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Skullcap

Skullcap is an English-language term with several meanings, primarily referring to protective or cap-like structures resembling the top of the human skull. It can denote:

A type of small, close-fitting brimless hat, often worn for religious, ceremonial, or everyday purposes.^[1]
The genus Scutellaria of flowering plants in the mint family Lamiaceae, known for their distinctive calyx shape.^[2]
The deadly fungus Galerina marginata, commonly called deadly skullcap or autumn skullcap due to its cap shape and toxicity.
In anatomy, the calvaria or upper portion of the cranium, sometimes referred to as the skullcap.^[3]

This article covers these usages in detail across its sections.

Headwear

Religious and Ceremonial Uses

In Judaism, the kippah, also known as a yarmulke, is a small, brimless cloth cap worn by men to signify reverence for God's presence above them, with the tradition tracing back centuries and becoming widespread among Ashkenazi Jews during the medieval period.^[4] Medieval authorities like Maimonides codified the requirement for men to cover their heads during prayer in works such as the Mishneh Torah (Hilkhot Tefillah 5:5), emphasizing it as a sign of piety and humility.^[4] In Orthodox communities, this practice extends to married men wearing the kippah consistently during prayer and often at all times, while non-Orthodox Jews may don it primarily in synagogue settings.^[4] Within Roman Catholicism, the zucchetto serves as a close-fitting skullcap for clergy, originally developed as a practical covering to retain warmth for tonsured heads in unheated medieval churches and monasteries, with its formalized use emerging around the 13th century.^[5] Over time, it evolved into a marker of ecclesiastical rank through color distinctions: black for priests and deacons, amaranth red (a reddish-purple) for bishops, archbishops, and patriarchs since 1867 under Pope Pius IX, scarlet red for cardinals as decreed by Pope Pius II in 1464, and white for the Pope, reflecting his Dominican heritage from the 1500s.^[5] Clergy wear it during liturgical services and indoors, removing it briefly at moments of reverence like the Sanctus or in the Pope's presence, as outlined in Pope Paul VI's 1968 Motu Proprio.^[5] In Islam, the taqiyah (or kufi) is a short, rounded skullcap worn by men during daily prayers (salah) to embody modesty, humility, and respect toward Allah, with historical roots in the early days of Islam as a simple protective and devotional garment.^[6] Its design and use exhibit cultural variations, such as intricately embroidered versions in South Asia (e.g., the toppi in Pakistan and India) and plainer, crocheted styles prevalent in West Africa, where it also signifies community identity beyond prayer.^[7] Sikhism emphasizes the dastar, a turban symbolizing spiritual sovereignty and one of the Five Ks mandated for baptized (Khalsa) members since Guru Gobind Singh in 1699, but smaller caps like the patka—a soft, triangular cloth wrap—serve as practical alternatives for youth or during sports, covering uncut hair (kesh) without fully replacing the turban.^[8] In Orthodox Christianity, the kamilavkion is a rigid, cylindrical clerical hat awarded to priests and bishops as an honor, worn during services to denote rank, while the skufia, a softer rounded cap, is used by monks and some clergy in non-liturgical settings, with traditions dating to Old Testament influences and formalized by the 17th century.^[9]^[10] Historically, skullcaps have appeared in ceremonial contexts beyond major religions, such as in Freemasonry's appendant bodies like the Scottish Rite, where black velvet caps symbolize moral dedication and chivalric prayer during rituals, echoing medieval chivalric orders.^[11] In academic graduations, the mortarboard—featuring a square board atop a skullcap-like base—originated from the biretta, a square cap worn by Catholic clergy from the 12th century and adopted by scholars at European universities during the Middle Ages, evolving into a symbol of scholarly completion by the 16th century.^[12]

Secular and Historical Variants

The skullcap as headwear evolved historically from the ancient Roman pileus, a simple, brimless felt cap derived from the Greek pilos, which provided practical protection for the head against weather and was commonly worn by freedmen and laborers.^[13] This form persisted into medieval Europe as the coif, a close-fitting linen skullcap serving as an undergarment beneath hoods, chaperons, or helmets to absorb sweat, retain warmth, and maintain hygiene across social classes from the 12th to 15th centuries.^[14] These early variants emphasized functionality over ornamentation, laying the groundwork for later secular adaptations in everyday and specialized attire. In 19th-century Victorian England, the smoking cap emerged as a prominent secular fashion item, a soft, pillbox-shaped skullcap often embroidered or tasseled, worn by gentlemen during indoor lounging to protect hair from tobacco smoke while offering warmth in drafty homes.^[15] By the late 20th century, modern beanies reinterpreted the skullcap in casual fashion, transitioning from utilitarian workwear for warmth and sweat absorption to slim, versatile styles integrated into urban outfits for their snug fit and aesthetic versatility.^[16] Military uses of skullcaps underscore their protective role, as seen in the liners of the German Stahlhelm helmets during World Wars I and II, where soft leather or cloth caps cushioned the steel shell, wicked away moisture, and prevented chafing for soldiers in prolonged wear.^[17] In sizing configurations for these helmets, liners were tailored to fit precisely, with examples like size 64 shells paired with 56-57 liners to ensure secure, hygienic contact.^[18] Contemporary tactical skullcaps build on this, made from absorbent cotton or synthetic blends to layer under ballistic helmets in operations, enhancing comfort, reducing irritation, and maintaining cleanliness in harsh environments.^[19] Regional variants adapted the skullcap for practical needs, such as the Turkish fez, a conical felt cap introduced in the early 19th-century Ottoman Empire as part of modernization efforts but prized for its insulating warmth and ease of cleaning in daily urban life.^[20] In Japan, the tenugui—a lightweight cotton cloth—functioned as a makeshift skullcap-style head covering for workers, tied to shield against dust, sweat, and cold while promoting hygiene through frequent washing.^[21] Twentieth-century pop culture elevated skullcaps beyond utility, with hip-hop artists in the 1990s and early 2000s adopting tight-fitting beanies as signature accessories to convey street credibility, protect hairstyles, and add edge to layered looks.^[22] In cycling, lightweight skullcaps worn under helmets gained traction for their aerodynamic benefits, smoothing airflow over the head to minimize drag during high-speed races while managing perspiration for sustained performance.^[23]

Botany

Skullcap Plants (Genus Scutellaria)

Scutellaria is a genus of flowering plants in the Lamiaceae family, commonly known as skullcaps, comprising approximately 360 species distributed primarily in temperate regions worldwide.^[24] The name derives from the Latin "scutella," meaning a small dish or tray, referring to the distinctive dome-like or ridge-shaped calyx that resembles an inverted helmet or shield.^[25] These plants are characterized as perennial herbs or shrubs, often arising from rhizomes or tubers, with erect stems that are typically square in cross-section—a hallmark of the mint family—and opposite, simple leaves that may be lanceolate to ovate, sometimes toothed or hairy.^[25]^[26] The flowers are tubular and bilabiate, featuring an upper helmet-shaped lip and a lower lip, in shades of blue, purple, or yellow, arranged in racemes or axillary clusters; they bloom from summer to fall, attracting pollinators such as bees and butterflies.^[26] Plants generally reach heights of 0.5 to 1 meter, though sizes vary by species and habitat.^[25] Notable species include Scutellaria lateriflora, known as American skullcap, a low-growing perennial native to North America, particularly in wet meadows and woodlands from Canada to Florida.^[27] Scutellaria baicalensis, or Chinese skullcap, is a rhizomatous herb originating from East Asia, including China, Korea, and Russia, and is valued in traditional medicine for its roots. Scutellaria galericulata, the common or hooded skullcap, exhibits a circumboreal distribution in the northern temperate zones, thriving in Europe, North America, and Asia along streams and damp habitats.^[28] The genus occupies diverse temperate habitats globally, including moist meadows, woodlands, riverbanks, and rocky slopes, with some species adapted to tropical mountains or even aquatic environments.^[29] Ecologically, Scutellaria species support pollinator communities, drawing insects like syrphid flies, bees, and butterflies to their nectar-rich flowers, thereby contributing to biodiversity in native ecosystems.^[30] Cultivation of Scutellaria involves propagation from seeds, which benefit from cold stratification for 1–4 weeks to improve germination, or from stem cuttings taken in spring or summer.^[31] These plants prefer well-drained, fertile soils with neutral to slightly acidic pH and require full sun to partial shade, along with consistent moisture to mimic their natural wetland preferences, though they tolerate drier conditions once established.^[31]^[32]

Medicinal and Ecological Roles

Scutellaria species, particularly S. baicalensis and S. lateriflora, have been integral to traditional medicine systems for centuries. In Chinese herbalism, the root of S. baicalensis, known as Huang Qin, has been used since over 2000 years ago to treat conditions involving heat, such as fever, inflammation, dysentery, and respiratory infections, by clearing dampness and purging fire according to traditional principles.^[33]^[34] Similarly, Native American communities have employed S. lateriflora as a remedy for anxiety, insomnia, and nervous tension, often in teas or tinctures to promote relaxation and ease menstrual discomfort.^[35] These uses highlight the genus's longstanding role in ethnomedicine, leveraging its calming and anti-inflammatory effects without synthetic interventions. The therapeutic potential of Scutellaria stems from key flavonoids, including baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin, which exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties. These compounds inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6, reducing oxidative stress and cellular damage in various models.^[36]^[37] Modern research supports these effects; a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial published in 2014 found that S. lateriflora extract (350 mg three times daily for two weeks) significantly improved mood in 43 healthy volunteers (p < 0.001 for total mood disturbance), though it did not significantly reduce anxiety scores.^[38] For example, a 2025 double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial indicated that S. lateriflora supplementation improved sleep-wake balance and quality in adults with insomnia, supporting its potential role in managing related stress and anxiety symptoms.^[39] Preliminary studies also indicate potential applications in epilepsy through anticonvulsant activity in animal models, allergies via antiallergenic mechanisms that suppress histamine release, and cancer by inducing apoptosis in tumor cells, though human trials remain limited.^[40]^[41]^[42] However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has issued warnings about liver toxicity risks from adulterated skullcap supplements, often contaminated with hepatotoxic herbs like germander (Teucrium chamaedrys), leading to cases of acute hepatitis.^[43]^[44] Ecologically, Scutellaria plants contribute to soil health through associations with diverse rhizosphere microbes that enhance nutrient cycling and bioactive compound production, though they do not directly fix nitrogen like legumes.^[45] Species such as S. incana and S. galericulata support biodiversity by serving as host plants for insects, including the skullcap skeletonizer moth (Prochilodus scolopaceus) and various flea beetles, while attracting pollinators like bumblebees that aid in ecosystem pollination.^[46]^[47] In wetland habitats, Scutellaria species like S. leonardii are incorporated into restoration projects to stabilize soils and restore native herbaceous cover in seepage bogs and pine flatwoods, promoting overall wetland biodiversity.^[48] Conservation efforts for Scutellaria face significant challenges from overharvesting for medicinal demand and habitat loss due to urbanization, agriculture, and climate change, particularly affecting wild populations of S. baicalensis in Asia and rare North American endemics like S. montana.^[49]^[50] Sustainable sourcing initiatives emphasize cultivated sources over wild collection; in Asia, expanded organic farming in China reduces pressure on native stands, while in North America, programs promote verified cultivated S. lateriflora to prevent depletion and ensure quality control.^[51]^[52] These strategies, including seed banking and habitat protection, aim to balance ecological preservation with ongoing medicinal use.

Mycology

Skullcap Fungi (Galerina marginata)

Galerina marginata, commonly known as the autumn skullcap, is a species of poisonous fungus belonging to the genus Galerina in the family Hymenogastraceae, order Agaricales, and phylum Basidiomycota.^[53] It was previously classified under separate names such as Galerina autumnalis and Galerina oregonensis, but molecular studies in 2001 confirmed these as synonyms of G. marginata.^[54] The species has a widespread global distribution, though it is most prominent in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including Europe, North America, and Asia. Recent studies have also reported its presence in the Antarctic Peninsula as of 2024.^[55]^[56] The fruiting body of G. marginata is small, typically measuring 2-4 cm in cap diameter, with a conical to bell-shaped cap that expands to convex or flat with age. The cap surface is rusty-brown to honey-colored, smooth and slightly sticky when moist, often displaying fine radial striations and a margin that may appear grooved. The slender stem, 2-7 cm long and 3-6 mm thick, is whitish to reddish-brown, featuring a prominent membranous ring or zone formed from the partial veil; below the ring, it may show fibrillose remnants. The gills are close, broadly attached to the stem, and colored yellowish before turning chocolate-brown with maturity, while the spores are rusty-brown, elliptical to almond-shaped, and measure 7-11 µm long.^[54]^[53] As a saprobic fungus, G. marginata colonizes decaying wood of both hardwoods and conifers, often forming clusters on logs, stumps, or woody debris in forests and wooded areas. It plays a key ecological role in decomposition, contributing to nutrient recycling by breaking down lignocellulosic materials. Fruiting occurs primarily from late summer through autumn, triggered by periods of rain in cool, moist conditions, though it can appear year-round in milder climates.^[54]^[57] The life cycle of G. marginata follows the typical basidiomycete pattern, beginning with wind-dispersed basidiospores that germinate to form mycelium, which spreads through the substrate of dead wood. This mycelium acts as a white-rot decomposer, enzymatically breaking down lignin and other complex polymers to access nutrients, facilitating wood decay over time. Under favorable seasonal conditions, the mycelium produces epigeous fruiting bodies, with caps unfolding from conical to bell-shaped forms to expose gills for spore production and release.^[54]^[57] G. marginata can be distinguished from similar species by key macroscopic and microscopic features. Unlike Hygrocybe conica, which lacks a stem ring and has a wax-like texture with decurrent gills, G. marginata possesses a clear ring and adnate gills. It differs from Psilocybe species, such as P. cyanescens, by its rusty-brown spores (versus purplish-brown) and absence of blue bruising upon handling. Foragers must exercise caution, as misidentification poses risks in wild mushroom collection.^[54]^[58]

Toxicity and Identification

Galerina marginata, commonly known as the funeral bell or deadly galerina, contains potent amatoxins, including α-amanitin, which are chemically identical to those found in the death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides). These bicyclic octapeptides are absorbed rapidly through the gastrointestinal tract and selectively inhibit RNA polymerase II, halting mRNA transcription and leading to widespread cellular apoptosis, particularly in hepatocytes and renal tubular cells. This results in severe liver and kidney failure, with an estimated median lethal dose of α-amanitin at 0.1 mg/kg body weight in humans, equivalent to roughly 7-8 mg for an average adult.^[59]^[60] Symptoms of amatoxin poisoning from G. marginata typically emerge in distinct phases following ingestion. The initial gastrointestinal phase occurs 6-12 hours post-ingestion, characterized by intense nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and profuse watery diarrhea, often leading to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. A deceptive remission period follows around 24 hours, but by 24-72 hours, the hepatotoxic phase manifests with rising liver enzymes, jaundice, coagulopathy, and hepatic encephalopathy; without intervention, multi-organ failure ensues, with potential fatality within 3-7 days due to irreversible liver necrosis.^[59]^[60] Accurate identification is critical to avoid G. marginata, a small brown mushroom often mistaken for edibles. Key macroscopic features include a rusty brown spore print, a thin, membranous annulus (ring) on the stem that may persist as a zone in older specimens, and a habitat preference for decaying hardwood or conifer wood, where it grows gregariously or in clusters. Microscopically, the spores measure 7-11 × 4-6 µm, are broadly amygdaliform to subellipsoid with a verrucose surface, and the presence of lageniform pleurocystidia (40-65 × 5-15 µm) with long necks confirms the species. The cap is typically 2-5 cm across, bell-shaped to convex, with a sticky surface when moist, and yellowish-brown gills that darken with age.^[54] Treatment for suspected G. marginata ingestion focuses on decontamination, supportive measures, and hepatoprotection, as no definitive antidote exists. Immediate administration of multiple-dose activated charcoal (0.5-1 g/kg every 4-6 hours) binds residual toxin and interrupts enterohepatic recirculation; intravenous fluids address dehydration, while N-acetylcysteine and high-dose penicillin G provide adjunctive antioxidant and inhibitory effects against toxin uptake. Silibinin (from milk thistle), at 20-50 mg/kg IV daily (based on older studies), competitively inhibits amatoxin transport into hepatocytes. A 2000 observational study reported reduced mortality (9.8% vs. 18.3% with standard care), though a 2020 US analysis found no significant difference (9.5% vs. 8.5%); in fulminant cases, urgent liver transplantation is often required for survival. Misidentification contributes significantly to outcomes, with at least 10 documented poisonings in North America from 1985-2006, including fatalities, and a notable 2011 cluster of three cases resulting in one death.^[59]^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63] Foragers must exercise extreme caution with G. marginata, which is widespread across North American forests, parks, and urban wood chip beds, particularly in temperate regions from boreal Canada to Mexico. It frequently mimics edible species like honey mushrooms (Armillaria spp.) or psychoactive Psilocybe, leading to deadly errors; a key avoidance rule is to reject any wood-growing "little brown mushroom" with an annulus or rusty spore print, as safe edibles in similar habitats lack these traits. Always verify habitat (rotting wood vs. ground), perform spore prints, and consult experts—missteps have caused isolated deaths, such as a 2008 Oregon case where foragers confused it with honey mushrooms, resulting in one fatality.^[54]^[53]^[64]

Anatomy

Definition and Structure

The skullcap, also known as the calvaria, refers to the dome-like upper portion of the cranium that forms the roof of the cranial cavity, providing protection for the brain's cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and related structures. It is composed primarily of the frontal bone anteriorly, the two parietal bones laterally and superiorly, and the squamous portion of the occipital bone posteriorly. These flat bones articulate to create a vaulted enclosure that accommodates the brain's volume while maintaining structural integrity against external forces.^[65]^[66]^[67] Structurally, the calvaria consists of two thin layers of compact bone—the outer and inner tables—sandwiching a central layer of spongy bone called the diploë, which houses red bone marrow and diploic veins for vascular supply. The bones are interconnected by immovable fibrous joints known as sutures, including the coronal suture (between the frontal and parietal bones), the sagittal suture (along the midline between the parietal bones), and the lambdoid suture (between the parietal and occipital bones); these sutures remain patent during growth but typically ossify and fuse in adulthood to enhance rigidity. Thickness varies regionally across the calvaria, generally ranging from 2 to 10 mm, with thicker regions in the parietal and occipital areas; numerous vascular foramina perforate the bone to allow passage of emissary veins and arteries, facilitating blood flow between the intracranial and extracranial circulations.^[68]^[69]^[65]^[70] Embryologically, the calvaria forms through intramembranous ossification, where mesenchymal tissue directly differentiates into bone without a cartilaginous precursor, initiating from multiple ossification centers in the cranial mesenchyme starting around the 8th week of gestation in utero. In the fetal and early postnatal period, the incomplete ossification leaves membranous gaps called fontanelles—such as the diamond-shaped anterior fontanelle at the frontal-parietal junction and the triangular posterior fontanelle at the parietal-occipital junction—which permit brain expansion and accommodate molding during birth; the posterior fontanelle typically closes by 2-3 months, the anterior by 12-18 months, and all fontanelles fuse by approximately age 2. Sexual dimorphism emerges postnatally, with male calvaria generally exhibiting greater thickness than female counterparts, particularly in the frontal and parietal regions, reflecting broader patterns of skeletal robusticity.^[71]^[72]^[73] In comparative anatomy, the calvaria serves a similar protective function in other mammals, forming a bony dome over the brain derived from intramembranous ossification, but the human variant is distinctively more vaulted and expansive to house the enlarged brain, an adaptation linked to evolutionary pressures including bipedalism, which repositioned the cranial base, and subsequent encephalization for enhanced cognitive capacity. The calvaria is readily visualized on plain X-ray radiographs and computed tomography (CT) scans, where its density and contours aid in assessing normal variants; anthropological studies employ metrics like the cranial index—defined as (maximum cranial breadth divided by maximum cranial length) multiplied by 100—to quantify vault shape and infer population-level adaptations or migrations.^[74]^[75]^[76]^[77]

Surgical and Pathological Contexts

Decompressive craniectomy is a neurosurgical procedure involving the temporary removal of a portion of the skullcap, known as a bone flap, to alleviate elevated intracranial pressure caused by traumatic brain injury, tumors, or swelling.^[78] This technique allows the brain to expand without compression, preventing herniation, and has been employed since the late 19th century, with early descriptions by surgeons like Thomas Annandale in 1894 for palliative purposes in cases of intractable epilepsy and trauma.^[79] Following craniectomy, cranioplasty is performed to reconstruct the defect, typically using autologous bone grafts, titanium meshes, or acrylic implants to restore cranial integrity and protect the brain.^[80] These reconstructions aim to minimize cosmetic deformities and reduce risks such as infection or hydrocephalus.^[81] Pathological conditions affecting the skullcap include Paget's disease of bone, a disorder characterized by excessive and disorganized bone remodeling that leads to skull thickening, enlargement, and deformities such as frontal bossing.^[82] This condition commonly involves the skull, pelvis, and long bones, resulting in weakened bone structure prone to fractures and complications like hearing loss due to involvement of the temporal bone.^[83] Another significant pathology is craniosynostosis, the premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures, which restricts skull growth and produces abnormal head shapes such as scaphocephaly from sagittal suture fusion or trigonocephaly from metopic involvement.^[84] This congenital anomaly affects brain development if untreated, often requiring surgical intervention to release the fused sutures and allow normal expansion.^[85] Historical evidence of skullcap interventions dates to prehistoric times, with trephination—drilling or scraping holes in the cranium—documented in Neolithic European skulls, likely performed to treat conditions like migraines, head trauma, or epilepsy.^[86] Archeological findings show healed trepanation sites in 5-10% of examined Neolithic crania, indicating survival rates of approximately 70% and suggesting the procedure's therapeutic intent rather than solely ritualistic purpose.^[87] These ancient practices highlight early recognition of intracranial pressure relief, predating modern craniectomy by millennia.^[88] In diagnostic contexts, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) serves as a primary tool for detecting skullcap fractures, distinguishing them from metastatic lesions by evaluating bone marrow edema and soft tissue involvement.^[89] For suspected metastases, which often present as lytic or blastic lesions in the calvarium, biopsy is essential to confirm malignancy, particularly in patients with known primary cancers like breast or lung.^[90] Forensic applications leverage skullcap analysis to identify blunt force trauma through patterns of depressed or linear fractures, which indicate high-impact injuries and aid in reconstructing cause of death.^[91] Additionally, ectocranial suture closure patterns provide a method for estimating age at death in skeletal remains, with progressive obliteration correlating to adulthood.^[92] Modern advancements in skullcap surgery include the use of 3D-printed patient-specific implants, such as titanium meshes or porous polyethylene, which improve fit and reduce postoperative infection rates compared to traditional materials.^[93] These custom implants, derived from preoperative CT scans, have demonstrated infection incidences as low as 5-8% in high-risk cases, minimizing complications like implant failure or revision surgery.^[94] Such innovations enhance outcomes in complex reconstructions following craniectomy for trauma or tumor resection.^[95]

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An overview of pharmacological activities of baicalin and its ...
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American Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora): a randomised, double ...
Scutellaria lateriflora, a traditional herbal remedy for stress and anxiety, was tested on human volunteers for its effects on mood.
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Characterization of chemical ingredients and anticonvulsant activity ...
Aug 7, 2025 · A latest study has demonstrated that the extracts of American skullcap show modest anticonvulsant efficacy in pentylenetetrazolinduced models, ...
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The main active compounds are baicalin and baicalein. They may act as antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergenic, antimicrobial, and antitumor ...
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Small Skullcap - Grow Native!
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Downy Skullcap (Scutellaria incana) - Illinois Wildflowers
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Galerina marginata (Autumn Skullcap, Deadly Galerina)
This is one of North Carolina's most poisonous mushrooms. This mushroom grows predominantly on decaying conifer wood.Missing: ecology | Show results with:ecology
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Galerina marginata (MushroomExpert.Com)
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Galerina marginata is a species of poisonous fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae of the order Agaricales. Prior to 2001, the species G. autumnalis, ...<|separator|>
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Galerina marginata – Mushrooms Up! Edible and Poisonous ...
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Mushroom Picking at Mount Rainier - National Park Service
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A craniotomy is a surgical procedure in which a part of the skull is temporarily removed to expose the brain and perform an intracranial procedure.
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An unusual blunt force trauma pattern and mechanism to the cranial ...
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Infection-related failure of autologous versus allogenic cranioplasty ...
The infection-related cranioplasty failure rate was 6.9% (125/1808) for autologous and 8.3% (63/761) for allogenic implants resulting in an OR 0.81, 95% CI 0.58 ...
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