 · The signal recognition particle is essential for targeting transmembrane and secreted proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum. Remarkably, because ...Missing: timeline history paradigm
[22]
The very early evolution of protein translocation across membranes
Mar 8, 2021 · Based on these trees, we infer that the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of life had an SRP system and SecY channel that were similar to ...
[23]
The nature of the last universal common ancestor and its impact on ...
Jul 12, 2024 · The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) is the node on the tree of life from which the fundamental prokaryotic domains (Archaea and Bacteria) diverge.
[24]
Structure, function and evolution of the signal recognition particle
Signal recognition particle (SRP) is a ribonucleoprotein particle that binds to signal peptides of proteins emerging from the ribosome.
[25]
The signal recognition particle and related small cytoplasmic ...
Nov 1, 1996 · Mammalian SRP, purified from canine pancreas, contains one RNA molecule of 300 nucleotides (7SL or SRP RNA) and six polypeptides (Fig. 2) ...
[26]
A consensus view of the proteome of the last universal common ...
Jun 3, 2022 · We conclude that the consensus among studies provides a more accurate depiction of the core proteome of the LUCA and its functional repertoire.
[27]
Molecular evolution of SRP cycle components: functional implications
Comparative sequence analysis of the methionine-rich M domains from a diverse array of Srp54p homologs reveals an extended region of amino acid identity that ...
[28]
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02461-1
[29]
https://www.embopress.org/doi/10.1093/emboj/cdg337
[30]
Recognition of a signal peptide by the signal recognition particle - NIH
Secretory and membrane proteins usually contain an N-terminal signal peptide, which is recognised by the signal recognition particle (SRP) when nascent ...
[31]
Direct probing of the interaction between the signal sequence of ...
SRP interacts through its Mr 54,000 polypeptide component with the signal sequences of nascent preprolactin chains containing about 70 residues, and with ...
[32]
Signal-sequence induced conformational changes in the ... - Nature
Jun 8, 2015 · The NG domain contains the GTPase activity and interacts with SR. The M domain anchors SRP54 onto the SRP RNA and contains the signal sequence ...
[33]
Signal Recognition Particle: An essential protein targeting machine
The signal recognition particle (SRP) and its receptor comprise a universally conserved and essential cellular machinery that couples the synthesis of nascent ...
[34]
[PDF] Structure of the signal recognition particle interacting with the ...
& Blobel, G. Signal recognition particle: a ribonucleoprotein required for cotranslational translocation of proteins, isolation and properties. Methods ...
[35]
Temporal Regulation of Signal Recognition Particle During Translation
Oct 22, 2025 · Signal recognition particle (SRP) is a universally conserved protein targeting machine that directs newly synthesized proteins to the ...
[36]
Structure of the quaternary complex between SRP, SR, and ... - Nature
May 19, 2017 · During co-translational protein targeting, the signal recognition particle (SRP) binds to the translating ribosome displaying the signal ...Missing: review | Show results with:review
[37]
Dynamics of Bacterial Signal Recognition Particle at a Single ...
We have studied the localization and dynamics of bacterial Ffh, part of the SRP complex, its receptor FtsY, and of ribosomes in the Gamma-proteobacterium ...Missing: timeline paradigm
[38]
Signal recognition particle (SRP) and SRP receptor - PubMed Central
The eukaryotic SRP receptor is heterodimeric complex of a soluble SRα ... GTPase activity and its ability to self-assemble. Thus, through these activities ...
[39]
Receptor compaction and GTPase rearrangement drive SRP ...
May 21, 2021 · SRP was assembled by first refolding 7SL RNA and sequentially adding SRP19, SRP68/72, SRP9/14, and SRP54. Holo-SRP was purified using a DEAE ...
[40]
GTP binding and hydrolysis by the signal recognition particle during ...
Dec 25, 1993 · GTP is then hydrolysed so that SRP can be released from the SRP receptor and returned to the cytosol15. Here we show that the 54K subunit (Mr ...
[41]
The signal-recognition particle (SRP)-ribosome cycle. A pathway for...
The signal-recognition particle (SRP)-ribosome cycle. A pathway for mRNA partitioning to the endoplasmic reticulum. Cytosolic ribosomes engaged in the ...
[42]
Reconstitution of the human SRP system and quantitative and ...
Jan 15, 2019 · Typically, mammalian SRP has been purified from microsomes derived from canine pancreatic tissue (24). Thus, amounts were limited and ...<|separator|>
[43]
Translation Elongation Regulates Substrate Selection by the Signal ...
Compared with the bacterial SRP, the additional Alu domain in mammalian SRP allows it to arrest translation elongation once the SRP binds a translating ribosome ...Missing: faster | Show results with:faster
[44]
Immune-Mediated Necrotizing Myopathy with Anti-SRP ...
We present a clinical case of patient with immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy with positive anti-SRP autoantibodies and typical clinical presentation.
[45]
Anti-signal recognition particle autoantibody ELISA validation ... - NIH
Dec 17, 2014 · Among all subcomponents of the SRP complex, the 54-kDa subunit (SRP54) is considered the main antigenic target of anti-SRP antibodies [11, 12].
[46]
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abg0942
[47]
Anti-signal recognition particle autoantibody in patients with and ...
The anti-SRP autoantibody is not specific for PM. Severe muscle weakness and atrophy were prominent features in PM patients with anti-SRP.Missing: text | Show results with:text
[48]
Myopathy Associated With Antibodies to Signal Recognition Particle
Feb 13, 2012 · A subset of patients with anti-SRP myopathy can show a chronic progressive form associated with severe clinical deficits.
[49]
The pathogenesis of anti-signal recognition particle necrotizing ...
... SRP cycle. An in vitro study [16] found that antibodies targeting different domains of SRP54 can interfere with the normal process of the SRP cycle, and ...
[50]
The pathogenesis of immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy
In vitro, anti-SRP or anti-HMGCR antibodies impair myofiber regeneration, induce myofiber atrophy, and promote the production of inflammatory cytokines [26].
[51]
[PDF] Myopathy with antibodies to the signal recognition particle
Results: The patients with anti-SRP antibodies developed weakness at ages ranging from 32 to 70 years. Onset was seasonal (August to January). Weakness became ...<|separator|>
[52]
Profiling of Anti-Signal-Recognition Particle Antibodies and Clinical ...
Jan 1, 2025 · Of the 32 patients diagnosed with anti-SRP IMNM using the line-blot test, 28 (88%) were positive for anti-SRP54 antibodies by ELISA. Anti-SRP54 ...
[53]
Anti-SRP immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy: A critical review ...
Oct 13, 2022 · IIM is a rare disease, with an incidence rate of 9-14/100000 in European countries (29, 30). IMNM comprises 20-38% of IIM (31). SRP-IMNM ...
[54]
Inflammatory & Immune Myopathies (IIM): Acquired
Jo-1 & Anti-Synthetase antibodies. HLA-DRw52; DR3 (90%); DQ2 (80%); Anti ... Anti-SRP antibodies. HLA DRw52; DR5 (57%); Increased vs controls: DRB1*02-DQA1 ...<|separator|>
[55]
Association of immune‐mediated necrotizing myopathy with HLA ...
Dec 23, 2022 · Specific HLA alleles associated with IMNM were identified at all HLA loci, with DRB1*08:03 showing the strongest association.
[56]
srp54 promotes motor neuron development and is required for ...
The signal recognition particle (SRP) is a highly conserved ribonucleoprotein (RNP) that translocates a subset of secreted and integral membrane proteins to ...
[57]
Oral delivery of therapeutic proteins by engineered bacterial type ...
Feb 21, 2025 · We report an oral protein delivery technology utilizing an engineered bacterial type zero secretion system (T0SS) via outer membrane vesicles (OMVs).
[58]
Signal Recognition Particle Suppressor Screening Reveals the ...
Jan 12, 2021 · We report a new paradigm in which the time delay in translation initiation is beneficial during protein targeting in the absence of SRP.